Concepts, Characterizations, and Cautions: A Public Health Guide and Glossary for Planning Food Environment Measurement

Background

There is no singular approach to measuring the food environment suitable for all studies. Understanding terminology, methodology, and common issues is crucial to choosing the best approach.

Objective

This review is designed to support a shared understanding so diverse multi-institutional teams engaged in food environment measurement can justify their measurement choices and have informed discussions about reasons for measurement strategies to vary across projects.

Methods

This guide defines key terms and provides annotated resources identified as a useful starting point for exploring the food environment literature. The writing team was an academic-practice collaboration, reflecting on the experience of a multi-institutional team focused on retail environments across the US relevant to cardiovascular disease.

Results

Terms and annotated resources are divided into three sections: food environment constructs, classification and measures, and errors and strategies to reduce error. Two examples of methods and challenges encountered while measuring the food environment in the context of a US health department are provided. Researchers and practice professionals are directed to the Food Environment Electronic Database Directory (https://www.foodenvironmentdirectory.com/) for comparing available data resources for food environment measurement, focused on the US; this resource incorporates updates informed by user input and literature reviews.

Discussion

Measuring the food environment is complex and risks oversimplification. This guide serves as a starting point but only partially captures some aspects of neighborhood food environment measurement.

Conclusions

No single food environment measure or data source meets all research and practice objectives. This shared starting point can facilitate theoretically grounded food environment measurement.

Child survivorship estimation: methods and data analysis

"The past 20 years have seen extensive elaboration, refinement, and application of the original Brass method for estimating infant and child mortality from child survivorship data. This experience has confirmed the overall usefulness of the methods beyond question, but it has also shown that...estimates must be analyzed in relation to other relevant information before useful conclusions about the level and trend of mortality can be drawn.... This article aims to illustrate the importance of data analysis through a series of examples, including data for the Eastern Malaysian state of Sarawak, Mexico, Thailand, and Indonesia. Specific maneuvers include plotting completed parity distributions and 'time-plotting' mean numbers of children ever born from successive censuses. A substantive conclusion of general interest is that data for older women are not so widely defective as generally supposed."

The story of the British special migration statistics

"This paper describes a new data set from the 1991 Census called the Special Migration Statistics. Before release for general use by the U.K. social science and geographic community, it was essential to understand and to thoroughly check the data. This paper reports on the structure of the database and the checks carried out to verify its internal and external consistency. Finally, the paper summarises the pattern of migration revealed by the statistics for two illustrative spatial systems: wards in a large northern city and regions in Great Britain." The focus is on internal migration.

Population estimates for small areas in Canada

The author outlines population estimation techniques used by Statistics Canada. "The objectives of this paper are to (i) describe the methodology and data sources for estimating the population for census divisions (CDs) and census metropolitan areas (CMAs), and (ii) present the results of the evaluations of 1986 population estimates."

[Confronting the statistics on intra-European migration: toward greater harmonization?]

"Each international migration stream can be enumerated twice: at the time of departure from the country of emigration and at the time of arrival in the country of immigration. In practice, errors in international migration statistics are a major obstacle to the accurate analysis of migration flows. In connection with the process of harmonization set in train by Eurostat several years ago, a method of correcting defective migration data is proposed here, which makes use of this double enumeration. The method is applied to available data in a preliminary analysis. The correction factors presented here through this mathematical approach should turn out to be useful in more than one respect: to illuminate substantial problems of incompatibility of migration data and to follow the progress of the harmonization of those data." (SUMMARY IN ENG)

Demographic event history analysis: a selective review

This is a selective review of the literature concerning demographic event history analysis. "We have attempted to emphasize work that we consider to be particularly important or innovative, to note some of the difficulties that may arise with the use of event history analysis, and to point to several substantive areas where research is still poorly developed."

Monitoring international migration flows in Europe. Towards a statistical data base combining data from different sources

"The paper reviews techniques developed in demography, geography and statistics that are useful for bridging the gap between available data on international migration flows and the information required for policy making and research. The basic idea of the paper is as follows: to establish a coherent and consistent data base that contains sufficiently detailed, up-to-date and accurate information, data from several sources should be combined.... The issues may be tackled more easily if the statistics that are being compiled are viewed as different outcomes or manifestations of underlying stochastic processes governing migration. The link between the processes and their outcomes is described by models, the parameters of which must be estimated from the available data.... The paper discusses the experience of the U.S. Bureau of the Census in combining migration data from several sources. It also summarizes the many efforts in Europe to establish a coherent and consistent data base on international migration." (SUMMARY IN FRE)

The contribution of existing sources to the dating of events: a survey in Mali's Bwa country

"We exploited the sources of information already existing in Mali's Bwa country in order to facilitate the dating of biographical events. Their contribution was multiple: they gave an exact date for a substantial number of births (25%), they provided dating landmarks within the biographies (in two thirds of birth histories, at least one birth could thus be pinpointed), and they made it possible to construct sets of dating references at the family level (lineage calendars). Based on the same principle of chronological classification as the historical calendar, the lineage calendar improves the method by replacing public events by family events with which the respondents are more familiar (births and deaths of kin)."

Evaluating the computer as a data camera in family planning research

"This chapter explores both the potential and limitations of the micro-computer as a research tool for unobtrusive data collection in the area of population and family planning.... To provide concrete examples of the computer's potential usefulness as well as its limitations, two research projects undertaken [in the United States] by the author and colleagues will be discussed.... Each program offers different applications of how the computer can be used to: (1) evaluate programs; (2) collect descriptive data about users' values, decisions, and previous behaviors regarding sexual issues, and (3) develop and test cognitive and behavior models. Each application also offers examples of the limitations of the computer in terms of external validity issues (i.e., how representative are samples of persons who use the computer voluntarily), the need to check the validity of responses typed by computer users, and ethical issues involved in using the computer to collect data."

Fertility preferences and contraceptive use in Pakistan

"The objective of this paper is...to analyse the levels and trends of fertility preferences in Pakistan during the 1975-1980 period and to see if any changes in the preferences have occurred over time even in the absence of the information, education and communication (IE&C) component of the family planning programme. Our hypothesis is that there exists a conscious choice of reproductive goals among married couples and there is no likelihood of any significant change in these expressed choices over time for the last twenty years." The data are from the 1979-1980 Population, Labour Force and Migration (PLM) Survey and the 1975 Pakistan Fertility Survey. "The analysis of data obtained for the two national surveys indicates that the surveys in question are highly consistent with regard to fertility preferences. They also indicate that the magnitude of family size preferences did not change appreciably between the two surveys. Moreover, the period and cumulative fertility behaviour in both the surveys did not record any significant variation.... When contraceptive behaviour was analysed with the reported fertility preferences, it appeared that the women were quite consistent in their stated fertility attitudes." Comments by Khalil A. Siddiqui are included (pp. 617-8).

Fertility levels in Australia: what can the 1991 census tell us?

"The information which can be gathered from the 1991 [Australian] Census on trends in fertility is limited. But an analysis of the one per cent users' sample tape indicates that women with advanced educational qualifications are now having families which are considerably smaller than those of women who have no post-school qualifications."

Violence against women migrant workers: issues, data and partial solutions

"Despite the creation of specific norms, procedures, and institutions to protect women migrant workers, serious gaps remain. Statistics for measuring violence are not compiled comprehensively or regularly. Two occupations that increase the risk of violence are domestic service and entertainment-related services. Migration through illegal channels and trafficking also increase the risk. This article suggests a list of indicators to measure violence of three major types: (1) economic, (2) social/psychological, and (3) physical/sexual. Evidence from several countries to document instances of violence is reviewed. Major policy issues for the sending and receiving countries are outlined, and some recommendations for addressing such violations are made."

A system for collecting vital statistics in Gulf Cooperation Council countries

"This paper examines the four major sources of population data in the countries of the Arab Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) viz., general population censuses, registration statistics, household surveys and permanent registration of population. The paper starts with an analysis of the status quo of these sources in each country of the GCC, then proceeds to examine their standards of accuracy and finally identifies the problems faced by the data collection process in each source separately and states some practical solutions to them." The countries concerned are Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates.

Migration patterns of the elderly: the case of the American Jewish population

"This article examines the growing concentration of the elderly Jewish population of the U.S. in one metropolitan region of the Sun Belt. The principal data sources used are U.S. Census counts of the population with a Yiddish mother tongue or speaking Yiddish at home, as well as 1980 data on the population of Russian ancestry. The limitations of these measures are discussed and data from local community surveys also are presented. The data show that relocation of the elderly from the North, especially to South Florida, has been occurring since the 1950s and accelerated during the 1970s. The need for further study, which may document the migration patterns of elderly members of diverse religions and ethnic groups, is pointed out."

Soviet fertility as viewed by Soviet authors: the Franco-Soviet demographic meeting of Suzdal (USSR)

The author reports on the Franco-Soviet Seminar of Demography, held in Suzdal, USSR, in 1986. She examines "how the problem of fertility is viewed by Soviet authors, why and when they began to study its theoretical aspects, and what means they propose to raise fertility." Topics considered include sources of information on fertility in the USSR; analysis of fertility and reproductive behavior; the study of selected determinants of fertility, including geographical and ethnic differences, female labor force participation, and the relationships among family planning, health, and reproductive behavior; and means of developing an effective population policy.

Trends and patterns of internal migration in the Philippines, 1970-80

Recent trends in internal migration in the Philippines are analyzed using data from the 1975 and 1980 censuses. The emphasis is on the volume and direction of regional migration streams. "The paper starts with the definitions of some migration-related terms. The second section discusses data and methodology. The third portion of the ensuing study deals with the trends and patterns of internal migration, while the last part is devoted to some considerations about population policies."

Intercensal change and the indirect estimation of mortality: the case of Pakistan

"In a country such as Pakistan, where there is no vital registration system, estimating mortality levels and trends can be difficult. One way we can learn about mortality is to use indirect estimation techniques on census age distributions. This paper applies some of these techniques and evaluates the quality of the census data in the process." Problems of relative coverage in the 1972 and 1981 censuses and changes in age-reporting preferences are discussed. Comments by Mohammad Afzal are included (pp. 583-5).

Two neglected categories of immigrants to Canada: temporary immigrants and returning Canadians

Results are presented from an attempt to improve Canadian statistics on international migration so as to comply with U.N. guidelines by including data on long-term residents with temporary status and Canadian citizens and permanent residents returning from abroad. "The estimation procedures involve extensive operations on three Canadian administrative data systems: the Visitors Immigration Data System of Employment and Immigration Canada; the Family Allowances Files of Health and Welfare Canada; and the Customs and Excise Files of Revenue Canada. These data are used to produce the number of immigrants in both of the neglected categories, as well as to calculate the geographic (origin and destination) and demographic (sex, age, marital status) structures of these groups. Results of the analysis of estimates for the period 1982-1988 show that, due to their size and characteristics, both of these neglected categories of immigrants constitute a significant part of immigration to Canada, and their importance has and will continue to increase over time."

Estimation of adult male mortality in Turkey by the widowhood method

"In this paper, the [widowhood] method is applied to Turkish data to estimate adult male mortality. First, the method and its assumptions are briefly discussed. Secondly, the data source and its major characteristics are described and the method is applied; the resulting mortality measures estimated with the method are compared with findings from other sources, and the reliability of the results, the applicability of the method to the Turkish case, and possible biases risked with the application of the method are elaborated in the final section of the paper." (SUMMARY IN TUR)

[Current monophasic hormonal contraception]

Data are presented from an investigation of the use of monophasic contraceptive pills chosen by different age groups. Analyses are made of the data obtained from the Bulgarian Association for Family Planning (BAFP) card index for the last two years. Information is given on the number of observed cycles, type of applied contraceptive pill, aims of their application (contraception, treatment of acne, menstrual disturbances etc.), age of patients, as well as any possible adverse effects--change in blood pressure, bodyweight changes, intermenstrual bleeding, hairiness, breast problems, paraclinical changes, etc. The observed cycles show a very small percentage of adverse effects with hormonal contraception, mainly during the first 2 or 3 cycles, with predominance of intermenstrual bleeding. No bodyweight changes or increased hairiness were observed.

Oral contraceptive use: interview data versus pharmacy records

BACKGROUND

If women tend to forget and underreport their past oral contraceptive (OC) use, but the recall among cases is enhanced by the presence of disease, recall bias may explain some reported health effects of OC use.

METHODS

Two different sources of information on lifetime OC use were compared for 427 (84%) of a community-based sample of 511 women aged 20-34: (i) structured interviews, using a life event calendar and picture display as memory aids, and (ii) a register of all prescriptions dispensed by pharmacies in the county since 1970.

RESULTS

Interview data and pharmacy records showed high levels of agreement for any OC use, current use, time since first and last use, total duration of use, and for duration of use in different 'time windows'. But there was a tendency to under-report specific kinds of OC used in the past.

CONCLUSION

Underreporting of OC use among non-cases would usually introduce little or no bias (as compared to pharmacy records) for this kind of interview and women. However, it may be preferable to use interviews for current OC use, and pharmacy records for specific kinds of OC used in the past.

Consensual partnering in Australia: a review and 1991 census profile

"This paper is the first part of a two-part examination of consensual partnering in Australia. It reviews the Australian literature on consensual partnering, summarizing evidence of its proliferation since the mid-1960s and also the findings of investigations into its nature and the personal attributes that predispose some people more than others to adopt it. It then discusses the shortcomings of Australian census data as a source for studying consensual unions, before using data from the 1991 Census to present the first elements in a comprehensive profile of the cohabiting population. These cover the basic demography of consensual partnering: the ages, marital statuses and family type distributions of those involved."

Understanding the 1996 census migration data

"The Australian Census provides two approaches to measuring migration: indicators which distinguish movers from non-movers, and a geographic classification which identifies each person's usual residence on census night, and their usual address one year and five years previously. Although these data represent a rich source of information, they contain several traps for the unwary. We show that differences in the variables and classifications used can result in marked variations in the apparent intensity and patterns of migration. The questionnaire and processing methodology used in the 1996 Census also resulted in a number of inconsistencies between the migration indicators and the usual address information. We examine the magnitude and source of these anomalies, assess their implications and propose a partial solution."

Estimating deaths and injuries due to road traffic accidents in Karachi, Pakistan, through the capture-recapture method

BACKGROUND

Road traffic accidents (RTA) are an important yet preventable cause of death and disability in developing countries like Pakistan. Yet accurate epidemiological data on injuries in developing country injuries is often difficult to obtain. We applied the capture-recapture method to estimate the death and injury rates due to RTA in Karachi.

METHODS

We applied the two-sample capture-recapture method using traffic police records as one source of capture and the logs of a non-government ambulance service as the second capture source for the same 10 months and 20 days for which 1994 data were available. We generated a conservative adjusted estimate of injuries and deaths by considering entries in the two sources as matched if they reported the same date, time, and place, and at least one of the other matching variables, of name, vehicle registration number, vehicle types or patient outcome. We then compared the estimated rates with the police rates.

RESULTS

In 1994 police reported 544 deaths and 793 injuries due to RTA while ambulance records noted 343 deaths and 2048 injuries. The capture-recapture analysis estimated at least 972 (95% CI: 912-1031) deaths and 18,936 (95% CI: 15,507-22,342) injuries attributable to RTA during the study period. Official sources counted only 56% of deaths and 4% of serious injuries. The estimated rates for the year 1994 were 185 injuries and 11.2 deaths per 100,000 population.

CONCLUSION

Road traffic injuries and deaths in Karachi are a much more substantial health problem than is evident from official statistics.