Morphologies in-between: The impact of the first steps on the human talus

OBJECTIVE

The development of bipedalism is a very complex activity that contributes to shaping the anatomy of the foot. The talus, which starts ossifying in utero, may account for the developing stages from the late gestational phase onwards. Here, we explore the early development of the talus in both its internal and external morphology to broaden the knowledge of the anatomical changes that occur during early development.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The sample consists of high-resolution microCT scans of 28 modern juvenile tali (from 36 prenatal weeks to 2 years), from a broad chronological range from the Late Roman period to the 20th century. We applied geometric morphometric and whole-bone trabecular analysis to investigate the early talar morphological changes.

RESULTS

In the youngest group (<6 postnatal months), the immature external shell is accompanied by an isotropic internal structure, with thin and densely packed trabeculae. After the initial attempts of locomotion, bone volume fraction decreases, while anisotropy and trabecular thickness increase. These internal changes correspond to the maturation of the external shell, which is now more defined and shows the development of the articular surfaces.

DISCUSSION

The internal and external morphology of the human talus reflects the diverse load on the foot during the initial phases of the bipedal locomotion, with the youngest group potentially reflecting the lack of readiness of the human talus to bear forces and perform bipedal walking. These results highlight the link between mechanical loading and bone development in the human talus during the acquisition of bipedalism, providing new insight into the early phases of talar development.

Integrating ZooMS and zooarchaeology: New data from the Uluzzian levels of Uluzzo C Rock Shelter, Roccia San Sebastiano cave and Riparo del Broion

In this study we explore the potential of combining traditional zooarchaeological determination and proteomic identification of morphologically non-diagnostic bone fragments (ZooMS) collected from the Uluzzian levels of three Italian sites: Uluzzo C Rock Shelter, Roccia San Sebastiano cave, and Riparo del Broion. Moreover, we obtained glutamine deamidation ratios for all the contexts analysed during routine ZooMS screening of faunal samples, giving information on collagen preservation. We designed a selection protocol that maximizes the efficiency of the proteomics analyses by excluding particularly compromised fragments (e.g. from taphonomic processes), and that aims to identify new human fragments by favouring bones showing morphological traits more similar to Homo. ZooMS consistently provided taxonomic information in agreement with the faunal spectra outlined by traditional zooarchaeology. Our approach allows us to delineate and appreciate differences between the analysed contexts, particularly between the northern and southern sites, related to faunal, environmental, and climate composition, although no human remains were identified. We reconstructed the faunal assemblage of the different sites, giving voice to morphologically undiagnostic bone fragments. Thus, the combination of these analyses provides a more complete picture of the faunal assemblage and of the paleoenvironment during the Middle-Upper Palaeolithic transition in Italy.

Human talar ontogeny: Insights from morphological and trabecular changes during postnatal growth

Objectives

The study of the development of human bipedalism can provide a unique perspective on the evolution of morphology and behavior across species. To generate new knowledge of these mechanisms, we analyze changes in both internal and external morphology of the growing human talus in a sample of modern human juveniles using an innovative approach.

Materials and Methods

The sample consists of high‐resolution microCT scans of 70 modern juvenile tali, aged between 8 postnatal weeks and 10 years old, from a broad chronological range from Middle/Late Neolithic, that is, between 4800 and 4500 BCE, to the 20th century. We applied geometric morphometric and whole‐bone trabecular analysis (bone volume fraction, degree of anisotropy, trabecular number, thickness, and spacing) to all specimens to identify changes in the external and internal morphology during growth. Morphometric maps were also generated.

Results

During the first year of life, the talus has an immature and globular shape, with a dense, compact, and rather isotropic trabecular architecture, with numerous trabeculae packed closely together. This pattern changes while children acquire a more mature gait, and the talus tends to have a lower bone volume fraction, a higher anisotropy, and a more mature shape.

Discussion

The changes in talar internal and external morphologies reflect the different loading patterns experienced during growth, gradually shifting from an “unspecialized” morphology to a more complex one, following the development of bipedal gait. Our research shows that talar plasticity, even though genetically driven, may show mechanical influences and contribute to tracking the main locomotor milestones.

Direct evidence that late Neanderthal occupation precedes a technological shift in southwestern Italy

OBJECTIVES

During the middle-to-upper Paleolithic transition (50,000 and 40,000 years ago), interaction between Neanderthals and Homo sapiens varied across Europe. In southern Italy, the association between Homo sapiens fossils and non-Mousterian material culture, as well as the mode and tempo of Neanderthal demise, are still vividly debated. In this research, we focus on the study of two human teeth by using 3D geometric morphometric approaches for a reliable taxonomical attribution as well as obtaining new radiometric dates on the archeological sequence.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

This work presents two lower deciduous molars uncovered at Roccia San Sebastiano (Mondragone-Caserta, Italy), stratigraphically associated with Mousterian (RSS1) and Uluzzian (RSS2) artifacts. To obtain a probabilistic attribution of the two RSS teeth to each reference taxa group composed of Neanderthals and Homo sapiens, we performed and compared the performance of three supervised learning algorithms (flexible discriminant analysis, multiadaptive regression splines, and random forest) on both crown and cervical outlines obtained by virtual morphometric methods.

RESULTS

We show that RSS1, whose Mousterian context appears more recent than 44,800-44,230 cal BP, can be attributed to a Neanderthal, while RSS2, found in an Uluzzian context that we dated to 42,640-42,380 cal BP, is attributed to Homo sapiens.

DISCUSSION

This site yields the most recent direct evidence for a Neanderthal presence in southern Italy and confirms a later shift to upper Paleolithic technology in southwestern Italy compared to the earliest Uluzzian evidence at Grotta del Cavallo (Puglia, Italy).

Integrated multidisciplinary ecological analysis from the Uluzzian settlement at the Uluzzo C Rock Shelter, south-eastern Italy

The Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition, between 50 000 and 40 000 years ago, is a period of important ecological and cultural changes. In this framework, the Rock Shelter of Uluzzo C (Apulia, southern Italy) represents an important site due to Late Mousterian and Uluzzian evidence preserved in its stratigraphic sequence. Here, we present the results of a multidisciplinary analysis performed on the materials collected between 2016 and 2018 from the Uluzzian stratigraphic units (SUs) 3, 15 and 17. The analysis involved lithic technology, use-wear, zooarchaeology, ancient DNA of sediments and palaeoproteomics, completed by quartz single-grain optically stimulated luminescence dating of the cave sediments. The lithic assemblage is characterized by a volumetric production and a debitage with no or little management of the convexities (by using the bipolar technique), with the objective to produce bladelets and flakelets. The zooarchaeological study found evidence of butchery activity and of the possible exploitation of marine resources, while drawing a picture of a patchy landscape, composed of open forests and dry open environments surrounding the shelter. Ancient mitochondrial DNA from two mammalian taxa were recovered from the sediments. Preliminary zooarchaeology by mass spectrometry results are consistent with ancient DNA and zooarchaeological taxonomic information, while further palaeoproteomics investigations are ongoing. Our new data from the re-discovery of the Uluzzo C Rock Shelter represent an important contribution to better understand the meaning of the Uluzzian in the context of the Middle/Upper Palaeolithic transition in south-eastern Italy.

Early Alpine occupation backdates westward human migration in Late Glacial Europe

Before the end of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, ∼16.5 ka ago)¹ set in motion major shifts in human culture and population structure,² a consistent change in lithic technology, material culture, settlement pattern, and adaptive strategies is recorded in Southern Europe at ∼18-17 ka ago. In this time frame, the landscape of Northeastern Italy changed considerably, and the retreat of glaciers allowed hunter-gatherers to gradually recolonize the Alps.^3-6 Change within this renewed cultural frame (i.e., during the Late Epigravettian phase) is currently associated with migrations favored by warmer climate linked to the Bølling-Allerød onset (14.7 ka ago),^7-11 which replaced earlier genetic lineages with ancestry found in an individual who lived ∼14 ka ago at Riparo Villabruna, Italy, and shared among different contexts (Villabruna Cluster).⁹ Nevertheless, these dynamics and their chronology are still far from being disentangled due to fragmentary evidence for long-distance interactions across Europe.¹² Here, we generate new genomic data from a human mandible uncovered at Riparo Tagliente (Veneto, Italy), which we directly dated to 16,980-16,510 cal BP (2σ). This individual, affected by focal osseous dysplasia, is genetically affine to the Villabruna Cluster. Our results therefore backdate by at least 3 ka the diffusion in Southern Europe of a genetic component linked to Balkan/Anatolian refugia, previously believed to have spread during the later Bølling/Allerød event. In light of the new genetic evidence, this population replacement chronologically coincides with the very emergence of major cultural transitions in Southern and Western Europe.

Exploring directional and fluctuating asymmetry in the human palate during growth

Objectives

Palate morphology is constantly changing throughout an individual's lifespan, yet its asymmetry during growth is still little understood. In this research, we focus on the study of palate morphology by using 3D geometric morphometric approaches to observe changes at different stages of life, and to quantify the impact of directional and fluctuating asymmetry on different areas at different growth stages.

Materials and Methods

The sample consists of 183 individuals (1–72 years) from two identified human skeletal collections of 19th and early 20th Century Italian contexts. A 3D‐template of 41 (semi)landmarks was applied on digital palate models to observe morphological variation during growth.

Results

Asymmetrical components of the morphological structure appears multidirectional on the entire palate surface in individuals <2 years old and become oriented (opposite bilateral direction) between 2 and 6 years of age. Specifically, directional asymmetry differentially impacts palate morphology at different stages of growth. Both the anterior and posterior palate are affected by mild alterations in the first year of life, while between 2 and 6 years asymmetry is segregated in the anterior area, and moderate asymmetry affects the entire palatal surface up to 12 years of age. Our results show that stability of the masticatory system seems to be reached around 13–35 years first by females and then males. From 36 years on both sexes show similar asymmetry on the anterior area. Regarding fluctuating asymmetry, inter‐individual variability is mostly visible up to 12 years of age, after which only directional trends can be clearly observed at a group level.

Discussion

Morphological structure appears instable during the first year of life and acquires an opposite asymmetric bilateral direction between 2 and 6 years of age. This condition has been also documented in adults; when paired with vertical alteration, anterior/posterior asymmetry seems to characterize palate morphology, which is probably due to mechanical factors during the lifespan. Fluctuating asymmetry is predominant in the first period of life due to a plausible relationship with the strength of morphological instability of the masticatory system. Directional asymmetry, on the other hand, shows that the patterning of group‐level morphological change might be explained as a functional response to differential inputs (physiological forces, nutritive and non‐nutritive habits, para‐masticatory activity as well as the development of speech) in different growth stages. This research has implications with respect to medical and evolutionary fields. In medicine, palate morphology should be considered when planning orthodontic and surgical procedures as it could affect the outcome. As far as an evolutionary perspective is concerned the dominance of directional asymmetries in the masticatory system could provide information on dietary and cultural habits as well as pathological conditions in our ancestors.

The fast-acting "pulse" of Heinrich Stadial 3 in a mid-latitude boreal ecosystem

A 3800 year-long radiocarbon-dated and highly-resolved palaeoecological record from Lake Fimon (N-Italy) served to investigate the effects of potential teleconnections between North Atlantic and mid-to-low latitudes at the transition from Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 3 to 2. Boreal ecosystems documented in the Fimon record reacted in a sensitive way to millennial and sub-millennial scale Northern Hemisphere atmospheric circulation patterns. The high median time-resolution of 58 years allows the identification of five abrupt event-boundaries (i.e., main forest expansion and decline excursions) synchronous with the sharp stadial/interstadial (GS/GI) transitions within dating uncertainties. During Heinrich Stadial 3 (HS 3) we reconstruct more open and dry conditions, compared to the other GS, with a dominant regional scale fire signal. Linkages between local fires and climate-driven fuel changes resulted in high-magnitude fire peaks close to GI/GS boundaries, even exacerbated by local peatland conditions. Finally, palaeoecological data from the HS 3 interval unveiled an internal variability suggesting a peak between 30,425 and 29,772 cal BP (2σ error) which matches more depleted δ¹⁸O values in alpine speleothems. We hypothesise that this signal, broadly resembling that of other mid-latitudes proxies, may be attributed to the southward shift of the Northern Hemisphere storm tracks and the associated delayed iceberg discharge events as documented during other HS.

Enamel peptides reveal the sex of the Late Antique 'Lovers of Modena'

Recent work has disclosed the critical role played by enamel peptides in sex classification of old skeletal remains. In particular, protein AMELY (amelogenin isoform Y) is present in the enamel dental tissue of male individuals only, while AMELX (isoform X) can be found in both sexes. AMELY can be easily detected by LC-MS/MS in the ion extracted chromatograms of the SM(ox)IRPPY peptide (monoisotopic [M + 2 H]+2 mass = 440.2233 m/z). In this paper, we exploited the dimorphic features of the amelogenin protein to determine the sex of the so-called 'Lovers of Modena', two Late Antique individuals whose skeletons were intentionally buried hand-in-hand. Upon discovery, mass media had immediately assumed they were a male-female couple, even if bad preservation of the bones did not allow an effective sex classification. We were able to extract proteins from the dental enamel of both individuals (~1600 years old) and to confidently classify them as males. Results were compared to 14 modern and archaeological control samples, confirming the reliability of the ion chromatogram method for sex determination. Although we currently have no information on the actual relationship between the 'Lovers of Modena' (affective? Kin-based?), the discovery of two adult males intentionally buried hand-in-hand may have profound implications for our understanding of funerary practices in Late Antique Italy.

Grotta del Cavallo (Apulia-Southern Italy). The Uluzzian in the mirror

The Uluzzian techno-complex is commonly considered to be a "transitional industry" mostly on the basis of some inferred characteristics such as a chiefly flake-based production, a small amount of Upper Palaeolithic-like tools and a combination of Middle and Upper Palaeolithic elements both in the toolkit and in the technical systems. Following its discovery, the Uluzzian was identified as the Italian counterpart of the French Châtelperronian and attributed to Neandertals. However, a study issued in 2011 has established the modern character of the two deciduous teeth found in 1964 in the Uluzzian deposit of Grotta del Cavallo, fostering renewed interests to the Uluzzian culture, which real nature is almost unknown to the international scientific community. Here we provide preliminary results of the study on the lithic assemblage from the earliest Uluzzian layer and on backed pieces from the whole Uluzzian sequence of Grotta del Cavallo (Apulia, Italy), the type site of the Uluzzian. Moreover, besides a thorough review on the stratigraphy of Grotta del Cavallo (Supplementary Materials), we provide updated information on the human remains by presenting two unpublished teeth from the reworked deposit of the same cave. We conclude that the early Uluzzians demonstrate original technological behavior and innovations devoid of any features deriving or directly linked with the late Mousterian of Southern Italy. Therefore, the novelty nature of the Uluzzian techno-complex (with respect to the preceding Mousterian) complies with the recent reassessment of the two deciduous teeth from Grotta del Cavallo in suggesting an earliest migration of modern humans in southern Europe around 45,000 years ago.

The Iceman's lithic toolkit: Raw material, technology, typology and use

The Tyrolean Iceman, a 5,300-year-old glacier mummy recovered at the Tisenjoch (South Tyrol, Italy) together with his clothes and personal equipment, represents a unique opportunity for prehistoric research. The present work examines the Iceman's tools which are made from chert or are related to chert working - dagger, two arrowheads, endscraper, borer, small flake and antler retoucher - and considers also the arrowhead still embedded in the shoulder of the mummy. The interdisciplinary results achieved by study of the lithic raw material, technology, use-wear analysis, CT analysis and typology all add new information to Ötzi's individual history and his last days, and allow insights into the way of life of Alpine Copper Age communities. The chert raw material of the small assemblage originates from at least three different areas of provenance in the Southalpine region. One, or possibly two, sources derive from outcrops in the Trentino, specifically the Non Valley. Such variability suggests an extensive provisioning network, not at all limited to the Lessini mountains, which was able to reach the local communities. The Iceman's toolkit displays typological characteristics of the Northern Italian tradition, but also comprises features typical of the Swiss Horgen culture, which will come as no surprise in the toolkit of a man who lived in a territory where transalpine contacts would have been of great importance. Ötzi was not a flintknapper, but he was able to resharpen his tools with a medium to good level of skill. Wear traces reveal that he was a right-hander. Most instruments in the toolkit had reached their final stage of usability, displaying extensive usage, mostly from plant working, resharpenings and breaks. Evidently Ötzi had not had any access to chert for quite some time, which must have been problematic during his last hectic days, preventing him from repairing and integrating his weapons, in particular his arrows. Freshly modified blade tools without any wear suggest planned work which he never carried out, possibly prevented by the events which made him return to the mountains where he was killed by a Southern Alpine archer.

The dawn of dentistry in the late upper Paleolithic: An early case of pathological intervention at Riparo Fredian

OBJECTIVES

Early evidence for the treatment of dental pathology is found primarily among food-producing societies associated with high levels of oral pathology. However, some Late Pleistocene hunter-gatherers show extensive oral pathology, suggesting that experimentation with therapeutic dental interventions may have greater antiquity. Here, we report the second earliest probable evidence for dentistry in a Late Upper Paleolithic hunter-gatherer recovered from Riparo Fredian (Tuscany, Italy).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The Fredian 5 human consists of an associated maxillary anterior dentition with antemortem exposure of both upper first incisor (I¹ ) pulp chambers. The pulp chambers present probable antemortem modifications that warrant in-depth analyses and direct dating. Scanning electron microscopy, microCT and residue analyses were used to investigate the purported modifications of external and internal surfaces of each I¹ .

RESULTS

The direct date places Fredian 5 between 13,000 and 12,740 calendar years ago. Both pulp chambers were circumferentially enlarged prior to the death of this individual. Occlusal dentine flaking on the margin of the cavities and striations on their internal aspects suggest anthropic manipulation. Residue analyses revealed a conglomerate of bitumen, vegetal fibers, and probable hairs adherent to the internal walls of the cavities.

DISCUSSION

The results are consistent with tool-assisted manipulation to remove necrotic or infected pulp in vivo and the subsequent use of a composite, organic filling. Fredian 5 confirms the practice of dentistry-specifically, a pathology-induced intervention-among Late Pleistocene hunter-gatherers. As such, it appears that fundamental perceptions of biomedical knowledge and practice were in place long before the socioeconomic changes associated with the transition to food production in the Neolithic.

Morphology and Aquaporin Immunohistochemistry of the Uterine Tube of Saanen Goats (Capra hircus): Comparison Throughout the Reproductive Cycle

The expression of six different aquaporins (AQP1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 9), integral membrane water channels that facilitate bi-directional passive movement of water, was investigated by immunohistochemistry in the uterine tube of pre-pubertal and adult Saanen goats (Capra hircus), comparing the different phases of the oestrous cycle. Regional morphology and secretory processes were markedly different during the goat oestrous cycle. The tested AQP molecules showed different expression patterns in comparison with already studied species. AQP1-immunoreactivity was evidenced at the endothelium of blood vessels and in nerve fibres, regardless of the tubal tract and cycle period. AQP4-immunoreactivity was shown on the lateral plasmalemma in the basal third of the epithelial cells at infundibulum and ampulla level in the cycling goats, more evidently during follicular than during luteal phase. No AQP4-immunoreactivity was noticed at the level of the isthmus region, regardless of the cycle phase. AQP5-immunoreactivity, localized at the apical surface of epithelial cells, increased from pre-puberty to adulthood. Thereafter, AQP5-immunoreactivity was prominent during the follicular phase, when it strongly decorated the apical plasmalemma of all epithelial cells at ampullary level. During luteal phase, immunoreactivity was discontinuous, being weak to strong at the apex of the secretory cells protruding into the lumen. In the isthmus region, the strongest AQP5-immunoreactivity was seen during follicular phase, with a clear localization in the apical plasmalemma of all the epithelial cells and also on the lateral plasmalemma. AQP2, 3 and 9 were undetectable all along the goat uterine tube. Likely, a collaboration of different AQP molecules sustains the fluid production in the goat uterine tube. AQP1-mediated transudation from the blood capillaries, together with permeation of the epithelium by AQP4 in the basal rim of the epithelial cells and final intervening of apical AQP5, could be involved in fluid production as well as in secretory processes.

Using 3D Microscopy to Analyze Experimental Cut Marks on Animal Bones Produced with Different Stone Tools

This study uses a combination of digital microscopic analysis and experimental archaeology to assess stone tool cut marks on animal bones. We used two un-retouched flint flakes and two burins to inflict cut marks on fresh, boiled, and dry ungulate  bones. The experiment produced three series of three engravings on each bone with each of the experimental tools. The first series involved one single stroke; the second, two strokes in the same direction; and the third, multiple strokes using a to-and-fro movement. We analyzed the striations using a Hirox 3D digital microscope (KH-7700) and collected metric and profile data on the morphology of the cut marks. In order to describe the shape of each cross section, we calculated the ratio between the breadth at the top and the breadth at the floor of cut marks. Preliminary results show that both the tool type and the method of creating the cut mark influence the shape of the resulting groove. In our experiment, morphological parameters can be used to differentiate between marks produced using un-retouched flint flakes and those produced using burins. However, neither morphological nor morphometric analysis allows us to identify the mechanical motion used to produce the cuts, nor the state of the bone (fresh, boiled, or dry) at the moment of marking. 

The urothelium: anatomy, review of the literature, perspectives for veterinary medicine

Over time, much knowledge has been accumulated about the active role of the urothelium, principally in rodents and human. Far from being a mere passive barrier, this specialized epithelium can alter the ion and protein composition of the urine, is able to sense and respond to mechanical stimuli such as pressure, and react to mechanical stimuli by epithelial cell communication with the nervous system. Most of the specialized functions of the urothelium are linked to a number of morpho-physiologic properties exhibited by the superficial umbrella cells, including specialized membrane lipids, asymmetric unit membrane particles and a plasmalemma with stiff plaques which function as a barrier to most substances found in urine, thus protecting the underlying tissues. Moreover, the entire mucosa lining the low urinary tract, composed of urothelium and sub-urothelium, forms a functional transduction unit, able to respond to eso- and endogenous physical and chemical stimuli in a manner assuring an adequate functional response. This review will summarize the available information on each area of inquiry from a morpho-functional point of view. Possible considerations pertaining to species of veterinary interest are reviewed as well. The review was prepared consulting the electronic databases PubMed and Cab Abstracts and retrieving all pertinent reports and the relative reference lists, in order to identify any potential additional studies that could be included. Full-length research articles and thematic reviews were considered. Information on the urothelium of some domestic animal species was also included.

Periovulatory time in the bitch: what's new to know?: Comparison between ovarian histology and clinical features

The ability to recognize specific events happening in the ovaries during periovulatory time allows optimal management of canine reproduction. The objective of this study was to assess the efficacy of vaginal cytology and blood progesterone (P4) assay to identify accurately the changes occurring at the ovarian structures, mainly during the fertile period. Tertiary follicles, corpora hemorrhagica (CHs) and corpora lutea (CLs) from forty healthy bitches undergoing ovariohysterectomy were evaluated by histo-morphometry based on their aspect, number and size. The tertiary follicles distribution (small, medium and large) was statistically different (P<0.002) among all the stages of the reproductive cycle, except for small follicles (<2mm), which were always observed from proestrus to anestrus. Very large follicles (>4mm) were predominant (P=0.008) around ovulation when P4 mean level was 6.1±1.7ng/mL. The early postovulatory estrous period was characterized by CHs (P<0.002) and P4 level of 16.7±5.9ng/mL. The end of the fertile period - start of diestrus - coincided with the development of CLs (P=0.001) associated with a P4 mean level of 73.9±9.9ng/mL. The small (P<0.001) and medium (P<0.05) follicle diameters were positively correlated with the bitch size. The number of follicles larger than 4mm was significantly lower in bitches younger than 4 years (P<0.02). This study provides insight into some critical steps in the canine reproductive processes in the periovulatory phase and the end of the fertile period, essential to plan breeding programs.

Are the basal cells of the mammalian epididymis still an enigma?

Basal cells are present in the columnar pseudostratified epithelium covering the epididymis of all mammalian species, which regulates the microenvironment where the functionally incompetent germ cells produced by the testis are matured and stored. Striking novelties have come from investigations on epididymal basal cells in the past 30–40 years. In addition to an earlier hypothesised scavenger role for basal cells, linked to their proven extratubular origin and the expression of macrophage antigens, basal cells have been shown to be involved in cell–cell cross-talk, as well as functioning as luminal sensors to regulate the activity of principal and clear cells. Involvement of basal cells in the regulation of electrolyte and water transport by principal cells was hypothesised. This control is suggested to be mediated by the local formation of prostaglandins. Members of the aquaporin (AQP) and/or aquaglyceroporin family (AQP3, AQP7 and AQP8) are also specifically expressed in the rat epididymal basal cells. Transport of glycerol and glycerylphosphorylcholine from the epithelium of the epididymis to the lumen in relation to sperm maturation may be mediated by AQP. Most probably basal cells collaborate to the building up of the blood–epididymis barrier through cell adhesion molecules, implying an involvement in immune control exerted towards sperm cells, which are foreigners in the environment in which they were produced.

Absorptive activities of the efferent ducts evaluated by the immunolocalization of aquaporin water channels and lectin histochemistry in adult cats

Ultrastructural and biochemical features of efferent ducts (EDs) are indicative of an intense absorptive activity towards the luminal fluid. This function was investigated by 1) the immunohistochemical localization of different aquaporins, integral membrane water channels that facilitate rapid passive movement of water, and 2) the histochemical localization of lectins, known to have specific affinity for glycoconjugate residues. AQP1 was mostly revealed at the apical surface and adluminal cytoplasm of non-ciliated cells and to a minor extent in their lateral plasma membrane, whereas it was absent in ciliated cells. Blood vessels showed AQP1-immunoreactivity, which was present in endothelial cells of venous vessels and capillaries and around the muscular sheath of arteries. AQP9 was expressed in the apical zone of ciliated and non-ciliated cells and in the lateral cell membrane. AQP2 and AQP5 were undetectable. Lectin histochemistry showed that non-ciliated cells contain glycans with terminal Neu5Acalpha2,3Galbeta1,3GalNAc, Neu5Acalpha2,3Galbeta1,4GlcNAc, Galbeta1,4GlcNAc, GalNAc (s-PNA, MAL II, RCA120, SBA reactivity) and with internal/terminal alphaMan (Con A affinity) at the luminal surface and the apical region. In addition, non-ciliated cells expressed oligosaccharides terminating with GalNAc and Neu5Acalpha2,6Gal/GalNAc (SNA reactivity) in the luminal surface and the apical zone, respectively. Ciliated cells revealed glycoconjugates only on cilia, which showed terminal Neu5Acalpha2,3Galbeta1,4GlcNAc (s-RCA120 staining) and GalNAc, as well as internal/terminal alphaMan and GlcNAc (s-WGA, GSA II staining). Data provide evidence for the involvement of different pathways in the bulk reabsorption of water and low molecular weight solutes by the non-ciliated cell of the cat EDs. AQP-mediated trans-cellular route can be hypothesized, together with fluid phase endocytosis mediated by the glycocalix and a well-developed endocytotic apparatus. Epithelial ciliated cells, whose main function is the movement of luminal content, might also participate in absorptive processes to a lesser extent.

Endometrial cytology and computerized morphometric analysis of epithelial nuclei: a useful tool for reproductive diagnosis in the bitch

New diagnostic approaches are required to recognize early canine hypofertility or infertility. We suggest that the identification of different cytologic types, cellular aspects, and nuclear features of the endometrial epithelial cells may be suitable for this purpose. This study was performed on the bitch (Canis familiaris) during the physiologic reproductive cycle and in uterine diseases. We also applied computerized cytomorphometry to evaluate nuclear area, perimeter, diameter, density, aspect, and roundness of endometrial epithelial cells in healthy dogs (N=35) at different stages of the reproductive cycle (before puberty, during proestrus, estrus, diestrus, and anestrus) and in bitches affected by uterine disorders (N=10). The stage of the estrous cycle was determined by vaginal cytology and progesterone evaluation and also confirmed by clinical and histologic observations. Samples for endometrial cytology were collected in vivo by uterine flushing with transcervical uterine cannulation. After uterine sampling, each dog underwent OHE or uterine stump revision. Cytologic analyses were compared with histologic examinations to verify the uterine condition. The uterine cellular population was represented by endometrial epithelial cells, erythrocytes, neutrophils, lymphocytes, eosinophils, macrophages, plasma cells, and cervical or incidental vaginal cells. Bacteria and amorphous material were observed. The proportion of different cells and nuclear features in the cytologic samples varied throughout the stages of the reproductive cycle and between normal and pathologic uterine conditions. The computer-assisted nuclear morphometry, performed in cytologic specimens by means of the six nuclear parameters chosen to evaluate the endometrial epithelial cell population, proved to be useful for determining the stage of the reproductive cycle. Furthermore, this system was demonstrated to be a valid support to diagnose and distinguish uterine disorders.

An insight into testis and gubernaculum dynamics of INSL3 - RXFP2 signalling during testicular descent in the dog

Insulin-like 3 (INSL3) plays a prominent role in male development and is supposed to induce the growth of the gubernaculum testis (g.t.), thus being directly involved in testicular descent in humans and rodents. This happens through activation of the RXFP2 receptor (GREAT or LGR8). The INSL3–RXFP2 complex is reputed to play an additional paracrine role in the testis, possibly acting as part of an autocrine feedback loop. The present work provides evidence of the immunolocalisation of INSL3 in the Leydig cells of canine fetuses and of the expression of RXFP2 receptor in different tissues of the g.t. of the same specimens. RXFP2 was localised at the cell membrane of g.t. muscle and connective cells, as well as in the epithelial cells of the developing excurrent ducts. Notably, RXFP2 immunoreactivity of the g.t. was limited to fetuses at ~35–45 days of gestation, which is also the fetal period when the endocrine compartment of the dog testis is active endocrinologically, as confirmed by the anti-P450c17 and anti-INSL3 immunoreactivities of the fetal Leydig cells, and by anti-Müllerian hormone immunoreactivity of the Sertoli cells. The same immunoreactivities were also evaluated in the testes of cryptorchid dogs of different ages. RXFP2 immunoreactivity was absent from genital tracts of cryptorchid testes and g.t. remnants.

Can nutraceuticals affect the structure of intestinal mucosa? Qualitative and quantitative microanatomy in L-glutamine diet-supplemented weaning piglets

Weaning piglets were fed an L-glutamine-supplemented diet with the aim of monitoring the effects on gut mucosal turnover and barrier function, to elucidate the potential preventive or therapeutic roles of glutamine as a nutraceutical or 'functional food'. Sixteen female weaning piglets were divided into two groups, which were fed a control diet (Ctr group: n = 8) or a Ctr + 0.5% L-glutamine diet (G group: n = 8) for 28 days. In the ileum of group G piglets the villus height (V) and crypt depth (C) were increased, and the V:C ratio was decreased (p < 0.01). The PCNA and TUNEL immunoreactivities were also tested. The number of mitotic mucosal cells (M) was increased, and that of mucosal cells with apoptotic nuclei (A) decreased in such a way that the A:M index diminished (p < 0.01). The A:M index also decreased at the level of some components of the gut-associated lymphatic tissue (GALT), thus indicating a positive effect on the gut barrier function. This trial showed that L: -glutamine supplementation influenced some morphofunctional characteristics of piglet ileal mucosa. These data corroborate the nutraceutical role of glutamine as a trophic agent for mucosal repair, improvement of barrier function and gut adaptation in the swine per se and as an animal model.

A collaboration of aquaporins handles water transport in relation to the estrous cycle in the bitch uterus

Fluid movement through uterine cell membranes is crucial, as it can modulate the tissue imbibition pattern in the different phases of the estrous cycle. To gain insight into the mechanisms underlying steroid-controlled water handling, the presence and distribution of aquaporins (AQPs), integral membrane channel proteins permitting rapid passive water movement, was explored in bitch uterine tissues. Immunohistochemistry and Western immunoblot analysis were used to study the presence of AQP1, AQP2, and AQP5 in the layers of the bitch uterine wall during the different estrous phases. Presence of endothelial nitric oxide-generating enzyme NO synthase (NOS3) was also investigated, as it is known that the vasodilator NOS3 might be involved in the development of uterine edema. The results demonstrated the following: (1) AQP1, AQP2, and AQP5 were present in the uterus of cycling bitches. (2) AQP1 was localized within uterine mesometrial, myometrial, and endometrial blood vessels and in the circular and longitudinal layers of myometrium. AQP1 localization and expression were unaffected by the estrous cycle. (3) The estrogenic milieu was probably at the basis of AQP2 expression in the glandular and luminal epithelium of the endometrium. (4) AQP5 water channels were present in the apical plasma membrane of uterine epithelial cells in coincidence with plasma progesterone increase. (5) NOS3 was localized in the myometrial and epithelial tissues as well as in blood vessels indicating a contribution of this vasoactive peptide to the uterine imbibition processes. Thus, we can hypothesize that a functional and distinctive collaboration exists among diverse AQPs in water handling during the different functional uterine phases.

Mutations in the RSPO1 coding region are not the main cause of canine SRY-negative XX sex reversal in several breeds

This report details a case of SRY-negative XX sex reversal in a mixed breed dog and surveys affected dogs of several breeds for mutations in RSPO1 coding regions. Genomic DNA from the mixed breed case was evaluated for mutations in candidate genes. Sequencing identified a homozygous G to A transition in RSPO1 exon 4 that changes a highly conserved amino acid codon in the thrombospondin domain. The possibility that this was a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) could not be excluded by genotyping family members. Therefore, the coding region of RSPO1 was sequenced in a survey of affected dogs, which identified a T to C transition (exon 3) in some, the above G to A transition (exon 4) in others, and no change in the remaining affected dogs. Genotypes at these base pair positions were not uniquely associated with the affected phenotype in any breed, indicating the identified transitions are most likely SNPs, not causative mutations for this canine disorder. However, the possibility that polymorphisms play a modifier role, such as changing threshold or severity of phenotypic expression in a mixed breed dog, cannot be excluded. This study emphasizes the importance of canine pedigree, breed, and population studies in evaluating candidate mutations.

Immunohistochemical study of the pre- and postnatal innervation of the dog lower urinary tract: morphological aspects at the basis of the consolidation of the micturition reflex

Immunohistochemical studies were performed on male and female bladder and urethra collected from 4 adults dogs and 10 foetal specimens with crown-rump length from 53 to 155 mm (medium-sized breeds, presumptive 38 days of gestation to term). A panel of antisera was tested, including PGP 9.5 to describe the general intramural innervation, ChAT and TH to depict the cholinergic and nor-adrenergic components and NOS1, CGRP, SP, NPY, VIP, SOM, GAL, 5-HT to investigate the possible nitrergic, peptidergic and aminergic ones. A rich cholinergic innervation was present in adult bladder and urethra, along with a lesser number of adrenergic nerves and a small number of nitrergic ones. Either bladder or urethra received numerous CGRP-, SP-, NPY-, VIP-containing nerve fibres which were distributed throughout the muscle layers. All over the lower urinary tract strong to weak ChAT-, CGRP-, SP- and NPY-immunoreactivity was detected in intramural ganglia, in peripheral nerve bundles and around blood vessels. 5-HT-immunoreactive endocrine cells were present in the urethral epithelium. Early foetal organs were supplied only by cholinergic nerve fibres. Few NOS-, CGRP- and SP-ergic components appeared at the end of pregnancy. It can be guessed that sensory mediators such as CGRP and SP increase in postnatal ages while other neuropeptides, such as NPY and VIP, appear only after birth, as the urinary reflex consolidates.

Characterization of a population of unique granular lymphocytes in a bitch deciduoma, using a panel of histo- and immunohistochemical markers

The ovaries and uterus were collected after ovariohysterectomy from a 16-month-old Labrador bitch in diestrus that never mated. Discrete swellings were found in the uterine horns, with the macroscopic appearance of normal early pregnancy. At histologic examination, the endometrium, devoid of any conceptus and chorion, showed a marked proliferation, on the basis of which a diagnosis of deciduoma was made. A remarkable population of stromal eosinophilic granular lymphocytes was present, especially in the axis of the endometrial folds. Periodic acid-Schiff and Dolichos biflorus-lectin histochemical reaction and a panel of 10 immunohistochemical markers were used to characterize eosinophilic granular cells. Our findings allowed us to compare these granular cells with the granulated decidual cells, whose presence was until now described only in primates, rodents, or a few other epitheliochorial species. On the basis of our results, the importance of eosinophilic granular cells in a decidualization process is hypothesized to occur also in the bitch.

Gut-trophic feed additives and their effects upon the gut structure and intestinal metabolism. State of the art in the pig, and perspectives towards humans

The correct functional development of the gastrointestinal tract is of special importance during the neonatal and weaning phases of reared piglets. Nutrition is obviously a critical determinant in the growth of the gut in the young swine. The mucosal epithelium of the small intestine is reputed anatomically and functionally immature in neonatal pigs, a feature that appears to be exacerbated at weaning, when a colonization of the gut occurs by "new" microorganisms entering the alimentary canal with the solid feed. This frequently exposes piglets to diarrhoeic syndromes and other intestinal disturbances. Functional feed additives, also called nutraceuticals, appear as promising alternative substances to the use of chemotherapeutics as growth promoters in the rearing farm, above all considering the near banning of them by the European Parliament in the view of reducing antibiotic resistance phenomena in human therapies. Several feed additives are available that may play a role in the pig nutritional plan because of their trophic and cyto-protective effects on the gastrointestinal apparatus. Paying special attention to the quantitative consequences (histometry) upon the gut of the examined dietary supplements, this review, even if not fully exhaustive, will focus on the function (and possibly the mechanism/s of action) of certain gut-trophic nutrient substrates. This in turn will sustain the potential use of these substances in human therapy, especially the one directed at resolving intestinal diseases, both in adult and infant ages. In nutritional studies as well as in other biomedical research fields, the swine is an excellent animal model.

Histochemistry of glycoconjugates in mucous cells of Salmo trutta uninfected and naturally parasitized with intestinal helminths

Mucus secreted onto the surface of the intestine forms a physical barrier to invading parasites so that a possible attachment of helminths to the surface is prevented and their expulsion by peristalsis facilitated. In mammals, intestinal parasites induce hyperplasia and hypertrophy of intestine goblet cells and provoke changes in the mucus composition. In fish, this topic has received less attention. In the present investigation, histochemical methods were employed to compose intestinal mucous cell numbers and their glycoconjugate composition were compared by uninfected brown trout Salmo trutta and in S. trutta parasitized with Cyathocephalus truncatus or Pomphorhynchus laevis. When P. laevis was present in the intestine of the brown trout, the total mucous cell number, and the number of mucous cells containing acid or mixed glycoconjugates were significantly enhanced. No significant change in the total mucous cell number was detected in the intestine of fish parasitized with C. truncatus in comparison with uninfected brown trout. A significant increase was observed in the number of both acid (especially sulphated) and mixed glycoconjugates containing mucous cells as well as a significant decrease in the number of neutral glycoconjugates containing mucous cells. When intestinal helminths were present, the thickness of the adherent mucous gel increased. In a limited number of other fish species, the occurrence of gill and intestinal parasites has been reported to increase the mucosal glycoconjugate secretions. Our study is the first quantitative report on the effects of intestinal helminths on the density of mucous cells and mucus composition in a fish species.

Response of the gut neuroendocrine system of Leuciscus cephalus (L.) to the presence of Pomphorhynchus laevis Müller, 1776 (Acanthocephala)

Immunohistochemical tests were applied to sections of intestine of uninfected and Pomphorhynchus laevis Muller-infected chub, Leuciscus cephalus (L.) using 15 different antisera. Nerve cell bodies and fibres immunoreactive (IR) to the anti-bombesin, -Cholecystokinin-8 (CCK-8), -galanin, -Gastrin-Releasing Peptide (-GRP), -Nitric Oxide Synthase (-NOS), -Substance P (-SP), and -Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (-VIP) sera were observed in the myenteric plexus of uninfected chub. The density of nerve components immunoreactive to these antisera was high in the intestine of the infected fish, especially near the site of attachment. Moreover, numerous nerve fibres, immunoreactive to anti-bombesin, -GRP, -galanin, -SP, and -VIP sera, were encountered in the connective tissue capsule surrounding the bulb and proboscis of P. laevis. The occurrence of P. laevis in the chub gut significantly increased the number of endocrine cells per intestinal fold immunoreactive to galanin, met-enkephalin and leu-enkephalin antisera. CCK-8, Neuropeptide Y and glucagon-like immunoreactive cells were less numerous in the intestine of infected chub. A large number of cells in the tunica propria-submucosa of L. cephalus infected with P. laevis were immunoreactive to anti-serotonin and -leu-enkephalin sera.

Endocrine-paracrine cells of the male urogenital apparatus: a comparative histochemical and immunohistochemical study in some domestic ungulates

Specimens of testis, excurrent duct including the male accessory glands and urethra, were studied in boars, bulls, horses and donkeys, in order to localize endocrine/paracrine cells. Silver impregnation methods were used to test the argentaffinity and/or argyrophilia of cells. Immunoreactivities to chromogranin A, 5-hydroxytryptamine, somatostatin, [met]- and [leu]- enkephalins, gastrin-releasing peptide, calcitonin gene-related peptide, neuropeptide Y, substance P, vasoactive intestinal peptide, beta-endorphin antisera were tested by a streptavidin-biotin method. In the testis, epididymis, ductus deferens and vesicular gland no endocrine cells were found in any of the animals studied. Chromogranin-A, serotonin, somatostatin and enkephalins were present in endocrine/paracrine cells in the surface or glandular epithelia, whereas all other antisera gave negative results. In the prostatic complex and the urethral epithelium, the most consistent number of endocrine cells was serotonin-immunoreactive. Few cells were also argentaffin and a very limited number of them showed argyrophily and chromogranin-A immunoreactivity. Somatostatin-and enkephalin-immunoreactive cells were rare in the bull and boar, absent in stallions. This comparative study carried out on different species of domestic ungulates has shown deeply different immunophenotypes, even comparing species that are in a very close zoological relationship with one another, such as the horse and the donkey.

Cholinergic, nitrergic and peptidergic (Substance P- and CGRP-utilizing) innervation of the horse intestine. A histochemical and immunohistochemical study

The small and large intestine of adult horses were histochemically and immunohistochemically investigated in order to evidence components of the intramural nervous system. The general structural organization of the intramural nervous system was examined by using Nissl-thionin staining as well as the anti-neurofilament 200 (NF200) immunoreaction, which demonstrated the presence of neurons in the submucous as well as myenteric plexuses. The additional presence of subserosal ganglia was shown in the large intestine. Acetylcholinesterase (AChEase) activity was observed in both the submucous and myenteric plexuses. Localization of acetylcholine-utilizing neurons was also evidenced by immunohistochemical reactions for choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) and vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT). With both histochemistry and immunohistochemistry possible cholinergic nerve fibres were detected in the inner musculature. The two possible cholinergic co-mediators Calcitonin Gene-Related Peptide (CGRP) and Substance P (SP) have been investigated by an immunohistochemical approach. CGRP immunoreactivity was detected in roundish nerve cell bodies as well as in nerve fibres of the submucous plexus, whereas SP immunoreactivity was evidenced in nerve fibres of the tunica mucosa, in nerve cell bodies and fibres of the submucous plexus and in nerve fibres of the myenteric plexus. NADPH-diaphorase reactivity, which is linked to the synthesis and release of nitric oxide, was detected in nerve cell bodies and nerve fibres of both the submucous and myenteric plexuses as well as in a subserosal localization of the large intestine. The nitrergic components were confirmed by the anti-NOS (nitric oxide synthase) immunoreaction. Results are compared with those of other mammals and related to the complex intestinal horse physiology and pathophysiology.

The presence of a galanin-like peptide in the gut neuroendocrine system of Lampetra fluviatilis and Acipenser transmontanus: an immunohistochemical study

Galanin is a brain-gut neuropeptide present in the central and peripheral nervous systems of vertebrates. In the present survey, the galaninergic and the diffuse endocrine systems of the alimentary canal of the river lamprey, Lampetra fluviatilis, and the white sturgeon, Acipenser transmontanus, were studied by immunohistochemistry. The results show the presence of galanin-like immunoreactive endocrine cells in the gut of L. fluviatilis. In addition, a galanin-like immunoreactivity was detected in enteric intramural neurons of both species. It is conceivable that the galaninergic system plays in both species a role in the regulation of the gut muscle contractility and in the modulation of mucosal secretive/absorptive processes. In A. transmontanus, the presence of galanin-like immunoreactive nerve fibres associated with components of the gut associated-lymphoid tissue is possibly correlated with a control of the defensive events at this site. The presence of a galanin-like immunoreactivity in the neuroendocrine system of these two ancient fishes confirms the hypothesis on the early occurrence of this regulative molecule in the gastro-enteric system of vertebrates.

The influence of different fibrous supplements in the diet on ruminal histology and histometry in veal calves

The aim of this study was to determine whether the administration of four different solid feeds would influence selected morphological and morpho-functional aspects of the rumen mucosa in veal calves. The fibrous supplementation of the liquid diet of veal calves has been provided by recent EU formulation (EC Council Directive 91/629/1991; EC Council Directive 97/2/1997). Twenty-five Holstein calves were assigned to either exclusively liquid diet (milk replacer, control), or pelleted feed, corn silage, extruded feed, dried corn silage. The morpho-functional effects of the fibre-containing diets were examined evaluating histological and histometrical characteristics of ruminal mucosa after the slaughter of calves. There were slight to severe histological abnormalities in the rumens of all animals examined. The severe histological abnormalities were present in calves given pelleted feed, corn silage, and extruded feed. Dried corn silage caused less ruminal damage. We found that the length and epithelial thickness of ruminal papillae were higher in control veal calves than in dietary fibre-supplemented animals. The results of the present study, even if partially, support the EU prescription in the use of fibre diets in veal calves as integration of the traditional milk replacer diet.

Influence of enteric helminths on the distribution of intestinal endocrine cells belonging to the diffuse endocrine system in brown trout, Salmo trutta L

The presence of intestinal helminths in the alimentary canal of brown trout, Salmo trutta L., can alter the number of cells that synthesize modulatory peptides. A total of 167 brown trout were collected from tributaries of the River Brenta (northern Italy), of which 119 (71.3%) specimens were infected with enteric helminths, 28 with the acanthocephalan Pomphorhynchus laevis Müller, 1776 with intensity of infection ranging from 1 to 162 (18.57 +/- 30.79) worms per host and 67 fish with the cestode Cyathocephalus truncatus Pallas, 1781. Intensity of infection with C. truncatus ranged from 1 to 85 (6.87 +/- 12.59) per fish. In 24 fish there were concurrent infections of both species of helminths. The caecal and middle regions of the intestine were the most heavily parasitized. Immunohistochemical tests showed a decrease in endocrine cells (ECs) of the diffuse endocrine system (DES) positive to gastrin, cholecystokinin-8, bombesin and secretin antisera in the intestine of the infected trout. The number of ECs immunoreactive to anti-glucagon serum did not show differences in the digestive tract of uninfected brown trout and in conspecifics parasitized with P. laevis. The density of cells containing glucagon-like material was low in the fish parasitized with C. truncatus. The results suggest that endoparasitic helminths induce alterations in the DES of infected S. trutta.

Localization of IGF-I, IGF-I receptor, and IGFBP-2 in developing Umbrina cirrosa (Pisces: Osteichthyes)

In this study, the distribution of IGF-I, IGF type I receptor (IGF-IR), and IGF-binding protein 2 (IGFBP-2) was investigated during larval and post-larval developmental stages of the shi drum (Umbrina cirrosa) by immunohistochemistry using antisera raised against Sparus aurata IGF-I and IGF-IR, and against mouse IGFBP-2. Immunoreactivity of the mitogenic marker PCNA (proliferating cell nuclear antigen) was used for assessment of cellular proliferation. Distribution of IGF-I mRNA was studied by in situ hybridization. IGF-I immunoreactivity was detected in liver and developing intestine already in 1-5 day post-hatching larvae. From day 11, immunostaining in the intestine was evident in the enterocytes of the anterior intestine and in the apical zone of the epithelium of developing posterior intestine. Positive reaction with IGF-I antibody was also detected in chondrocytes, in the epithelium of the skin, gills and in the central nervous system (CNS), and lateral muscle. At hatching IGF-IR immunoreactivity was already detectable in developing CNS, notochord, and skin. From day 6 immunostaining was evident in the olfactory epithelium, in eyes and from day 11 in the developing olfactory bulbs and CNS. Positive reaction with IGF-IR antibody was also detected in chondrocytes, in the epithelium of the skin, gills, heart, and in the lateral muscle. Immunoreactive IGFBP-2, as detected by anti-mouse IGFBP-2 antiserum, exhibited generally a similar distribution pattern to that of IGF-I and IGF-IR. In situ hybridization, which has been performed by using riboprobes from S. aurata cDNA, revealed IGF-I mRNA in skeletal musculature, liver, and CNS. These data strongly suggest a role for the IGF system during development and growth of U. cirrosa.

Neurotransmitters, neuromodulators, and neurotrophin receptors in the gut of pantex, a hybrid sparid fish (Pagrus major x Dentex dentex). Localizations in the enteric nervous and endocrine systems

The gut of Pantex, a sparid hybrid fish (Pagrus major x Dentex dentex) with a great potential importance for the Italian aquaculture, was histochemically and immunohistochemically investigated in order to evidence components of the intramural nervous and diffuse endocrine systems. The general structural aspects of the intramural nervous system were shown by the Nissl-thionin staining. As in most other fish, it was only organized in the myenteric plexus. Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activity was observed in both nerve cell bodies and terminals all along the gut. The NADPH-diaphorase reactivity too, possibly linked to the synthesis and release of nitric oxide, was present in nerve cell bodies and nerve terminals of the oesophagus, stomach and intestine. In addition, the intramural nervous system was shown to contain Trk (tyrosinekinase) receptors for neurotrophin, as evidenced by Trk A-, Trk B- and Trk C-like immunoreactivities, thus suggesting an involvement of neurotrophin in the function of this system. Trk B- and Trk C-like immunoreactivities were detected in epithelial endocrine cells, too. The additional presence of serotonin- and metenkephalin-like immunoreactivities in numerous endocrine cells in the epithelial layers of the stomach and intestine was showed.

Neurotransmitters and putative neuromodulators in the gut of Anguilla anguilla (L.). Localizations in the enteric nervous and endocrine systems

The gut of silver eels (Anguilla anguilla L.) was investigated in order to describe both the cholinergic and adrenergic intramural innervations, and the localization of possible accessory neuromediators. Histochemical reactions for the demonstration of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, reduced form-(NADPH-)diaphorase and acetylcholinesterase (AChEase) were performed, as well as the immunohistochemical testing of tyrosine hydroxylase, met-enkephalin, substance P, calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), bombesin, vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), neuropeptide Y (NPY), somatostatin, cholecystokinin-octapeptide (CCK-8), serotonin, cholineacetyl transferase. The results evidenced a different pattern in comparison with other vertebrates, namely mammals, and with other fish. Both NADPH-diaphorase and AChEase activities were histochemically detected all along the gut in the myenteric plexus, the inner musculature and the propria-submucosa. Tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactivity was observed in the intestinal tract only, both in the myenteric plexus and in the inner musculature. Several neuropeptides (metenkephalin, CGRP, bombesin, substance P, VIP, NPY, somatostatin) were, in addition, detected in the intramural innervation; some of them also in epithelial cells of the diffuse endocrine system (met-enkephalin, substance P, NPY, somatostatin). Serotonin was only present in endocrine cells. Tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactivity was present in localizations similar to those of NADPH-diaphorase-reactivity, and in the same nerve bundles in which substance P- and CGRP-like-immunoreactivities were detectable in the intestinal tract. In addition, NADPH-diaphorase-reactive neurons showed an anatomical relationship with AChEase-reactive nerve terminals, and a similar relationship existed between the latter and substance P-like immunoreactivity.

A georeferenced river quality model

Water quality models have reached a high degree of sophistication, but their weak side remains user interface and output georeferencing. The aim of this paper is to propose an interfacing procedure between two widespread but specialised programming environments: ArcVIEW as a Geographical Information System (GIS) and Matlab as a scientific programming tool for numerical analysis. The proposed solution is based on a Dynamic Data Exchange (DDE) between the two programs in order to operate a Matlab-based water quality model from within the GIS environment. It is shown how special GIS objects must be created and how they operate to achieve the goal of having quality data created by the model placed on a geographical map, together with other site features.

Upregulation of interleukin-10 and inhibition of alloantigen responses by transferrin and transferrin-derived glycans

Previous studies have shown that critically timed administration of transferrin (Tf) facilitates induction of immunologic unresponsiveness. Here, we determined in mixed leukocyte culture (MLC) and in concanavalin A (ConA)-driven cultures the effect of exogenous Tf and Tf-derived glycans (Tf-Gly) on lymphocyte proliferation. In cultures of human blood lymphocytes, Tf inhibited selectively alloantigen-driven proliferation in MLC, but not ConA-stimulated lymphocyte proliferation. Deglycosylation of Tf abrogated the inhibitory effect of Tf on alloantigen-induced lymphocyte proliferation, and, consistent with a role for glycans, an effect qualitatively and quantitatively similar to Tf was exerted by purified Tf-Gly. Glycans isolated from other proteins, for example, immunoglobulin G (IgG) or fibrinogen, failed to inhibit alloantigen-induced proliferation selectively. Rather, they suppressed lymphocyte proliferation in a non-specific manner. Determination of cytokines in MLC supernatant showed a downregulation of interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), IL-2, and IL-12 (p40), along with an upregulation of IL-10, a pattern entirely consistent with the observed effects of Tf and Tf-Gly on alloantigen-induced lymphocyte proliferation. The effect of Tf on MLC was directly IL-10-dependent. IL-10 levels were inversely correlated with lymphocyte proliferation and CD86 expression. Neutralization of IL-10 by anti-IL-10 monoclonal antibody (mAb) blocked the effect of Tf. The MLC-modulating effect of Tf (or Tf-Gly) was not dependent upon the Tf receptor CD71 but appeared to be mediated by a Gly-responsive receptor. These data suggest a role of Tf, and, in particular, Tf-Gly, in allo-interactions that is independent from the role of Tf in iron metabolism, and appears to involve co-stimulatory signals.

Transferrin treatment corrects aging-related immunologic and hormonal decay in old mice

Experiments were conducted to study the effect of heterologous plasma transferrins separated and purified from human plasma pools on endocrine and immune functions of old, aging mice. Two similar experiments have shown that parenteral treatment with iron and zinc-free human transferrins produces a significant improvement of immunological and endocrine functions in the aging mice toward more juvenile values. Those changes occur in the thymus and its cell subsets, in peripheral blood lymphocytes, in the restoration of juvenile levels of thyroxine, in the increase of testis weight, and in the normalization of plasma zinc levels. These totally unsuspected effects of transferrin in aging mice suggest a most important role of endogenous transferrins in the maintenance of neuroendocrine and immune functions. The mechanism remains unexplained although the basic immunoenhancing and anti-apoptotic effect of transferrin-vehiculated zinc may be relevant.

Ultrastructural features of the gut in the white sturgeon, Acipenser transmontanus

Electron-microscopic examinations of the sturgeon gut were performed. Oesophageal goblet cells were abundant in the stratified epithelium. The ultrastructural features of the secretory granules of the oesophageal and intestinal goblet cells were quite similar to those of other vertebrates. Lobules of multilocular adipose tissue were observed in the deep tunica propriasubmucosa of the oesophagus, in close association with vasculature and large fibre bundles of myelinated and unmyelinated axons. Similarly composed nerve fibre bundles were observed in the cardiac stomach, too. The presence of myelinated axons is an unusual feature in the vertebrate enteric nervous system. Cardiac and fundic zones of the stomach showed an epithelium with columnar ciliated and non-ciliated cells, the latter equipped with fuzzy microvilli. Cells lining the tubular gastric proper glands were markedly granulated. Intestinal superficial epithelium was columnar and contained ciliated, as well as non-ciliated and goblet cells. In the tunica propria all over the intestine, the presence and ultrastructure of granulated cells was in addition described. Intraepithelial granulated leukocytes were seen throughout the alimentary canal. Various types of endocrine cells were seen both in the stomach and in the intestine, the size of their granules was measured and their ultrastructure described and compared to that of mammalian cell types.

Morphological and histochemical peculiarities of the gut in the white sturgeon, Acipenser transmontanus

The gut of adult sturgeon was examined. The oesophageal mucosa contained numerous caliciform cells, synthesizing both neutral and acidic glycoconjugates, the latter of the sialylated type. The deep tunica propria-submucosa contained lobules of multilocular adipose tissue, specially abundant during the cold season. The oesophageal tunica muscularis was made up of a large sheath of striated muscle fibres, arranged orthogonally to a thin, subserous smooth muscle layer. The siphon-shaped stomach showed a ciliated epithelium in cardiac and gastric proper gland zones, where tubular glands were present in the tunica propria. The columnar cells which composed the superficial epithelium and gastric pits were demonstrated to synthesize almost exclusively neutral glycoconjugates. Appendices pyloricae constituted a glandular body equipped with intestinal mucosa. The intestinal mucosa was organized in folds, containing numerous caliciform cells which synthesized neutral or acidic glycoconjugates, the latter either of the sialylated and sulphated type. The sulphoglycoconjugates were more abundant in the caliciform cells of the distal intestinal tracts. The tunica propria-submucosa of the spiral valve (medium intestine) contained lymphatic tissue and large lymphatic follicles. A muscularis mucosae was present only in the rectum, where in addition a peculiar granular cell type was present in the superficial tunica propria-submucosa, possibly related to defensive properties. The subserous connective tissue contained pancreatic lobules all along the stomach and intestine. The enteric nervous system showed some special aspects, the most intriguing of which was the presence of large, longitudinally oriented nerve bundles in the t. propria-submucosa of oesophagus and cardiac stomach. The nerve bundles contained, near unmyelinated nerves, some myelinated nerves, as well as neuronal bodies. Both these aspects are exceptional in vertebrates and obscure in their significance. The structural and histochemical aspects we here describe are in part different from those described for other fish. Some of these special features are possibly related with special functional roles, others require a deeper insight and different approaches to clarify them functionally.