Facilitation of synaptic transmission by EGL-30 Gqalpha and EGL-8 PLCbeta: DAG binding to UNC-13 is required to stimulate acetylcholine release

Activation of EGL-47, a Galpha(o)-coupled receptor, inhibits function of hermaphrodite-specific motor neurons to regulate Caenorhabditis elegans egg-laying behavior

Caenorhabditis elegans egg-laying behavior is inhibited by neurotransmitter signaling through the neural G-protein Galpha(o) and serves as a model for analyzing Galpha(o) signaling. Mutations that alter egg-laying frequency have identified genes encoding a number of signaling proteins that act with Galpha(o), but the receptors that activate Galpha(o) remain mostly uncharacterized. To further analyze Galpha(o) signaling, we cloned the egl-47 gene, which was identified by two dominant mutations that severely inhibit egg laying. egl-47 encodes two orphan G-protein-coupled receptor isoforms, which share all seven transmembrane domains but have different extracellular N termini. Both dominant mutations change the same alanine to valine in the sixth transmembrane domain, resulting in constitutively activated receptors. Deletion of the egl-47 gene caused no detectable egg-laying defects, suggesting that EGL-47 functions redundantly, or it inhibits egg laying under specific circumstances as yet unidentified. Using promoter::green fluorescent protein transgenes, we found that EGL-47 is expressed in a number of neurons, including the hermaphrodite-specific neurons (HSNs) that innervate the egg-laying muscles to stimulate contraction. Transgenic expression of constitutively active EGL-47 or constitutively active Galpha(o) specifically in the HSNs was sufficient to inhibit egg-laying behavior. Our results suggest that EGL-47 regulates egg laying by activating Galpha(o) in the HSN motor neurons to inhibit their activity. Because several neurotransmitters act through Galpha(o) to inhibit HSN function, it appears that loss of any one receptor, such as EGL-47, causes only mild defects. Galpha(o) apparently integrates signaling from multiple receptors in the HSNs, including EGL-47, to set the frequency of egg-laying behavior.

A gene expression fingerprint of C. elegans embryonic motor neurons

BACKGROUND

Differential gene expression specifies the highly diverse cell types that constitute the nervous system. With its sequenced genome and simple, well-defined neuroanatomy, the nematode C. elegans is a useful model system in which to correlate gene expression with neuron identity. The UNC-4 transcription factor is expressed in thirteen embryonic motor neurons where it specifies axonal morphology and synaptic function. These cells can be marked with an unc-4::GFP reporter transgene. Here we describe a powerful strategy, Micro-Array Profiling of C. elegans cells (MAPCeL), and confirm that this approach provides a comprehensive gene expression profile of unc-4::GFP motor neurons in vivo.

RESULTS

Fluorescence Activated Cell Sorting (FACS) was used to isolate unc-4::GFP neurons from primary cultures of C. elegans embryonic cells. Microarray experiments detected 6,217 unique transcripts of which approximately 1,000 are enriched in unc-4::GFP neurons relative to the average nematode embryonic cell. The reliability of these data was validated by the detection of known cell-specific transcripts and by expression in UNC-4 motor neurons of GFP reporters derived from the enriched data set. In addition to genes involved in neurotransmitter packaging and release, the microarray data include transcripts for receptors to a remarkably wide variety of signaling molecules. The added presence of a robust array of G-protein pathway components is indicative of complex and highly integrated mechanisms for modulating motor neuron activity. Over half of the enriched genes (537) have human homologs, a finding that could reflect substantial overlap with the gene expression repertoire of mammalian motor neurons.

CONCLUSION

We have described a microarray-based method, MAPCeL, for profiling gene expression in specific C. elegans motor neurons and provide evidence that this approach can reveal candidate genes for key roles in the differentiation and function of these cells. These methods can now be applied to generate a gene expression map of the C. elegans nervous system.

Behavioral deficits during early stages of aging in Caenorhabditis elegans result from locomotory deficits possibly linked to muscle frailty

Many behavioral responses require the coordination of sensory inputs with motor outputs. Aging is associated with progressive declines in both motor function and muscle structure. However, the consequences of age-related motor deficits on behavior have not been clearly defined. Here, we examined the effects of aging on behavior in the nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans. As animals aged, mild locomotory deficits appeared that were sufficient to impair behavioral responses to sensory cues. In contrast, sensory ability appeared well maintained during aging. Age-related behavioral declines were delayed in animals with mutations in the daf-2/insulin-like pathway governing longevity. A decline in muscle tissue integrity was correlated with the onset of age-related behavioral deficits, although significant muscle deterioration was not. Treatment with a muscarinic agonist significantly improved locomotory behavior in aged animals, indicating that improved neuromuscular signaling may be one strategy for reducing the severity of age-related behavioral impairments.

Specific polyunsaturated fatty acids drive TRPV-dependent sensory signaling in vivo

A variety of lipid and lipid-derived molecules can modulate TRP cation channel activity, but the identity of the lipids that affect TRP channel function in vivo is unknown. Here, we use genetic and behavioral analysis in the nematode C. elegans to implicate a subset of 20-carbon polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in TRPV channel-dependent olfactory and nociceptive behaviors. Olfactory and nociceptive TRPV signaling are sustained by overlapping but nonidentical sets of 20-carbon PUFAs including eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and arachidonic acid (AA). PUFAs act upstream of TRPV family channels in sensory transduction. Short-term dietary supplementation with PUFAs can rescue PUFA biosynthetic mutants, and exogenous PUFAs elicit rapid TRPV-dependent calcium transients in sensory neurons, bypassing the normal requirement for PUFA synthesis. These results suggest that a subset of PUFAs with omega-3 and omega-6 acyl groups act as endogenous modulators of TRPV signal transduction.

Resistance to volatile anesthetics by mutations enhancing excitatory neurotransmitter release in Caenorhabditis elegans

The molecular mechanisms whereby volatile general anesthetics (VAs) disrupt behavior remain undefined. In Caenorhabditis elegans mutations in the gene unc-64, which encodes the presynaptic protein syntaxin 1A, produce large allele-specific differences in VA sensitivity. UNC-64 syntaxin normally functions to mediate fusion of neurotransmitter vesicles with the presynaptic membrane. The precise role of syntaxin in the VA mechanism is as yet unclear, but a variety of results suggests that a protein interacting with syntaxin to regulate neurotransmitter release is essential for VA action in C. elegans. To identify additional proteins that function with syntaxin to control neurotransmitter release and VA action, we screened for suppressors of the phenotypes produced by unc-64 reduction of function. Loss-of-function mutations in slo-1, which encodes a Ca(2+)-activated K+ channel, and in unc-43, which encodes CaM-kinase II, and a gain-of-function mutation in egl-30, which encodes Gqalpha, were isolated as syntaxin suppressors. The slo-1 and egl-30 mutations conferred resistance to VAs, but unc-43 mutations did not. The effects of slo-1 and egl-30 on VA sensitivity can be explained by their actions upstream or parallel to syntaxin to increase the level of excitatory neurotransmitter release. These results strengthen the link between transmitter release and VA action.

A network of stimulatory and inhibitory Galpha-subunits regulates olfaction in Caenorhabditis elegans

The two pairs of sensory neurons of C. elegans, AWA and AWC, that mediate odorant attraction, express six Galpha-subunits, suggesting that olfaction is regulated by a complex signaling network. Here, we describe the cellular localization and functions of the six olfactory Galpha-subunits: GPA-2, GPA-3, GPA-5, GPA-6, GPA-13, and ODR-3. All except GPA-6 localize to sensory cilia, suggesting a direct role in sensory transduction. GPA-2, GPA-3, GPA-5, and GPA-6 are also present in cell bodies and axons and GPA-5 specifically localizes to synaptic sites. Analysis of animals with single- to sixfold loss-of-function mutations shows that olfaction involves a balance between multiple stimulatory and inhibitory signals. ODR-3 constitutes the main stimulatory signal and is sufficient for the detection of odorants. GPA-3 forms a second stimulatory signal in the AWA and AWC neurons, also sufficient for odorant detection. In AWA, signaling is suppressed by GPA-5. In AWC, GPA-2 and GPA-13 negatively and positively regulate signaling, respectively. Finally, we show that only ODR-3 plays a role in cilia morphogenesis. Defects in this process are, however, independent of olfactory behavior. Our findings reveal the existence of a complex signaling network that controls odorant detection by C. elegans.

Biogenic amine receptors in parasitic nematodes: what can be learned from Caenorhabditis elegans?

The biogenic amines, serotonin, octopamine, tyramine and dopamine regulate many essential processes in parasitic nematodes, such as pharyngeal pumping, muscle contraction, and egg-laying, as well as more complex behaviors, such as mechanosensation and foraging, making biogenic amine receptors excellent targets for drug discovery. This review is designed to summarize our knowledge of nematode biogenic amine signaling and preliminarily identify some of the key receptors involved in the regulation of biogenic amine-dependent behaviors through an analysis of the free-living nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans.

An automated system for measuring parameters of nematode sinusoidal movement

BACKGROUND

Nematode sinusoidal movement has been used as a phenotype in many studies of C. elegans development, behavior and physiology. A thorough understanding of the ways in which genes control these aspects of biology depends, in part, on the accuracy of phenotypic analysis. While worms that move poorly are relatively easy to describe, description of hyperactive movement and movement modulation presents more of a challenge. An enhanced capability to analyze all the complexities of nematode movement will thus help our understanding of how genes control behavior.

RESULTS

We have developed a user-friendly system to analyze nematode movement in an automated and quantitative manner. In this system nematodes are automatically recognized and a computer-controlled microscope stage ensures that the nematode is kept within the camera field of view while video images from the camera are stored on videotape. In a second step, the images from the videotapes are processed to recognize the worm and to extract its changing position and posture over time. From this information, a variety of movement parameters are calculated. These parameters include the velocity of the worm's centroid, the velocity of the worm along its track, the extent and frequency of body bending, the amplitude and wavelength of the sinusoidal movement, and the propagation of the contraction wave along the body. The length of the worm is also determined and used to normalize the amplitude and wavelength measurements. To demonstrate the utility of this system, we report here a comparison of movement parameters for a small set of mutants affecting the Go/Gq mediated signaling network that controls acetylcholine release at the neuromuscular junction. The system allows comparison of distinct genotypes that affect movement similarly (activation of Gq-alpha versus loss of Go-alpha function), as well as of different mutant alleles at a single locus (null and dominant negative alleles of the goa-1 gene, which encodes Go-alpha). We also demonstrate the use of this system for analyzing the effects of toxic agents. Concentration-response curves for the toxicants arsenite and aldicarb, both of which affect motility, were determined for wild-type and several mutant strains, identifying P-glycoprotein mutants as not significantly more sensitive to either compound, while cat-4 mutants are more sensitive to arsenite but not aldicarb.

CONCLUSIONS

Automated analysis of nematode movement facilitates a broad spectrum of experiments. Detailed genetic analysis of multiple alleles and of distinct genes in a regulatory network is now possible. These studies will facilitate quantitative modeling of C. elegans movement, as well as a comparison of gene function. Concentration-response curves will allow rigorous analysis of toxic agents as well as of pharmacological agents. This type of system thus represents a powerful analytical tool that can be readily coupled with the molecular genetics of nematodes.

Serotonin (5HT), fluoxetine, imipramine and dopamine target distinct 5HT receptor signaling to modulate Caenorhabditis elegans egg-laying behavior

Drugs that target the serotonergic system are the most commonly prescribed therapeutic agents and are used for treatment of a wide range of behavioral and neurological disorders. However, the mechanism of the drug action remain a conjecture. Here, we dissect the genetic targets of serotonin (5HT), the selective 5HT reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) fluoxetine (Prozac), the tricyclic antidepressant imipramine, and dopamine. Using the well-established serotonergic response in C. elegans egg-laying behavior as a paradigm, we show that action of fluoxetine and imipramine at the 5HT reuptake transporter (SERT) and at 5HT receptors are separable mechanisms. Even mutants completely lacking 5HT or SERT can partially respond to fluoxetine and imipramine. Furthermore, distinct mechanisms for each drug can be recognized to mediate these responses. Deletion of SER-1, a 5HT1 receptor, abolishes the response to 5HT but has only a minor effect on the response to imipramine and no effect on the response to fluoxetine. In contrast, deletion of SER-4, a 5HT2 receptor, confers significant resistance to imipramine while leaving the responses to 5HT or fluoxetine intact. Further, fluoxetine can stimulate egg laying via the Gq protein EGL-30, independent of SER-1, SER-4, or 5HT. We also show that dopamine antagonizes the 5HT action via the 5HT-gated ion channel MOD-1 signaling, suggesting that this channel activity couples 5HT and dopamine signaling. These results suggest that the actions of these drugs at specific receptor subtypes could determine their therapeutic efficacy. SSRIs and tricyclic antidepressants may regulate 5HT outputs independently of synaptic levels of 5HT.

Latrotoxin receptor signaling engages the UNC-13-dependent vesicle-priming pathway in C. elegans

alpha-latrotoxin (LTX), a 120 kDa protein in black widow spider venom, triggers massive neurotransmitter exocytosis. Previous studies have highlighted a role for both intrinsic pore-forming activity and receptor binding in the action of this toxin. Intriguingly, activation of a presynaptic G protein-coupled receptor, latrophilin, may trigger release independent of pore-formation. Here we have utilized a previously identified ligand of nematode latrophilin, emodepside, to define a latrophilin-dependent pathway for neurotransmitter release in C. elegans. In the pharyngeal nervous system of this animal, emodepside (100 nM) stimulates exocytosis and elicits pharyngeal paralysis. The pharynxes of animals with latrophilin (lat-1) gene knockouts are resistant to emodepside, indicating that emodepside exerts its high-affinity paralytic effect through LAT-1. The expression pattern of lat-1 supports the hypothesis that emodepside exerts its effect on the pharynx primarily via neuronal latrophilin. We build on these observations to show that pharynxes from animals with either reduction or loss of function mutations in Gq, phospholipaseC-beta, and UNC-13 are resistant to emodepside. The latter is a key priming molecule essential for synaptic vesicle-mediated release of neurotransmitter. We conclude that the small molecule ligand emodepside triggers latrophilin-mediated exocytosis via a pathway that engages UNC-13-dependent vesicle priming.

Convergent, RIC-8-dependent Galpha signaling pathways in the Caenorhabditis elegans synaptic signaling network

We used gain-of-function and null synaptic signaling network mutants to investigate the relationship of the G alpha(q) and G alpha(s) pathways to synaptic vesicle priming and to each other. Genetic epistasis studies using G alpha(q) gain-of-function and null mutations, along with a mutation that blocks synaptic vesicle priming and the synaptic vesicle priming stimulator phorbol ester, suggest that the G alpha(q) pathway generates the core, obligatory signals for synaptic vesicle priming. In contrast, the G alpha(s) pathway is not required for the core priming function, because steady-state levels of neurotransmitter release are not significantly altered in animals lacking a neuronal G alpha(s) pathway, even though these animals are strongly paralyzed as a result of functional (nondevelopmental) defects. However, our genetic analysis indicates that these two functionally distinct pathways converge and that they do so downstream of DAG production. Further linking the two pathways, our epistasis analysis of a ric-8 null mutant suggests that RIC-8 (a receptor-independent G alpha guanine nucleotide exchange factor) is required to maintain both the G alpha(q) vesicle priming pathway and the neuronal G alpha(s) pathway in a functional state. We propose that the neuronal G alpha(s) pathway transduces critical positional information onto the core G alpha(q) pathway to stabilize the priming of selected synapses that are optimal for locomotion.

Mutations that rescue the paralysis of Caenorhabditis elegans ric-8 (synembryn) mutants activate the G alpha(s) pathway and define a third major branch of the synaptic signaling network

To identify hypothesized missing components of the synaptic G alpha(o)-G alpha(q) signaling network, which tightly regulates neurotransmitter release, we undertook two large forward genetic screens in the model organism C. elegans and focused first on mutations that strongly rescue the paralysis of ric-8(md303) reduction-of-function mutants, previously shown to be defective in G alpha(q) pathway activation. Through high-resolution mapping followed by sequence analysis, we show that these mutations affect four genes. Two activate the G alpha(q) pathway through gain-of-function mutations in G alpha(q); however, all of the remaining mutations activate components of the G alpha(s) pathway, including G alpha(s), adenylyl cyclase, and protein kinase A. Pharmacological assays suggest that the G alpha(s) pathway-activating mutations increase steady-state neurotransmitter release, and the strongly impaired neurotransmitter release of ric-8(md303) mutants is rescued to greater than wild-type levels by the strongest G alpha(s) pathway activating mutations. Using transgene induction studies, we show that activating the G alpha(s) pathway in adult animals rapidly induces hyperactive locomotion and rapidly rescues the paralysis of the ric-8 mutant. Using cell-specific promoters we show that neuronal, but not muscle, G alpha(s) pathway activation is sufficient to rescue ric-8(md303)'s paralysis. Our results appear to link RIC-8 (synembryn) and a third major G alpha pathway, the G alpha(s) pathway, with the previously discovered G alpha(o) and G alpha(q) pathways of the synaptic signaling network.

Divergent and convergent signaling by the diacylglycerol second messenger pathway in mammals

Diacylglycerol is an essential second messenger in mammalian cells. The most prominent intracellular targets of diacylglycerol and the functionally analogous phorbol esters belong to the protein kinase C family, but at least five alternative types of high affinity diacylglycerol/phorbol ester receptors are known: protein kinase D, diacylglycerol kinases alpha, beta, and gamma, RasGRPs, chimaerins, and Munc13s. These function independently of protein kinase C isozymes, and form a network of signaling pathways in the diacylglycerol second messenger system that regulates processes as diverse as gene transcription, lipid signaling, cytoskeletal dynamics, intracellular membrane trafficking, or neurotransmitter release.

Mechanism of extrasynaptic dopamine signaling in Caenorhabditis elegans

D1-like and D2-like dopamine receptors have synergistic and antagonistic effects on behavior. To understand the mechanisms underlying these effects, we studied dopamine signaling genetically in Caenorhabditis elegans. Knocking out a D2-like receptor, DOP-3, caused locomotion defects similar to those observed in animals lacking dopamine. Knocking out a D1-like receptor, DOP-1, reversed the defects of the DOP-3 knockout. DOP-3 and DOP-1 have their antagonistic effects on locomotion by acting in the same motor neurons, which coexpress the receptors and which are not postsynaptic to dopaminergic neurons. In a screen for mutants unable to respond to dopamine, we identified four genes that encode components of the antagonistic Galpha(o) and Galpha(q) signaling pathways, including Galpha(o) itself and two subunits of the regulator of G protein signaling (RGS) complex that inhibits Galpha(q). Our results indicate that extrasynaptic dopamine regulates C. elegans locomotion through D1- and D2-like receptors that activate the antagonistic Galpha(q) and Galpha(o) signaling pathways, respectively.

Impaired PtdIns(4,5)P2 synthesis in nerve terminals produces defects in synaptic vesicle trafficking

Phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate (PtdIns(4,5)P2) has an important function in cell regulation both as a precursor of second messenger molecules and by means of its direct interactions with cytosolic and membrane proteins. Biochemical studies have suggested a role for PtdIns(4,5)P2 in clathrin coat dynamics, and defects in its dephosphorylation at the synapse produce an accumulation of coated endocytic intermediates. However, the involvement of PtdIns(4,5)P2 in synaptic vesicle exocytosis remains unclear. Here, we show that decreased levels of PtdIns(4,5)P2 in the brain and an impairment of its depolarization-dependent synthesis in nerve terminals lead to early postnatal lethality and synaptic defects in mice. These include decreased frequency of miniature currents, enhanced synaptic depression, a smaller readily releasable pool of vesicles, delayed endocytosis and slower recycling kinetics. Our results demonstrate a critical role for PtdIns(4,5)P2 synthesis in the regulation of multiple steps of the synaptic vesicle cycle.

Protein-lipid interactions and phosphoinositide metabolism in membrane traffic: insights from vesicle recycling in nerve terminals

Great progress has been made in the elucidation of the function of proteins in membrane traffic. Less is known about the regulatory role of lipids in membrane dynamics. Studies of nerve terminals, compartments highly specialized for the recycling of synaptic vesicles, have converged with studies from other systems to reveal mechanisms in protein-lipid interactions that affect membrane shape as well as the fusion and fission of vesicles. Phosphoinositides have emerged as major regulators of the binding of cytosolic proteins to the bilayer. Phosphorylation on different positions of the inositol ring generates different isomers that are heterogeneously distributed on cell membranes and that together with membrane proteins generate a "dual keys" code for the recruitment of cytosolic proteins. This code helps controlling vectoriality of membrane transport. Powerful methods for the detection of lipids are rapidly advancing this field, thus complementing the broad range of information about biological systems that can be obtained from genomic and proteomic approaches.

Long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids are required for efficient neurotransmission in C. elegans

The complex lipid constituents of the eukaryotic plasma membrane are precisely controlled in a cell-type-specific manner, suggesting an important, but as yet, unknown cellular function. Neuronal membranes are enriched in long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs) and alterations in LC-PUFA metabolism cause debilitating neuronal pathologies. However, the physiological role of LC-PUFAs in neurons is unknown. We have characterized the neuronal phenotype of C. elegans mutants depleted of LC-PUFAs. The C. elegans genome encodes a single Delta6-desaturase gene (fat-3), an essential enzyme for LC-PUFA biosynthesis. Animals lacking fat-3 function do not synthesize LC-PUFAs and show movement and egg-laying abnormalities associated with neuronal impairment. Expression of functional fat-3 in neurons, or application of exogenous LC-PUFAs to adult animals rescues these defects. Pharmacological, ultrastructural and electrophysiological analyses demonstrate that fat-3 mutant animals are depleted of synaptic vesicles and release abnormally low levels of neurotransmitter at cholinergic and serotonergic neuromuscular junctions. These data indicate that LC-PUFAs are essential for efficient neurotransmission in C. elegans and may account for the clinical conditions associated with mis-regulation of LC-PUFAs in humans.

A conserved postsynaptic transmembrane protein affecting neuromuscular signaling in Caenorhabditis elegans

For a motor unit to function, neurons and muscle cells need to adopt their correct cell fate, form appropriate cellular contacts, and assemble a specific repertoire of signaling proteins into presynaptic and postsynaptic structures. In the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, a disruption of any of these steps causes uncoordinated locomotory behavior (unc phenotype). We report here the positional cloning of a new unc gene, unc-122, which we show by mosaic analysis and tissue-specific rescue experiments to act in muscle to affect locomotory behavior. unc-122 codes for a phylogenetically conserved type II transmembrane protein with collagen repeats and a cysteine-rich olfactomedin domain. Together with uncharacterized proteins in C. elegans, Drosophila, and vertebrates, UNC-122 defines a novel family of proteins that we term "Colmedins." UNC-122 protein is expressed exclusively in muscle and coelomocytes and localizes to the postsynaptic surface of GABAergic and cholinergic neuromuscular junctions (NMJs). Presynaptic and postsynaptic structures are present and properly aligned in unc-122 mutant animals, yet the animals display neurotransmission defects characterized by an altered sensitivity toward drugs that interfere with cholinergic signaling. Moreover, unc-122 mutant animals display anatomical defects in motor axons that are likely a secondary consequence of neurotransmission defects. Both the neuroanatomical and locomotory defects worsen progressively during the life of an animal, consistent with a role of unc-122 in acute signaling at the NMJ. On the basis of motifs in the UNC-122 protein sequence that are characteristic of extracellular matrix proteins, we propose that UNC-122 is involved in maintaining a structural microenvironment that allows efficient neuromuscular signaling.

Serotonin and Go modulate functional states of neurons and muscles controlling C. elegans egg-laying behavior

From nematodes to humans, animals employ neuromodulators like serotonin to regulate behavioral patterns and states. In the nematode C. elegans, serotonin has been shown to act in a modulatory fashion to increase the rate and alter the temporal pattern of egg laying. Though many candidate effectors and regulators of serotonin have been identified in genetic studies, their effects on specific neurons and muscles in the egg-laying circuitry have been difficult to determine. Using the genetically encoded Ca(2+) indicator cameleon, we found that serotonin acts directly on the vulval muscles to increase the frequency of Ca(2+) transients. In contrast, we found that the spontaneous activity of the egg-laying motorneurons was silenced by serotonin. Mutations in G protein alpha subunit genes altered the responses of both vulval muscles and egg-laying neurons to serotonin; specifically, mutations in the G(q)alpha homolog egl-30 blocked serotonin stimulation of vulval muscle Ca(2+) transients, while mutations in the G(o)alpha homolog goa-1 prevented the silencing of motorneuron activity by serotonin. These data indicate that serotonin stimulates egg laying by directly modulating the functional state of the vulval muscles. In addition, serotonin inhibits the activity of the motorneurons that release it, providing a feedback regulatory effect that may contribute to serotonin adaptation.

Regulation of synaptojanin 1 by cyclin-dependent kinase 5 at synapses

Synaptojanin 1 is a polyphosphoinositide phosphatase concentrated in presynaptic nerve terminals, where it dephosphorylates a pool of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate implicated in synaptic vesicle recycling. Like other proteins with a role in endocytosis, synaptojanin 1 undergoes constitutive phosphorylation in resting synapses and stimulation-dependent dephosphorylation by calcineurin. Here, we show that cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk5) phosphorylates synaptojanin 1 and regulates its function both in vitro and in intact synaptosomes. Cdk5 phosphorylation inhibited the inositol 5-phosphatase activity of synaptojanin 1, whereas dephosphorylation by calcineurin stimulated such activity. The activity of synaptojanin 1 was also stimulated by its interaction with endophilin 1, its major binding partner at the synapse. Notably, Cdk5 phosphorylated serine 1144, which is adjacent to the endophilin binding site. Mutation of serine 1144 to aspartic acid to mimic phosphorylation by Cdk5 inhibited the interaction of synaptojanin 1 with endophilin 1. These results suggest that Cdk5 and calcineurin may have an antagonistic role in the regulation of synaptojanin 1 recruitment and activity, and therefore in the regulation of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate turnover at synapses.

Caenorhabditis elegans Gαq Regulates Egg-Laying Behavior via a PLCβ-Independent and Serotonin-Dependent Signaling Pathway and Likely Functions Both in the Nervous System and in Muscle

egl-30 encodes the single C. elegans ortholog of vertebrate Gαq family members. We analyzed the expression pattern of EGL-30 and found that it is broadly expressed, with highest expression in the nervous system and in pharyngeal muscle. We isolated dominant, gain-of-function alleles of egl-30 as intragenic revertants of an egl-30 reduction-of-function mutation. Using these gain-of-function mutants and existing reduction-of-function mutants, we examined the site and mode of action of EGL-30. On the basis of pharmacological analysis, it has been determined that egl-30 functions both in the nervous system and in the vulval muscles for egg-laying behavior. Genetic epistasis over mutations that eliminate detectable levels of serotonin reveals that egl-30 requires serotonin to regulate egg laying. Furthermore, pharmacological response assays strongly suggest that EGL-30 may directly couple to a serotonin receptor to mediate egg laying. We also examined genetic interactions with mutations in the gene that encodes the single C. elegans homolog of PLCβ and mutations in genes that encode signaling molecules downstream of PLCβ. We conclude that PLCβ functions in parallel with egl-30 with respect to egg laying or is not the major effector of EGL-30. In contrast, PLCβ-mediated signaling is likely downstream of EGL-30 with respect to pharyngeal-pumping behavior. Our data indicate that there are multiple signaling pathways downstream of EGL-30 and that different pathways could predominate with respect to the regulation of different behaviors.

Site-directed mutagenesis of the active site of diacylglycerol kinase alpha: calcium and phosphatidylserine stimulate enzyme activity via distinct mechanisms

Diacylglycerol kinases (DAGKs) catalyse ATP-dependent phosphorylation of sn-1,2-diacylglycerol that arises during stimulated phosphatidylinositol turnover. DAGKa is activated in vitro by Ca2+ and by acidic phospholipids. The regulatory region of DAGKa includes an N-terminal RVH motif and EF hands that mediate Ca2+-dependent activation. DAGKa also contains tandem C1 protein kinase C homology domains. We utilized yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which lacks an endogenous DAGK, to express DAGKa and to determine the enzymic activities of different mutant forms of pig DAGKa in vitro. Six aspartate residues conserved in all DAGKs were individually examined by site-directed mutagenesis. Five of these aspartate residues reside in conserved blocks that correspond to sequences in the catalytic site of phosphofructokinases. Mutation of D434 (Asp434) or D650 abolished all DAGKa activity, whereas substitution of one among D465, D497, D529 and D697 decreased the activity to 6% or less of that for wild-type DAGKa. Roles of homologous residues in phosphofructokinases suggested that the N-terminal half of the DAGK catalytic domain binds Mg-ATP and the C-terminal half binds diacylglycerol. A DAGKa mutant with its entire regulatory region deleted showed a much decreased activity that was not activated by Ca2+, but still exhibited PS (phosphatidylserine)-dependent activation. Moreover, mutations of aspartate residues at the catalytic domain had differential effects on activation by Ca2+ and PS. These results indicate that Ca2+ and PS stimulate DAGKa via distinct mechanisms.

Genetic and cellular basis for acetylcholine inhibition of Caenorhabditis elegans egg-laying behavior

Egg-laying behavior in Caenorhabditis elegans is activated by signaling through the G-protein G(rho)q and inhibited by signaling through a second G-protein, G(rho)o. Activation of egg laying depends on the serotonergic hermaphrodite-specific neurons (HSNs), but the neurotransmitter(s) and cell(s) that signal to inhibit egg laying are not known. Mutants for G-protein signaling genes have well characterized defects in egg laying. Here we present an analysis of mutants for other genes reported to lack inhibition of egg laying. Of the nine strongest, six have morphological defects in the ventral-type C (VC) neurons, which synapse onto both the HSNs and the egg-laying muscles and are thus the third cell type comprising the egg-laying system. Laser-ablating VC neurons could also disrupt the inhibition of egg laying. The remaining three mutants (unc-4, cha-1, and unc-17) are defective for synthesis or packaging of acetylcholine in the VCs. The egg-laying defects of unc-4, cha-1, and unc-17 were rescued by VC-specific expression of the corresponding cDNAs. In addition, increasing synaptic acetylcholine by reducing acetylcholinesterase activity, with either mutations or the inhibitor aldicarb, decreased egg laying. Finally, we found that a knock-out for the HSN-expressed receptor G-protein-coupled acetylcholine receptor 2 (GAR-2) shows a partial defect in the inhibition of egg laying and fails to respond to aldicarb. Our results show that acetylcholine released from the VC neurons inhibits egg-laying behavior. This inhibition may be caused, in part, by acetylcholine signaling onto the HSN presynaptic terminals, via GAR-2, to inhibit neurotransmitter release.

Modulation of EGF receptor-mediated vulva development by the heterotrimeric G-protein Galphaq and excitable cells in C. elegans

The extent to which excitable cells and behavior modulate animal development has not been examined in detail. Here, we demonstrate the existence of a novel pathway for promoting vulval fates in C. elegans that involves activation of the heterotrimeric Galphaq protein, EGL-30. EGL-30 acts with muscle-expressed EGL-19 L-type voltage-gated calcium channels to promote vulva development, and acts downstream or parallel to LET-60 (RAS). This pathway is not essential for vulval induction on standard Petri plates, but can be stimulated by expression of activated EGL-30 in neurons, or by an EGL-30-dependent change in behavior that occurs in a liquid environment. Our results indicate that excitable cells and animal behavior can provide modulatory inputs into the effects of growth factor signaling on cell fates, and suggest that communication between these cell populations is important for normal development to occur under certain environmental conditions.

Integration of DAG signaling systems mediated by PKC-dependent phosphorylation of RasGRP3

Members of the RasGRP family of Ras activators have C1 domains that bind diacylglycerol (DAG) and DAG analogs such as the tumor-promoting phorbol esters. RasGRP members could be responsible for some of the DAG signaling processes that have previously been attributed to protein kinase C (PKC). We found that RasGRP3 is selectively expressed in B cells, suggesting that RasGRP3 might function downstream of the B-cell receptor (BCR). Indeed, stimulation of Ramos B cells with the DAG analog phorbol ester myristate (PMA) results in the association of RasGRP3 with the membrane fraction. However, we also made the unexpected observation that RasGRP3 is phosphorylated, coincident with Ras activation after stimulation. When inhibitors of PKC are present, Ras activation is attenuated, and this attenuation correlates with an inhibition of RasGRP3 phosphorylation. RasGRP3 is phosphorylated in vitro by PKC-theta and PKC-beta2. When ectopically coexpressed in HEK-293 cells, a dominant-activated mutant of PKC-theta phosphorylates RasGRP3 and enhances Ras-Erk signaling. These results provide the first indication for a functional interaction between a RasGRP family member and a dissimilar DAG binding protein. A convergent DAG signaling system could be important in fine-tuning Ras signaling during B-cell development or during the humoral immune response.

Lipids and the exocytotic machinery of eukaryotic cells

The molecular machines that drive protein transport through the secretory pathway function exert their activities on the surfaces of membrane bilayers. It is now clear that the various lipid components of these bilayers play direct and versatile roles in modulating the activity of proteins that either themselves constitute core components of the membrane trafficking machinery, or represent proteins that regulate such core components.

Regulation of insulin exocytosis by Munc13-1

The slower kinetics of insulin release from pancreatic islet beta cells, as compared with other regulated secretory processes such as chromaffin granule secretion, can in part be explained by the small number of the insulin granules that are docked to the plasma membrane and readily releasable. In type-2 diabetes, the kinetics of insulin secretion become grossly distorted, and, to therapeutically correct this, it is imperative to elucidate the mechanisms that regulate priming and secretion of insulin secretory granules. Munc13-1, a synaptic protein that regulates SNARE complex assembly, is the major protein determining the priming of synaptic vesicles. Here, we demonstrate the presence of Munc13-1 in human, rat, and mouse pancreatic islet beta cells. Expression of Munc13-1, along with its cognate partners, syntaxin 1a and Munc18a, is reduced in the pancreatic islets of type-2 diabetes non-obese Goto-Kakizaki and obese Zucker fa/fa rats. In insulinoma cells, overexpressed Munc13-1-enhanced green fluorescent protein is translocated to the plasma membrane in a temperature-dependent manner. This, in turn, greatly amplifies insulin exocytosis as determined by patch clamp capacitance measurements and radioimmunoassay of the insulin released. The potentiation of exocytosis by Munc13-1 is dependent on endogenously produced diacylglycerol acting on the overexpressed Munc13-1 because it is blocked by a phospholipase C inhibitor (U73122) and abrogated when the diacylglycerol binding-deficient Munc13-1H567K mutant is expressed instead of the wild type protein. Our data demonstrate that Munc13-mediated vesicle priming is not restricted to neurotransmitter release but is also functional in insulin secretion, where it is subject to regulation by the diacylglycerol second messenger pathway. In view of our findings, Munc13-1 is a potential drug target for therapeutic optimization of insulin secretion in diabetes.

The ubiquitin proteasome system acutely regulates presynaptic protein turnover and synaptic efficacy

BACKGROUND

The ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS) mediates regulated protein degradation and provides a mechanism for closely controlling protein abundance in spatially restricted domains within cells. We hypothesized that the UPS may acutely determine the local concentration of key regulatory proteins at neuronal synapses as a means for locally modulating synaptic efficacy and the strength of neurotransmission communication.

RESULTS

We investigated this hypothesis at the Drosophila neuromuscular synapse by using an array of genetic and pharmacological tools. This study demonstrates that UPS components are present in presynaptic boutons and that the UPS functions locally in the presynaptic compartment to rapidly eliminate a conditional transgenic reporter of proteasome activity. We assayed a panel of synaptic proteins to determine whether the UPS acutely regulates the local abundance of native synaptic targets. Both acute pharmacological inhibition of the proteasome (<1 hr) and targeted genetic perturbation of proteasome function in the presynaptic neuron cause the specific accumulation of the essential synaptic vesicle-priming protein DUNC-13. Most importantly, acute pharmacological inhibition of the proteasome (<1 hr) causes a rapid strengthening of neurotransmission (an approximately 50% increase in evoked amplitude) because of increased presynaptic efficacy. The proteasome-dependent regulation of presynaptic protein abundance, both of the exogenous reporter and native DUNC-13, and the modulation of presynaptic neurotransmitter release occur on an intermediate, rapid (tens of minutes) timescale.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, these studies demonstrate that the UPS functions locally within synaptic boutons to acutely control levels of presynaptic protein and that the rate of UPS-dependent protein degradation is a primary determinant of neurotransmission strength.

The EGL-21 carboxypeptidase E facilitates acetylcholine release at Caenorhabditis elegans neuromuscular junctions

Proneuropeptides are packaged into dense-core vesicles in which they are processed into active peptides by copackaged enzymes. Proprotein convertases (PCs) cleave precursors after dibasic residues, and carboxypeptidases remove basic residues from the C terminals. We show here that the Caenorhabditis elegans egl-21 gene encodes a protein that is very similar to carboxypeptidase E (CPE) and is broadly expressed in the nervous system. Mutants lacking either egl-21 CPE or egl-3, which encodes the C. elegans ortholog of PC type 2 (PC2), were defective for processing endogenously expressed FMRFamide (Phe-Met-Arg-Phe-NH2)-related peptides (FaRPs). Mutants lacking the unc-104 kinesin motor protein were defective for anterograde movement of dense-core vesicle components, including egl-3 PC2, egl-21 CPE, and FaRPs. We provide evidence that egl-3 PC2 and egl-21 CPE mutants have diminished acetylcholine release at neuromuscular junctions (NMJs). Taken together, these results suggest that egl-21 CPE and egl-3 PC2 process endogenous neuropeptides that facilitate acetylcholine release at C. elegans NMJs.

Mammalian Ric-8A (synembryn) is a heterotrimeric Galpha protein guanine nucleotide exchange factor

The activation of heterotrimeric G proteins is accomplished primarily by the guanine nucleotide exchange activity of ligand-bound G protein-coupled receptors. The existence of nonreceptor guanine nucleotide exchange factors for G proteins has also been postulated. Yeast two-hybrid screens with Galpha(o) and Galpha(s) as baits were performed to identify binding partners of these proteins. Two mammalian homologs of the Caenorhabditis elegans protein Ric-8 were identified in these screens: Ric-8A (Ric-8/synembryn) and Ric-8B. Purification and biochemical characterization of recombinant Ric-8A revealed that it is a potent guanine nucleotide exchange factor for a subset of Galpha proteins including Galpha(q), Galpha(i1), and Galpha(o), but not Galpha(s). The mechanism of Ric-8A-mediated guanine nucleotide exchange was elucidated. Ric-8A interacts with GDP-bound Galpha proteins, stimulates release of GDP, and forms a stable nucleotide-free transition state complex with the Galpha protein; this complex dissociates upon binding of GTP to Galpha.

Synaptic Drosophila UNC-13 is regulated by antagonistic G-protein pathways via a proteasome-dependent degradation mechanism

UNC-13 is a highly conserved plasma membrane-associated synaptic protein implicated in the regulation of neurotransmitter release through the direct modulation of the SNARE exocytosis complex. Previously, we characterized the Drosophila homologue (DUNC-13) and showed it to be essential for neurotransmitter release immediately upstream of vesicular fusion ("priming") at the neuromuscular junction (NMJ). Here, we show that the abundance of DUNC-13 in NMJ synaptic boutons is regulated downstream of GalphaS and Galphaq pathways, which have inhibitory and facilitatory roles, respectively. Both cAMP modulation and PKA function are required for DUNC-13 synaptic up-regulation, suggesting that the cAMP pathway enhances synaptic efficacy via DUNC-13. Similarly, PLC function and DAG modulation also regulate the synaptic levels of DUNC-13, through a mechanism that appears independent of PKC. Our results suggest that proteasome-mediated protein degradation is the primary mechanism regulating DUNC-13 levels at the synapse. Both PLC- and PKA-mediated pathways appear to regulate synaptic levels of DUNC-13 through controlling the rate of proteasome-dependent DUNC-13 degradation. We conclude that the functional abundance of DUNC-13 at the synapse, a key determinant of synaptic vesicle priming and neurotransmitter release probability, is primarily regulated by the rate of protein degradation, rather than translocation or transport, convergently controlled via both cAMP and DAG signal transduction pathways.

Move over protein kinase C, you've got company: alternative cellular effectors of diacylglycerol and phorbol esters

Diacylglycerol is an essential second messenger in mammalian cells. The most prominent intracellular targets of diacylglycerol and of the functionally analogous phorbol esters belong to the protein kinase C (PKC) family. However, at least five alternative types of high-affinity diacylglycerol/phorbol-ester receptor are known: chimaerins, protein kinase D, RasGRPs, Munc13s and DAG kinase gamma. Recent evidence indicates that these have functional roles in diacylglycerol second messenger signalling in vivo and that several cellular processes depend on these targets rather than protein kinase C isozymes. These findings contradict the still prevalent view according to which all diacylglycerol/phorbol-ester effects are caused by the activation of protein kinase C isozymes. RasGRP1 (in Ras/Raf/MEK/ERK signalling) and Munc13-1 (in neurotransmitter secretion) are examples of non-PKC diacylglycerol/phorbol-ester receptors that mediate diacylglycerol and phorbol-ester effects originally thought to be caused by PKC isozymes. In the future, pharmacological studies on PKC must be complemented with alternative experimental approaches to allow the separation of PKC-mediated effects from those caused by alternative targets of the diacylglycerol second messenger pathway. The examples of RasGRP1 and Munc13-1 show that detailed genetic analyses of C(1)-domain-containing non-PKC diacylglycerol/phorbol-ester receptors in mammals are ideally suited to achieve this goal.

The requirement of presynaptic metabotropic glutamate receptors for the maintenance of locomotion

Spinal circuits known as central pattern generators maintain vertebrate locomotion. In the lamprey, the contralaterally alternating ventral root activity that defines this behavior is driven by ipsilateral glutamatergic excitation (Buchanan and Grillner, 1987) coupled with crossed glycinergic inhibition (Buchanan, 1982; Alford and Williams, 1989). These mechanisms are distributed throughout the spinal cord. Glutamatergic excitatory synapses activate AMPA and NMDA receptors known to be necessary for the maintenance of the locomotor rhythm. Less is known of the role and location of metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs), although group I mGluRs enhance transmitter release at giant synapses in the lamprey spinal cord, whereas group II/III receptors may inhibit release. In this study we show that group I mGluR antagonists block fictive locomotion, a neural correlate of locomotion, by acting at the presynaptic terminal. Under physiological conditions, synaptically released glutamate activates presynaptic group I mGluRs (autoreceptors) during the repetitive activation of glutamatergic terminals. The resulting rise in [Ca2+]i caused by the release from presynaptic intracellular stores is coincident with an enhancement of synaptic transmission. Thus, blocking mGluRs reduces glutamate release during the repetitive activity that is characteristic of locomotion, leading to the arrest of locomotor activity. We found the effects of group I mGluRs on locomotion to be inconsistent with a postsynaptic effect on the central pattern generator. Consequently, the activation of metabotropic glutamate autoreceptors is necessary to maintain rhythmic motor output. Our results demonstrate the role of presynaptic mGluRs in the physiological control of movement for the first time.

Functional characterization of the adenylyl cyclase gene sgs-1 by analysis of a mutational spectrum in Caenorhabditis elegans

The sgs-1 (suppressor of activated Galpha(s)) gene encodes one of the four adenylyl cyclases in the nematode C. elegans and is most similar to mammalian adenylyl cyclase type IX. We isolated a complete loss-of-function mutation in sgs-1 and found it to result in animals with retarded development that arrest in variable larval stages. sgs-1 mutant animals exhibit lethargic movement and pharyngeal pumping and (while not reaching adulthood) have a mean life span that is > 50% extended compared to wild type. An extensive set of reduction-of-function mutations in sgs-1 was isolated in a screen for suppressors of a neuronal degeneration phenotype induced by the expression of a constitutively active version of the heterotrimeric Galpha(s) subunit of C. elegans. Although most of these mutations change conserved residues within the catalytic domains of sgs-1, mutations in the less-conserved transmembrane domains are also found. The sgs-1 reduction-of-function mutants are viable and have reduced locomotion rates, but do not show defects in pharyngeal pumping or life span.

A Caenorhabditis elegans pheromone antagonizes volatile anesthetic action through a go-coupled pathway

Volatile anesthetics (VAs) disrupt nervous system function by an ill-defined mechanism with no known specific antagonists. During the course of characterizing the response of the nematode C. elegans to VAs, we discovered that a C. elegans pheromone antagonizes the VA halothane. Acute exposure to pheromone rendered wild-type C. elegans resistant to clinical concentrations of halothane, increasing the EC(50) from 0.43 +/- 0.03 to 0.90 +/- 0.02. C. elegans mutants that disrupt the function of sensory neurons required for the action of the previously characterized dauer pheromone blocked pheromone-induced resistance (Pir) to halothane. Pheromone preparations from loss-of-function mutants of daf-22, a gene required for dauer pheromone production, lacked the halothane-resistance activity, suggesting that dauer and Pir pheromone are identical. However, the pathways for pheromone's effects on dauer formation and VA action were not identical. Not all mutations that alter dauer formation affected the Pir phenotype. Further, mutations in genes not known to be involved in dauer formation completely blocked Pir, including those altering signaling through the G proteins Goalpha and Gqalpha. A model in which sensory neurons transduce the pheromone activity through antagonistic Go and Gq pathways, modulating VA action against neurotransmitter release machinery, is proposed.

Prime movers of synaptic vesicle exocytosis

Chemical synapses contain specialized pre- and postsynaptic structures that underlie rapid synaptic transmission and its modulation. Studies of postsynaptic organization have revealed a network of interacting proteins that enable rapid synaptic responses and their modulation. Recent genetic and electrophysiological studies on two active zone proteins-RIM and Munc13-reveal important roles in priming vesicles for Ca(2+)-triggered fusion and in mediating the regulation of this process. This work sheds new light on how presynaptic structure provides speed and plasticity to synaptic transmission.

The C domain of netrin UNC-6 silences calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase- and diacylglycerol-dependent axon branching in Caenorhabditis elegans

Second messenger systems mediate neuronal responses to extracellular factors that elicit axon branching, turning, and guidance. We found that mutations in Caenorhabditis elegans that affect components of second messenger systems, a G-protein subunit, phospholipase Cbeta, diacylglycerol (DAG) kinase, and calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase (CaMKII), have no obvious effect on axon responses to UNC-6 except in animals in which the N-terminal fragment, UNC-6DeltaC, is expressed. In these animals, the mutations enhance or suppress ectopic branching of certain axons. Netrin UNC-6 is an extracellular protein that guides circumferential migrations, and UNC-6DeltaC has UNC-6 guidance activity. We propose that the guidance response elicited by the UNC-6 N-terminal domains involves mechanisms that can induce branching that is sensitive to CaMKII- and DAG-dependent signaling, and that the UNC-6 C domain is required in cis to the N-terminal domains to silence the branching and to maintain proper axon morphology.

The G-protein gamma subunit gpc-1 of the nematode C.elegans is involved in taste adaptation

Caenorhabditis elegans has two heterotrimeric G-protein gamma subunits, gpc-1 and gpc-2. Although GPC-1 is specifically expressed in sensory neurons, it is not essential for the detection of odorants or salts. To test whether GPC-1 is involved in sensory plasticity, we developed a water soluble compound adaptation assay. The behaviour of wild-type animals in this assay confirms that prolonged exposure to salts can abolish chemo-attraction to these compounds. This process is time and concentration dependent, partly salt specific and reversible. In contrast, gpc-1 mutant animals show clear deficits in their ability to adapt to NaAc, NaCl and NH4Cl, but normal wild-type adaptation to odorants. Two other loci previously implicated in odorant adaptation, adp-1 and osm-9, are also involved in adaptation to salts. Our finding that G proteins, OSM-9 and ADP-1 are involved in taste adaptation offer the first molecular insight into this process.

Regulation of retrograde signaling at neuromuscular junctions by the novel C2 domain protein AEX-1

Retrograde signaling from postsynaptic cells to presynaptic neurons is essential for regulation of synaptic development, maintenance, and plasticity. Here we report that the novel protein AEX-1 controls retrograde signaling at neuromuscular junctions in C. elegans. aex-1 mutants show neural defects including reduced presynaptic activity and abnormal localization of the synaptic vesicle fusion protein UNC-13. Muscle-specific AEX-1 expression rescues these defects but neuron-specific expression does not. AEX-1 has an UNC-13 homologous domain and appears to regulate exocytosis in muscles. This retrograde signaling requires prohormone-convertase function in muscles, suggesting that a peptide is the retrograde signal. This signal regulates synaptic vesicle release via the EGL-30 Gq(alpha) protein at presynaptic terminals.

Beta phorbol ester- and diacylglycerol-induced augmentation of transmitter release is mediated by Munc13s and not by PKCs

Munc13-1 is a presynaptic protein with an essential role in synaptic vesicle priming. It contains a diacylglycerol (DAG)/beta phorbol ester binding C(1) domain and is a potential target of the DAG second messenger pathway that may act in parallel with PKCs. Using genetically modified mice that express a DAG/beta phorbol ester binding-deficient Munc13-1(H567K) variant instead of the wild-type protein, we determined the relative contribution of PKCs and Munc13-1 to DAG/beta phorbol ester-dependent regulation of neurotransmitter release. We show that Munc13s are the main presynaptic DAG/beta phorbol ester receptors in hippocampal neurons. Modulation of Munc13-1 activity by second messengers via the DAG/beta phorbol ester binding C(1) domain is essential for use-dependent alterations of synaptic efficacy and survival.

An overview of C. Elegans trafficking mutants

It is almost 40 years since Sydney Brenner introduced Caenorhabditis elegans as a model genetic system. During that time mutants with defects in intracellular trafficking have been identified in a diverse range of screens for abnormalities. This should, of course, come as no surprise as it is hard to imagine any biological process in which the regulated movement of vesicles within the cells is not critical at some step. Almost all of these genes have mammalian homologs, and yet the role of many of these homologs has not been investigated. Perhaps the protein that regulates your favorite trafficking step has already been identified in C. elegans? Here I provide a brief overview of those trafficking mutants identified in C. elegans and where you can read more about them.

Regulation of distinct muscle behaviors controls the C. elegans male's copulatory spicules during mating

We demonstrate through cell ablation, molecular genetic, and pharmacological approaches that during C. elegans male mating behavior, the male inserts his copulatory spicules into the hermaphrodite by regulating periodic and prolonged spicule muscle contractions. Distinct cholinergic neurons use different ACh receptors and calcium channels in the spicule muscles to mediate these contractile behaviors. The PCB and PCC sensory neurons facilitate periodic contraction through muscle-encoded UNC-68 ryanodine receptor calcium channels. The SPC motor neurons trigger prolonged contraction through EGL-19 L-type voltage-gated calcium channels. The male gonad then lengthens the duration of EGL-19-mediated prolonged muscle contraction. This regulation of muscle contraction provides a paradigm to explain how animals initiate, monitor, and maintain a behavioral motor program.

SLO-1 potassium channels control quantal content of neurotransmitter release at the C. elegans neuromuscular junction

Six mutants of SLO-1, a large-conductance, Ca(2+)-activated K(+) channel of C. elegans, were obtained in a genetic screen for regulators of neurotransmitter release. Mutants were isolated by their ability to suppress lethargy of an unc-64 syntaxin mutant that restricts neurotransmitter release. We measured evoked postsynaptic currents at the neuromuscular junction in both wild-type and mutants and observed that the removal of SLO-1 greatly increased quantal content primarily by increasing duration of release. The selective isolation of slo-1 as the only ion channel mutant derived from a whole genomic screen to detect regulators of neurotransmitter release suggests that SLO-1 plays an important, if not unique, role in regulating neurotransmitter release.

Goalpha regulates volatile anesthetic action in Caenorhabditis elegans

To identify genes controlling volatile anesthetic (VA) action, we have screened through existing Caenorhabditis elegans mutants and found that strains with a reduction in Go signaling are VA resistant. Loss-of-function mutants of the gene goa-1, which codes for the alpha-subunit of Go, have EC(50)s for the VA isoflurane of 1.7- to 2.4-fold that of wild type. Strains overexpressing egl-10, which codes for an RGS protein negatively regulating goa-1, are also isoflurane resistant. However, sensitivity to halothane, a structurally distinct VA, is differentially affected by Go pathway mutants. The RGS overexpressing strains, a goa-1 missense mutant found to carry a novel mutation near the GTP-binding domain, and eat-16(rf) mutants, which suppress goa-1(gf) mutations, are all halothane resistant; goa-1(null) mutants have wild-type sensitivities. Double mutant strains carrying mutations in both goa-1 and unc-64, which codes for a neuronal syntaxin previously found to regulate VA sensitivity, show that the syntaxin mutant phenotypes depend in part on goa-1 expression. Pharmacological assays using the cholinesterase inhibitor aldicarb suggest that VAs and GOA-1 similarly downregulate cholinergic neurotransmitter release in C. elegans. Thus, the mechanism of action of VAs in C. elegans is regulated by Goalpha, and presynaptic Goalpha-effectors are candidate VA molecular targets.

The G-protein beta-subunit GPB-2 in Caenorhabditis elegans regulates the G(o)alpha-G(q)alpha signaling network through interactions with the regulator of G-protein signaling proteins EGL-10 and EAT-16

The genome of Caenorhabditis elegans harbors two genes for G-protein beta-subunits. Here, we describe the characterization of the second G-protein beta-subunit gene gpb-2. In contrast to gpb-1, gpb-2 is not an essential gene even though, like gpb-1, gpb-2 is expressed during development, in the nervous system, and in muscle cells. A loss-of-function mutation in gpb-2 produces a variety of behavioral defects, including delayed egg laying and reduced pharyngeal pumping. Genetic analysis shows that GPB-2 interacts with the GOA-1 (homologue of mammalian G(o)alpha) and EGL-30 (homologue of mammalian G(q)alpha) signaling pathways. GPB-2 is most similar to the divergent mammalian Gbeta5 subunit, which has been shown to mediate a specific interaction with a Ggamma-subunit-like (GGL) domain of RGS proteins. We show here that GPB-2 physically and genetically interacts with the GGL-containing RGS proteins EGL-10 and EAT-16. Taken together, our results suggest that GPB-2 works in concert with the RGS proteins EGL-10 and EAT-16 to regulate GOA-1 (G(o)alpha) and EGL-30 (G(q)alpha) signaling.

Molecular mechanisms of neurotransmitter release

The release of neurotransmitter from neurons represents one of the pivotal events in synaptic transmission. Neurotransmitters are released from synaptic vesicles in presynaptic neurons in response to neural activity, diffuse across the synaptic cleft, and bind specific receptors in order to bring about changes in postsynaptic neurons. Some of the molecular processes that govern neurotransmitter release are now becoming better understood. The steps involved can be broken down into two partially overlapping presynaptic cycles, the neurotransmitter cycle and the synaptic vesicle cycle. The neurotransmitter cycle involves transmitter biosynthesis, storage, reuptake, and degradation. The synaptic vesicle cycle involves targeting to the nerve terminal, docking, fusion, endocytosis, and recycling. Biochemical and structural studies have yielded important insight into our understanding of each of these two cycles. Further, both pharmacological and genetic interference with either of these cycles results in profound alterations in synaptic transmission and behavior, demonstrating the crucial role of neurotransmitter release.

GTPase-activating proteins for heterotrimeric G proteins: regulators of G protein signaling (RGS) and RGS-like proteins

GTPase-activating proteins (GAPs) regulate heterotrimeric G proteins by increasing the rates at which their subunits hydrolyze bound GTP and thus return to the inactive state. G protein GAPs act allosterically on G subunits, in contrast to GAPs for the Ras-like monomeric GTP-binding proteins. Although they do not contribute directly to the chemistry of GTP hydrolysis, G protein GAPs can accelerate hydrolysis >2000-fold. G protein GAPs include both effector proteins (phospholipase C-¿, p115RhoGEF) and a growing family of regulators of G protein signaling (RGS proteins) that are found throughout the animal and fungal kingdoms. GAP activity can sharpen the termination of a signal upon removal of stimulus, attenuate a signal either as a feedback inhibitor or in response to a second input, promote regulatory association of other proteins, or redirect signaling within a G protein signaling network. GAPs are regulated by various controls of their cellular concentrations, by complex interactions with G¿ or with G¿5 through an endogenous G-like domain, and by interaction with multiple other proteins.

eat-11 encodes GPB-2, a Gbeta(5) ortholog that interacts with G(o)alpha and G(q)alpha to regulate C. elegans behavior

In C. elegans, a G(o)/G(q) signaling network regulates locomotion and egg laying [1-8]. Genetic analysis shows that activated Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) is suppressed by perturbations of this network, which include loss of the GOA-1 G(o)alpha, DGK-1 diacylglycerol kinase, EAT-16 G protein gamma subunit-like (GGL)-containing RGS protein, or an unidentified protein encoded by the gene eat-11 [9]. We cloned eat-11 and report that it encodes the Gbeta(5) ortholog GPB-2. Gbeta(5) binds specifically to GGL-containing RGS proteins, and the Gbeta(5)/RGS complex can promote the GTP-hydrolyzing activity of Galpha subunits [10, 11]. However, little is known about how this interaction affects G protein signaling in vivo. In addition to EAT-16, the GGL-containing RGS protein EGL-10 participates in G(o)/G(q) signaling; EGL-10 appears to act as an RGS for the GOA-1 G(o)alpha, while EAT-16 appears to act as an RGS for the EGL-30 G(q)alpha [4, 5]. We have combined behavioral, electrophysiological, and pharmacological approaches to show that GPB-2 is a central member of the G(o)/G(q) network and that GPB-2 may interact with both the EGL-10 and EAT-16 RGS proteins to mediate the opposing activities of G(o)alpha and G(q)alpha. These interactions provide a mechanism for the modulation of behavior by antagonistic G protein networks.

A role for RIC-8 (Synembryn) and GOA-1 (G(o)alpha) in regulating a subset of centrosome movements during early embryogenesis in Caenorhabditis elegans

RIC-8 (synembryn) and GOA-1 (G(o)alpha) are key components of a signaling network that regulates neurotransmitter secretion in Caenorhabditis elegans. Here we show that ric-8 and goa-1 reduction of function mutants exhibit partial embryonic lethality. Through Nomarski analysis we show that goa-1 and ric-8 mutant embryos exhibit defects in multiple events that involve centrosomes, including one-cell posterior centrosome rocking, P(1) centrosome flattening, mitotic spindle alignment, and nuclear migration. In ric-8 reduction of function backgrounds, the embryonic lethality, spindle misalignments and delayed nuclear migration are strongly enhanced by a 50% reduction in maternal goa-1 gene dosage. Several other microfilament- and microtubule-mediated events, as well as overall embryonic polarity, appear unperturbed in the mutants. In addition, our results suggest that RIC-8 and GOA-1 do not have roles in centrosome replication, in the diametric movements of daughter centrosomes along the nuclear membrane, or in the extension of microtubules from centrosomes. Through immunostaining we show that GOA-1 (G(o)alpha) localizes to cell cortices as well as near centrosomes. Our results demonstrate that two components of a neuronal signal transduction pathway also play a role in centrosome movements during early embryogenesis.