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Sharkey KA, Greenwood-Van Meerveld B. Dr. Gary M. Mawe: A tribute to a scholar, mentor, and friend. Neurogastroenterol Motil 2024; 36:e14807. [PMID: 38654527 DOI: 10.1111/nmo.14807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2024] [Revised: 04/09/2024] [Accepted: 04/12/2024] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Affiliation(s)
- Keith A Sharkey
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute and Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
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Ceci L, Han Y, Krutsinger K, Baiocchi L, Wu N, Kundu D, Kyritsi K, Zhou T, Gaudio E, Francis H, Alpini G, Kennedy L. Gallstone and Gallbladder Disease: Biliary Tract and Cholangiopathies. Compr Physiol 2023; 13:4909-4943. [PMID: 37358507 DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c220028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/27/2023]
Abstract
Cholestatic liver diseases are named primarily due to the blockage of bile flow and buildup of bile acids in the liver. Cholestasis can occur in cholangiopathies, fatty liver diseases, and during COVID-19 infection. Most literature evaluates damage occurring to the intrahepatic biliary tree during cholestasis; however, there may be associations between liver damage and gallbladder damage. Gallbladder damage can manifest as acute or chronic inflammation, perforation, polyps, cancer, and most commonly gallstones. Considering the gallbladder is an extension of the intrahepatic biliary network, and both tissues are lined by biliary epithelial cells that share common mechanisms and properties, it is worth further evaluation to understand the association between bile duct and gallbladder damage. In this comprehensive article, we discuss background information of the biliary tree and gallbladder, from function, damage, and therapeutic approaches. We then discuss published findings that identify gallbladder disorders in various liver diseases. Lastly, we provide the clinical aspect of gallbladder disorders in liver diseases and ways to enhance diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for congruent diagnosis. © 2023 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 13:4909-4943, 2023.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ludovica Ceci
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic Medicine and Orthopedics Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Yuyan Han
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, Colorado, USA
| | - Kelsey Krutsinger
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, Greeley, Colorado, USA
| | | | - Nan Wu
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
| | - Debjyoti Kundu
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
| | - Konstantina Kyritsi
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
| | - Tianhao Zhou
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
| | - Eugenio Gaudio
- Department of Anatomical, Histological, Forensic Medicine and Orthopedics Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - Heather Francis
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
- Department of Research, Richard L. Roudebush VA Medical Center, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
| | - Gianfranco Alpini
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
- Department of Research, Richard L. Roudebush VA Medical Center, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
| | - Lindsey Kennedy
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Medicine, Indiana University School of Medicine, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
- Department of Research, Richard L. Roudebush VA Medical Center, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
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Sharkey KA, Mawe GM. The enteric nervous system. Physiol Rev 2023; 103:1487-1564. [PMID: 36521049 PMCID: PMC9970663 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00018.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2022] [Revised: 12/12/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Of all the organ systems in the body, the gastrointestinal tract is the most complicated in terms of the numbers of structures involved, each with different functions, and the numbers and types of signaling molecules utilized. The digestion of food and absorption of nutrients, electrolytes, and water occurs in a hostile luminal environment that contains a large and diverse microbiota. At the core of regulatory control of the digestive and defensive functions of the gastrointestinal tract is the enteric nervous system (ENS), a complex system of neurons and glia in the gut wall. In this review, we discuss 1) the intrinsic neural control of gut functions involved in digestion and 2) how the ENS interacts with the immune system, gut microbiota, and epithelium to maintain mucosal defense and barrier function. We highlight developments that have revolutionized our understanding of the physiology and pathophysiology of enteric neural control. These include a new understanding of the molecular architecture of the ENS, the organization and function of enteric motor circuits, and the roles of enteric glia. We explore the transduction of luminal stimuli by enteroendocrine cells, the regulation of intestinal barrier function by enteric neurons and glia, local immune control by the ENS, and the role of the gut microbiota in regulating the structure and function of the ENS. Multifunctional enteric neurons work together with enteric glial cells, macrophages, interstitial cells, and enteroendocrine cells integrating an array of signals to initiate outputs that are precisely regulated in space and time to control digestion and intestinal homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keith A Sharkey
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute and Snyder Institute for Chronic Diseases, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Gary M Mawe
- Department of Neurological Sciences, Larner College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont
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Serrano Nájera G, Kin K. Unusual occurrence of domestication syndrome amongst African mole-rats: Is the naked mole-rat a domestic animal? Front Ecol Evol 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2022.987177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The Naked mole-rat (NMR) is becoming a prominent model organism due to its peculiar traits, such as eusociality, extreme longevity, cancer resistance, and reduced pain sensitivity. It belongs to the African mole-rats (AMR), a family of subterranean rodents that includes solitary, cooperative breeding and eusocial species. We identified and quantified the domestication syndrome (DS) across AMR, a set of morphological and behavioural traits significantly more common and pronounced amongst domesticated animals than in their wild counterparts. Surprisingly, the NMR shows apparent DS traits when compared to the solitary AMR. Animals can self-domesticate when a reduction of the fear response is naturally selected, such as in islands with no predators, or to improve the group’s harmony in cooperative breeding species. The DS may be caused by alterations in the physiology of the neural crest cells (NCC), a transient population of cells that generate a full range of tissues during development. The NCC contribute to organs responsible for transmitting the fear response and various other tissues, including craniofacial bones. Therefore, mutations affecting the NCC can manifest as behavioural and morphological alterations in many structures across the body, as seen in neurocristopathies. We observed that all social AMRs are chisel-tooth diggers, an adaption to hard soils that requires the flattening of the skull. We hypothesise that chisel-tooth digging could impose a selective pressure on the NCC that triggered the DS’s appearance, possibly facilitating the evolution of sociality. Finally, we discuss how DS traits are neutral or beneficial for the subterranean niche, strategies to test this hypothesis and report well-studied mutations in the NMR that are associated with the NCC physiology or with the control of the fear response. In conclusion, we argue that many of the NMR’s unconventional traits are compatible with the DS and provide a hypothesis about its origins. Our model proposes a novel avenue to enhance the understanding of the extraordinary biology of the NMR.
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Goluba K, Kunrade L, Riekstina U, Parfejevs V. Schwann Cells in Digestive System Disorders. Cells 2022; 11:832. [PMID: 35269454 PMCID: PMC8908985 DOI: 10.3390/cells11050832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2021] [Revised: 02/22/2022] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Proper functioning of the digestive system is ensured by coordinated action of the central and peripheral nervous systems (PNS). Peripheral innervation of the digestive system can be viewed as intrinsic and extrinsic. The intrinsic portion is mainly composed of the neurons and glia of the enteric nervous system (ENS), while the extrinsic part is formed by sympathetic, parasympathetic, and sensory branches of the PNS. Glial cells are a crucial component of digestive tract innervation, and a great deal of research evidence highlights the important status of ENS glia in health and disease. In this review, we shift the focus a bit and discuss the functions of Schwann cells (SCs), the glial cells of the extrinsic innervation of the digestive system. For more context, we also provide information on the basic findings regarding the function of innervation in disorders of the digestive organs. We find diverse SC roles described particularly in the mouth, the pancreas, and the intestine. We note that most of the scientific evidence concerns the involvement of SCs in cancer progression and pain, but some research identifies stem cell functions and potential for regenerative medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Vadims Parfejevs
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Latvia, House of Science, Jelgavas Str. 3, LV-1004 Riga, Latvia; (K.G.); (L.K.); (U.R.)
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Gilloteaux J. Primary cilia in the Syrian hamster biliary tract: Bile flow antennae and outlooks about signaling on the hepato-biliary-pancreatic stem cells. TRANSLATIONAL RESEARCH IN ANATOMY 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tria.2020.100063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
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Gether IM, Nexøe-Larsen C, Knop FK. New Avenues in the Regulation of Gallbladder Motility-Implications for the Use of Glucagon-Like Peptide-Derived Drugs. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2019; 104:2463-2472. [PMID: 30137354 DOI: 10.1210/jc.2018-01008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2018] [Accepted: 08/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT Several cases of cholelithiasis and cholecystitis have been reported in patients treated with glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) receptor agonists (GLP-1RAs) and GLP-2 receptor agonists (GLP-2RAs), respectively. Thus, the effects of GLP-1 and GLP-2 on gallbladder motility have been investigated. We have provided an overview of the mechanisms regulating gallbladder motility and highlight novel findings on the effects of bile acids and glucagon-like peptides on gallbladder motility. EVIDENCE ACQUISITION The articles included in the present review were identified using electronic literature searches. The search results were narrowed to data reporting the effects of bile acids and GLPs on gallbladder motility. EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS Bile acids negate the effect of postprandial cholecystokinin-mediated gallbladder contraction. Two bile acid receptors seem to be involved in this feedback mechanism, the transmembrane Takeda G protein-coupled receptor 5 (TGR5) and the nuclear farnesoid X receptor. Furthermore, activation of TGR5 in enteroendocrine L cells leads to release of GLP-1 and, possibly, GLP-2. Recent findings have pointed to the existence of a bile acid-TGR5-L cell-GLP-2 axis that serves to terminate meal-induced gallbladder contraction and thereby initiate gallbladder refilling. GLP-2 might play a dominant role in this axis by directly relaxing the gallbladder. Moreover, recent findings have suggested GLP-1RA treatment prolongs the refilling phase of the gallbladder. CONCLUSIONS GLP-2 receptor activation in rodents acutely increases the volume of the gallbladder, which might explain the risk of gallbladder diseases associated with GLP-2RA treatment observed in humans. GLP-1RA-induced prolongation of human gallbladder refilling may explain the gallbladder events observed in GLP-1RA clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ida M Gether
- Clinical Metabolic Physiology, Steno Diabetes Center Copenhagen, Gentofte Hospital, Hellerup, Denmark
| | - Christina Nexøe-Larsen
- Clinical Metabolic Physiology, Steno Diabetes Center Copenhagen, Gentofte Hospital, Hellerup, Denmark
| | - Filip K Knop
- Clinical Metabolic Physiology, Steno Diabetes Center Copenhagen, Gentofte Hospital, Hellerup, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Novo Nordisk Center for Basic Metabolic Research, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Visualizing the enteric nervous system using genetically engineered double reporter mice: Comparison with immunofluorescence. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0171239. [PMID: 28158225 PMCID: PMC5291392 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0171239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2016] [Accepted: 01/17/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS The enteric nervous system (ENS) plays a crucial role in the control of gastrointestinal motility, secretion and absorption functions. Immunohistochemistry has been widely used to visualize neurons of the ENS for more than two decades. Genetically engineered mice that report specific proteins can also be used to visualize neurons of the ENS. The goal of our study was to develop a mouse that expresses fluorescent neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) and choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), the two proteins expressed in 95% of the ENS neurons. We compared ENS neurons visualized in the reporter mouse with the wild type mouse stained using classical immunostaining techniques. METHODS Mice hemizygous for ChAT-ChR2-YFP BAC transgene with expression of the mhChR2:YFP fusion protein directed by ChAT promoter/enhancer regions on the BAC transgene were purchased commercially. The Cre/LoxP technique of somatic recombination was used to construct mice with nNOS positive neurons. The two mice were crossbred and tissues were harvested and examined using fluorescent microscopy. Immunostaining was performed in the wild type mice, using antibodies to nNOS, ChAT, Hu and PGP 9.5. RESULTS Greater than 95% of the ENS neurons were positive for either nNOS or ChAT or both. The nNOS and ChAT neurons and their processes in the ENS were well visualized in all the regions of the GI tract, i.e., esophagus, small intestine and colon. The number of nNOS and ChAT neurons was approximately same in the reporter mouse and immunostaining method in the wild type mouse. The nNOS fluorescence in the reporter mouse was seen in both cytoplasm as well as nucleus but in the immunostained specimens it was seen only in the cytoplasm. CONCLUSION We propose that the genetically engineered double reporter mouse for ChAT and nNOS proteins is a powerful tool to study of the effects of various diseases on the ENS without the need for immunostaining.
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Martin-Cano FE, Caso-Agundez M, Camello-Almaraz C, Santos FJ, Espin MT, Madrid JA, Diez-Perez A, Camello PJ, Pozo MJ. Octodon degus, a new model to study the agonist and plexus-induced response in the urinary bladder. J Physiol Biochem 2016; 73:77-87. [PMID: 27738973 DOI: 10.1007/s13105-016-0527-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2016] [Accepted: 10/03/2016] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Urinary bladder function consists in the storage and controlled voiding of urine. Translational studies require animal models that match human characteristics, such as Octodon degus, a diurnal rodent. This study aims to characterize the contractility of the detrusor muscle and the morphology and code of the vesical plexus from O. degus. Body temperature was measured by an intra-abdominal sensor, the contractility of detrusor strips was evaluated by isometric tension recording, and the vesical plexus was studied by electrical field stimulation (EFS) and immunofluorescence. The animals showed a diurnal chronotype as judged from core temperature. The myogenic contractile response of the detrusor muscle to increasing doses of KCl reached its maximum (31.04 mN/mm2) at 60 mM. In the case of cumulative dose-response of bethanecol, the maximum response (37.42 mN/mm2) was reached at 3.2 × 10-4 M. The response to ATP was clearly smaller (3.8 mN/mm2). The pharmacological dissection of the EFS-induced contraction identified ACh and sensory fibers as the main contributors to this response. The neurons of the vesical plexus were located mainly in the trigone area, grouped in big and small ganglia. Out of them, 48.1 % of the neurons were nitrergic and 62.7 % cholinergic. Our results show functional and morphological similarities between the urinary bladder of O. degus and that of humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Eduardo Martin-Cano
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Nursing and Occupational Therapy, University of Extremadura, 10003, Caceres, Spain
| | - Mercedes Caso-Agundez
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Nursing and Occupational Therapy, University of Extremadura, 10003, Caceres, Spain
| | - Cristina Camello-Almaraz
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Nursing and Occupational Therapy, University of Extremadura, 10003, Caceres, Spain
| | | | - María Teresa Espin
- Digestive Surgery Service, "Infanta Cristina" Hospital, 06006, Badajoz, Spain
| | - Juan Antonio Madrid
- Chronobiology Laboratory, College of Biology, University of Murcia, IMIB-Arrixaca, 30100, Murcia, Spain
| | - Adolfo Diez-Perez
- Musculoskeletal research group, Red Temática de Investigación Cooperativa en Envejecimiento y Fragilidad (RETICEF), ISCIII, IMIM (Hospital del Mar Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Pedro Javier Camello
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Nursing and Occupational Therapy, University of Extremadura, 10003, Caceres, Spain
| | - Maria Jose Pozo
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Nursing and Occupational Therapy, University of Extremadura, 10003, Caceres, Spain.
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Housset C, Chrétien Y, Debray D, Chignard N. Functions of the Gallbladder. Compr Physiol 2016; 6:1549-77. [PMID: 27347902 DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c150050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile between meals. Gallbladder motor function is regulated by bile acids via the membrane bile acid receptor, TGR5, and by neurohormonal signals linked to digestion, for example, cholecystokinin and FGF15/19 intestinal hormones, which trigger gallbladder emptying and refilling, respectively. The cycle of gallbladder filling and emptying controls the flow of bile into the intestine and thereby the enterohepatic circulation of bile acids. The gallbladder also largely contributes to the regulation of bile composition by unique absorptive and secretory capacities. The gallbladder epithelium secretes bicarbonate and mucins, which both provide cytoprotection against bile acids. The reversal of fluid transport from absorption to secretion occurs together with bicarbonate secretion after feeding, predominantly in response to an adenosine 3',5'-cyclic monophosphate (cAMP)-dependent pathway triggered by neurohormonal factors, such as vasoactive intestinal peptide. Mucin secretion in the gallbladder is stimulated predominantly by calcium-dependent pathways that are activated by ATP present in bile, and bile acids. The gallbladder epithelium has the capacity to absorb cholesterol and provides a cholecystohepatic shunt pathway for bile acids. Changes in gallbladder motor function not only can contribute to gallstone disease, but also subserve protective functions in multiple pathological settings through the sequestration of bile acids and changes in the bile acid composition. Cholecystectomy increases the enterohepatic recirculation rates of bile acids leading to metabolic effects and an increased risk of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, cirrhosis, and small-intestine carcinoid, independently of cholelithiasis. Among subjects with gallstones, cholecystectomy remains a priority in those at risk of gallbladder cancer, while others could benefit from gallbladder-preserving strategies. © 2016 American Physiological Society. Compr Physiol 6:1549-1577, 2016.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chantal Housset
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, INSERM, UMR_S 938, Centre de Recherche Saint-Antoine, Institute of Cardiometabolism and Nutrition (ICAN), Paris, France.,Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Saint-Antoine, Centre de Référence Maladies Rares (CMR) des Maladies Inflammatoires des Voies Biliaires (MIVB), Service d'Hépatologie, Paris, France
| | - Yues Chrétien
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, INSERM, UMR_S 938, Centre de Recherche Saint-Antoine, Institute of Cardiometabolism and Nutrition (ICAN), Paris, France.,Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Saint-Antoine, Centre de Référence Maladies Rares (CMR) des Maladies Inflammatoires des Voies Biliaires (MIVB), Service d'Hépatologie, Paris, France
| | - Dominique Debray
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, INSERM, UMR_S 938, Centre de Recherche Saint-Antoine, Institute of Cardiometabolism and Nutrition (ICAN), Paris, France.,Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpital Necker Enfants Malades, Medical-Surgical Center, Hepatology and Transplantation, Paris, France
| | - Nicolas Chignard
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, INSERM, UMR_S 938, Centre de Recherche Saint-Antoine, Institute of Cardiometabolism and Nutrition (ICAN), Paris, France
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Udit S, Gautron L. Molecular anatomy of the gut-brain axis revealed with transgenic technologies: implications in metabolic research. Front Neurosci 2013; 7:134. [PMID: 23914153 PMCID: PMC3728986 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2013.00134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2013] [Accepted: 07/12/2013] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Neurons residing in the gut-brain axis remain understudied despite their important role in coordinating metabolic functions. This lack of knowledge is observed, in part, because labeling gut-brain axis neurons and their connections using conventional neuroanatomical methods is inherently challenging. This article summarizes genetic approaches that enable the labeling of distinct populations of gut-brain axis neurons in living laboratory rodents. In particular, we review the respective strengths and limitations of currently available genetic and viral approaches that permit the marking of gut-brain axis neurons without the need for antibodies or conventional neurotropic tracers. Finally, we discuss how these methodological advances are progressively transforming the study of the healthy and diseased gut-brain axis in the context of its role in chronic metabolic diseases, including diabetes and obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Swalpa Udit
- Division of Hypothalamic Research, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas Dallas, TX, USA
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The distribution and chemical coding of neurons supplying the sphincter of Oddi in mammals. Pol J Vet Sci 2013; 16:787-96. [PMID: 24597319 DOI: 10.2478/pjvs-2013-0113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The major duodenal papilla (papilla of Vater) is an important structure associated with the biliary tract and, in some species, the pancreas. It usually represents a slight elevation on the intestinal mucosa where the dilated junction (ampulla of Vater) of the commmon bile duct and pancreatic duct enters the duodenum. The ampulla is surrounded by a specifically arranged muscle structure called the sphincter of Oddi (SO) which controls the flow of bile and pancreatic fluid. The function of the sphincter is regulated by a complex system that involves many hormonal and neural factors. The literature in the field contains detailed data on the morphology of the SO in a number of mammalian species. However, the comprehensive information about the anatomy and neurochemistry of the innervation of this structure is very limited. The present review article summarizes the current knowledge on the innervation of the SO in mammals. Special emphasis has been put on the localization and chemical coding of neurons contributing to this nerve supply.
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Lametschwandtner A, Bartel H, Minnich B, Tholo S, Spornitz U. The microvasculature of the gallbladder in adultXenopus laevis(Amphibia, Anura): A scanning electron microscope study of vascular corrosion casts and correlative light microscopy. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.1080/11250003.2010.509137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Young HM, Cane KN, Anderson CR. Development of the autonomic nervous system: a comparative view. Auton Neurosci 2010; 165:10-27. [PMID: 20346736 DOI: 10.1016/j.autneu.2010.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2009] [Revised: 02/27/2010] [Accepted: 03/01/2010] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
In this review we summarize current understanding of the development of autonomic neurons in vertebrates. The mechanisms controlling the development of sympathetic and enteric neurons have been studied in considerable detail in laboratory mammals, chick and zebrafish, and there are also limited data about the development of sympathetic and enteric neurons in amphibians. Little is known about the development of parasympathetic neurons apart from the ciliary ganglion in chicks. Although there are considerable gaps in our knowledge, some of the mechanisms controlling sympathetic and enteric neuron development appear to be conserved between mammals, avians and zebrafish. For example, some of the transcriptional regulators involved in the development of sympathetic neurons are conserved between mammals, avians and zebrafish, and the requirement for Ret signalling in the development of enteric neurons is conserved between mammals (including humans), avians and zebrafish. However, there are also differences between species in the migratory pathways followed by sympathetic and enteric neuron precursors and in the requirements for some signalling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heather M Young
- Department of Anatomy & Cell Biology, University of Melbourne, VIC Australia.
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Portincasa P, Di Ciaula A, Wang HH, Palasciano G, van Erpecum KJ, Moschetta A, Wang DQH. Coordinate regulation of gallbladder motor function in the gut-liver axis. Hepatology 2008; 47:2112-26. [PMID: 18506897 DOI: 10.1002/hep.22204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Gallstones are one of the most common digestive diseases with an estimated prevalence of 10%-15% in adults living in the western world, where cholesterol-enriched gallstones represent 75%-80% of all gallstones. In cholesterol gallstone disease, the gallbladder becomes the target organ of a complex metabolic disease. Indeed, a fine coordinated hepatobiliary and gastrointestinal function, including gallbladder motility in the fasting and postprandial state, is of crucial importance to prevent crystallization and precipitation of excess cholesterol in gallbladder bile. Also, gallbladder itself plays a physiopathological role in biliary lipid absorption. Here, we present a comprehensive view on the regulation of gallbladder motor function by focusing on recent discoveries in animal and human studies, and we discuss the role of the gallbladder in the pathogenesis of gallstone formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piero Portincasa
- Department of Internal Medicine and Public Medicine, Clinica Medica A. Murri, University of Bari Medical School, Bari, Italy.
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Leptin Regulates Gallbladder Genes Related to Gallstone Pathogenesis in Leptin-Deficient Mice. J Am Coll Surg 2008; 206:503-10. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jamcollsurg.2007.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2007] [Revised: 08/27/2007] [Accepted: 09/12/2007] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
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Yi SQ, Ohta T, Tsuchida A, Terayama H, Naito M, Li J, Wang HX, Yi N, Tanaka S, Itoh M. Surgical anatomy of innervation of the gallbladder in humans and Suncus murinus with special reference to morphological understanding of gallstone formation after gastrectomy. World J Gastroenterol 2007; 13:2066-71. [PMID: 17465449 PMCID: PMC4319126 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v13.i14.2066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM: To clarify the innervation of human gallbladder, with special reference to morphological understanding of gallstone formation after gastrectomy.
METHODS: The liver, gallbladder and surrounding structures were immersed in a 10 mg/L solution of alizarin red S in ethanol to stain the peripheral nerves in cadavers (n = 10). Innervation in the areas was completely dissected under a binocular microscope. Similarly, innervation in the same areas of 10 Suncus murinus (S. murinus) was examined employing whole mount immunohistochemistry.
RESULTS: Innervation of the gallbladder occurred predominantly through two routes. One was from the anterior hepatic plexus, the innervation occurred along the cystic arteries and duct. Invariably this route passed through the hepatoduodenal ligament. The other route was from the posterior hepatic plexus, the innervation occurred along the cystic duct ventrally. This route also passed through the hepatoduodenal ligament dorsally. Similar results were obtained in S. murinus.
CONCLUSION: The route from the anterior hepatic plexus via the cystic artery and/or duct is crucial for preserving gallbladder innervation. Lymph node dissection specifically in the hepatoduodenal ligament may affect the incidence of gallstones after gastrectomy. Furthermore, the route from the posterior hepatic plexus via the common bile duct and the cystic duct to the gallbladder should not be disregarded. Preservation of the plexus may attenuate the incidence of gallstone formation after gastrectomy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuang-Qin Yi
- Department of Anatomy, Tokyo Medical University, 6-1-1, Shinjuku, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8402, Japan.
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Sarna SK. Molecular, functional, and pharmacological targets for the development of gut promotility drugs. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2006; 291:G545-55. [PMID: 16565417 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00122.2006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The science of gastrointestinal motility has made phenomenal advances during the last fifty years. Yet, there is a paucity of effective promotility drugs to treat functional bowel disorders that affect 10-29% of the U.S. population. A part of the reason for the lack of effective drugs is our limited understanding of the etiology of these diseases. In the absence of this information, mostly an ad hoc approach has been used to develop the currently available drugs, which are modestly effective or effective in only a subset of the patients with functional bowel disorders. This review discusses a grounds-up approach for development of the next generation of promotility drugs. The approach is based on our current understanding of 1) the different types of contractions that produce overall motility function of mixing and orderly net distal propulsion in major gut organs, 2) the regulatory mechanisms of these contractions, 3) which receptors and intracellular signaling molecules could be targeted to stimulate specific types of contractions to accelerate or retard transit, and 4) the strengths and limitations of animal models and experimental approaches that could screen potential promotility drugs for their efficacy in human gut propulsion in functional bowel disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sushil K Sarna
- Division of Gastroenterology, Dept. of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston, 9.138 Medical Research Bldg., Galveston, TX 77555-1064, USA.
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Zhang ZH, Wu SD, Gao H, Shi G, Jin JZ, Kong J, Tian Z, Su Y. Expression of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide 1 and 2 receptor mRNA in gallbladder tissue of patients with gallstone or gallbladder polyps. World J Gastroenterol 2006; 12:1468-71. [PMID: 16552823 PMCID: PMC4124332 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v12.i9.1468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM: To detect the expression of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide receptor 1 (VPCAP1-R) and VPCAP2-R mRNA in gallbladder tissues of patients with gallstone or gallbladder polyps.
METHODS: The expression of VPCAP1-R and VPCAP2-R mRNA in gallbladder tissues was detected in 25 patients with gallstone, 8 patients with gallbladder polyps and 7 donors of liver transplantation by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR).
RESULTS: The VPCAP2-R mRNA expression level in the control group (1.09±0.58) was lower than that in the gallbladder polyp group (1.64 ± 0.56) and the gallstone group (1.55±0.45) (P < 0.05) while the VPCAP1-R mRNA expression level in the control group (1.15 ± 0.23) was not apparently different from that in the gallbladder polyp group (1.28±0.56) and the gallstone group (1.27 ± 0.38).
CONCLUSION: The abnormal expression of VPCAP2-R mRNA in gallbladder tissue may play a role in the formation of gallbladder stone and gallbladder polyps.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen-Hai Zhang
- No.2 Department of General Surgery, Second Affiliated Hospital, China Medical University, Shenyang, 110004, Liaoning Province, China
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Graewin SJ, Kiely JM, Svatek CL, Pitt HA. Ciliary neurotrophic factor restores gallbladder contractility in leptin-resistant obese diabetic mice. J Surg Res 2006; 130:146-51. [PMID: 16389100 DOI: 10.1016/j.jss.2005.07.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2005] [Revised: 05/31/2005] [Accepted: 07/07/2005] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Obesity and diabetes are major risk factors for cholesterol gallstones, and the majority of obese people are leptin-resistant. Our previous work has shown that both leptin-deficient (Lepob) and leptin-resistant (Lepdb) obese diabetic mice have decreased in vitro gallbladder motility. Leptin administration to leptin-deficient (Lepob) animals restores gallbladder motility and reverses obesity and hyperinsulinemia. However, additional leptin in leptin-resistant obesity would not be expected to improve obesity-related parameters. Recent studies demonstrate that ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) reduces weight and hyperinsulinemia in leptin-resistant obesity. Our hypothesis is that CNFT would cause weight loss, lower blood sugars, and restore gallbladder contractility in leptin-resistant (Lepdb) mice. MATERIALS AND METHODS 20 C57b/6J and 20 Lepdb 8-week-old female mice were injected daily with either intraperitoneal saline or 0.3 microg/g CNTFAx15 for 17 days. Gallbladders were mounted in muscle baths and stimulated with acetylcholine, neuropeptide Y, and cholecystokinin. Gallbladder volume, serum glucose, insulin, liver weight, liver fat, and gallbladder responses were measured. Data were analyzed by ANOVA. RESULTS Saline treated obese mice had greater body weight and obesity parameters, but decreased gallbladder contractility to neurotransmitters compared to saline treated lean mice. CNTF administration to obese mice decreased body weight and obesity parameters, and restored gallbladder contractility. CNTF treated lean animals had weight loss and decreased gallbladder contraction to acetylcholine and cholecystokinin compared to saline treated lean animals. CONCLUSIONS Ciliary neurotrophic factor (CNTF) causes 1) weight loss, 2) improvement of diabetes, and 3) alterations in gallbladder motility that is improved in obese mice but decreased in lean mice. We conclude that CNTF may improve gallbladder contractility in leptin-resistant obesity with diabetes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shannon J Graewin
- Department of Surgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
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21
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Abstract
During embryonic development, the liver emerges from the foregut as a thickening of the ventral endodermal epithelium. The embryonic liver then develops into a bud of cells that proliferates and differentiates to eventually form the largest gland of the body. Prior to birth, the primary function of the liver is hematopoietic, and the organ receives little innervation during early development. Postnatally, the role of the liver changes and many different nerve types modulate its function. Although the liver shares a common embryonic origin with other foregut derivatives, such as the gallbladder and the pancreas, the development of its innervation exhibits distinct characteristics. In this review, we summarize what is known about the development of the hepatic innervation, draw comparisons with the intrinsic innervation of the gastrointestinal tract and associated organs, and discuss the potential role of molecular signals in guiding the nerves that innervate the liver.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Marie Delalande
- Neural Development Unit, Institute of Child Health, University College London, UK
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22
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Abstract
The extrahepatic biliary tract is innervated by dense networks of extrinsic and intrinsic nerves that regulates smooth muscle tone and epithelial cell function of extrahepatic biliary tree. Although these ganglia are derived from the same set of precursor neural crest cells that colonize the gut, they exhibit structural, neurochemical, and physiological characteristics that are distinct from the neurons of the enteric nervous system. Gallbladder neurons are relatively inexcitable, and their output is driven by vagal inputs and modulated by hormones, peptides released from sensory fibers, and inflammatory mediators. Gallbladder neurons are cholinergic and they can express a number of other neural active compounds, including substance P, galanin, nitric oxide, and vasoactive intestinal peptide. Sphincter of Oddi (SO) ganglia, which are connected to ganglia of the duodenum, appear to be comprised of distinct populations of excitatory and inhibitory neurons, based on their expression of choline acetyltransferase and substance P or nitric oxide synthase, respectively. While SO neurons likely receive vagal input and their activity is modulated by release of neuropeptides from sensory fibers, a significant source of excitatory synaptic input to these cells arise from the duodenum. This duodenum-SO circuit is likely to play an important role in the coordination of SO tone with gallbladder motility in the process of gallbladder emptying. Now that we have gained a relatively thorough understanding of the innervation of the biliary tree under healthy conditions, the way is paved for future studies of altered neural function in biliary disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Onesmo B Balemba
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Vermont, Burlington 05405, USA
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Graewin SJ, Tran KQ, Naggert JK, Lee KH, Swartz-Basile D, Nakeeb A, Pitt HA. Diminished gallbladder motility in Rotund leptin-resistant obese mice. HPB (Oxford) 2005; 7:139-43. [PMID: 18333178 PMCID: PMC2023939 DOI: 10.1080/13651820510028800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Obesity is a risk factor for cholesterol gallstone formation, but the pathogenesis of this phenomenon remains unclear. Most human obesity is associated with diabetes and leptin-resistance. Previous studies from this laboratory have demonstrated that diabetic leptin-resistant (Lep(db)) obese mice have low biliary cholesterol saturation indices, enlarged gallbladders and diminished gallbladder response to neurotransmitters. Recently, a novel leptin-resistant mouse strain Lepr(db-rtnd) (Rotund) has been discovered. Rotund mice are also obese, diabetic, and have an abnormal leptin receptor. Therefore, we tested the hypothesis that leptin-resistant obese Rotund mice would have large gallbladders and reduced biliary motility. METHODS Eight-week-old control (C57BL/6J, N=12) and Rotund leptin-resistant (Lepr(db-rnd), N=9) mice were fed a non- lithogenic diet for four weeks. Animals were fasted and underwent cholecystectomy. Gallbladder volumes were recorded, and contractile responses (N/cm(2)) to acetylcholine (10(-5) M), Neuropeptide Y (10(-8,-7,-6) M), and cholecystokinin (10(-10,-9,-8,-7) M) were measured. Results were analyzed using the Mann-Whitney Rank Sum Test. RESULTS Compared to control mice, Rotund mice had larger body weights, higher serum glucose levels, and greater gallbladder volumes (p<0.05). Rotund gallbladders had less contractility (p<0.05)) to acetylcholine and cholecystokinin than control mice. Responses to Neuropeptide Y were also less, but not statistically significant, in the Rotund mice. CONCLUSIONS These data suggest that leptin-resistant Rotund mice have (1) enlarged gallbladders with (2) diminished contractility compared to lean control mice. Therefore, this study confirms that leptin-resistance is associated with abnormal biliary motility and may lead to gallstone formation in leptin-resistant obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Khoi Q. Tran
- Department of Surgery, Medical College of WisconsinMilwaukee WIUSA
| | | | - Keun-Ho Lee
- Department of Surgery, Medical College of WisconsinMilwaukee WIUSA
| | | | - Attila Nakeeb
- Department of Surgery, Medical College of WisconsinMilwaukee WIUSA
| | - Henry A. Pitt
- Department of Surgery, Medical College of WisconsinMilwaukee WIUSA
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Graewin SJ, Kiely JM, Lee KH, Svatek CL, Nakeeb A, Pitt HA. Nonobese diabetic mice have diminished gallbladder motility and shortened crystal observation time. J Gastrointest Surg 2004; 8:824-9; discussion 829-30. [PMID: 15531235 DOI: 10.1016/j.gassur.2004.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Diabetes and obesity are strongly associated and are risk factors for cholesterol gallstone disease. Leptin-deficient and leptin-resistant diabetic obese mice have enlarged, hypomotile gallbladders. In addition, bile from gallbladders of leptin-deficient mice has enhanced cholesterol crystal formation, whereas bile from gallbladders of leptin-resistant mice has delayed crystal observation time. To determine the effect of diabetes alone, we hypothesized that leptin-normal, nonobese diabetic (NOD) mice would have reduced biliary motility and rapid crystal formation. Twenty control and 9 prediabetic and 11 diabetic NOD, 12- to 26-week-old mice underwent glucose measurement and cholecystectomy for muscle bath stimulation with neurotransmitters. An additional group of 200 control and 78 NOD 12-week-old mice underwent microscopic bile examination for cholesterol crystal formation. Compared with control mice, prediabetic NOD mice had similar glucose levels and gallbladder volumes. Diabetic NOD mice had higher sugar levels and larger gallbladder volumes (P < 0.001) than control mice. Prediabetic NOD gallbladders had less contractility (P < 0.01) than control gallbladders, and contractility worsened (P < 0.01) in diabetic NOD mice. NOD mice formed cholesterol crystals earlier than did control mice (P < 0.05). Nonobese diabetic NOD mice have (1) decreased gallbladder contraction to neurotransmitters, which worsens with development of diabetes, and (2) rapid crystal formation. We conclude that diabetes alone alters gallbladder motility and cholesterol crystal formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shannon J Graewin
- Department of Surgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
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25
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Ruan HZ, Burnstock G. P2X2 and P2X3 receptor expression in the gallbladder of the guinea pig. Auton Neurosci 2004; 111:89-96. [PMID: 15182738 DOI: 10.1016/j.autneu.2004.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2003] [Revised: 03/02/2004] [Accepted: 03/10/2004] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
We investigated for the first time, the distribution pattern of P2X2 and P2X3 receptors in the gallbladder of the guinea pig using immunohistochemistry. P2X2 and P2X3 receptor-immunoreactive nerve fibers were observed within the ganglia, in the interganglionic connectives, in the muscularis and in the paravascular plexus. Immunoreactivity for P2X2 and P2X3 was also observed in most neurons in the ganglionated plexus. Double-labeling studies revealed that 58.1% of all P2X2-positive neurons and 54.3% of all P2X3-positive neurons were found to display nitric oxide synthase. Over 90% of the neurons that were immunoreactive for P2X2 and P2X3 receptor were also immunoreactive for calretinin. We also found that 30.5% of P2X2- and 32.6% of P2X3-immunoreactive neurons were also immunoreactive for vasoactive intestinal peptide. No P2X2- or P2X3- immunoreactive neurons stained for calcitonin gene-related peptide; a few calcitonin gene-related peptide-immunoreactive nerve fibers also showed immunoreactivity to P2X2 or P2X3 receptors. These results further demonstrate the neurotransmitter diversity of the nerves of the gallbladder and provide an incentive for studies of the actions of these compounds in the gallbladder wall.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huai Zhen Ruan
- Department of Neurobiology, Third Military Medical University, Chongqing, China
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26
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Castillo EJ, Delgado-Aros S, Camilleri M, Burton D, Stephens D, O'Connor-Semmes R, Walker A, Shachoy-Clark A, Zinsmeister AR. Effect of oral CCK-1 agonist GI181771X on fasting and postprandial gastric functions in healthy volunteers. Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol 2004; 287:G363-9. [PMID: 15246968 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.00074.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
CCK influences satiation and gastric and gallbladder emptying. GI181771X is a novel oral CCK-1 agonist; its effects on gastric emptying of solids, accommodation, and postprandial symptoms are unclear. Effects of four dose levels of the oral CCK-1 agonist GI181771X and placebo on gastric functions and postprandial symptoms were compared in 61 healthy men and women in a randomized, gender-stratified, double-blind, double-dummy placebo-controlled, parallel group study. Effects of 0.1, 0.5, and 1.5 mg of oral solution and a 5.0-mg tablet of GI181771X on gastric emptying of solids by scintigraphy, gastric volume by (99m)Tc-single photon emission computed tomographic imaging, maximum tolerated volume of Ensure, and postprandial nausea, bloating, fullness, and pain were studied. On each of 3 study days, participants received their randomly assigned treatment. Adverse effects and safety were monitored. There were overall group effects of GI181771X on gastric emptying (P < 0.01) and fasting and postprandial volumes (P = 0.036 and 0.015, respectively). The 1.5-mg oral solution of GI181771X significantly delayed gastric emptying of solids (P < 0.01) and increased fasting (P = 0.035) gastric volumes without altering postprandial (P = 0.056) gastric volumes or postprandial symptoms relative to placebo. The effect of the 5.0-mg tablet on gastric emptying of solids did not reach significance (P = 0.052). Pharmacokinetic profiles showed the highest area under the curve over 4 h for the 1.5-mg solution and a similar area under the curve for the 0.5-mg solution and 5-mg tablet. Adverse effects were predominantly gastrointestinal and occurred in a minority of participants. GI181771X delays gastric emptying of solids and exhibits an acceptable safety profile in healthy participants. CCK-1 receptors can be modulated to increase fasting gastric volume.
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27
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Graewin SJ, Lee KH, Kiely JM, Svatek CL, Nakeeb A, Pitt HA. Gallbladder myocytes are short and cholecystokinin-resistant in obese diabetic mice. Surgery 2004; 136:431-6. [PMID: 15300211 DOI: 10.1016/j.surg.2004.05.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Obesity is associated with diabetes and gallstone formation. Obese leptin-deficient (Lepob) and leptin-resistant (Lepdb) mice are hyperglycemic and have enlarged gallbladders with diminished response in vitro to cholecystokinin (CCK) and acetylcholine (ACh). Whether this phenomenon is secondary to hyperosmolar myocytes and/or decreased neuromuscular transmission remains unclear. We hypothesize that myocytes from Lepob and Lepdb obese mice would not respond normally to neurotransmitters. METHODS Cholecystectomy was performed on 39 lean, 19 Lepob, and 20 Lepdb 12-week-old female mice. The gallbladder was divided and enzymatically digested. Half of each gallbladder's myocytes had contraction induced by CCK (10(-8) mol/L, n = 38) or ACh (10(-5) mol/L, n = 40). RESULTS Body weights, gallbladder volumes, and serum glucoses were greater for Lep(ob) and Lepdb mice compared to controls (P < .001). Resting myocyte lengths from Lepob and Lepdb mice were 93% and 91% of the length of controls (P < .001). In response to CCK, lean myocytes shortened 6% (P < .01), while myocytes from obese mice demonstrated no shortening. None of the myocytes demonstrated significant shortening with ACh. CONCLUSIONS These data suggest that gallbladder myocytes from obese mice are (1) foreshortened and (2) have a diminished response to cholecystokinin. We conclude that altered leptin and/or increased glucose may foreshorten myocytes and decrease response to cholecystokinin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shannon J Graewin
- Department of Surgery, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, WI 53226, USA
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Portincasa P, Di Ciaula A, vanBerge-Henegouwen GP. Smooth muscle function and dysfunction in gallbladder disease. Curr Gastroenterol Rep 2004; 6:151-62. [PMID: 15191695 DOI: 10.1007/s11894-004-0043-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The gallbladder epithelium and smooth muscle layer are exposed to concentrated biliary solutes, including cholesterol and potentially toxic hydrophobic bile salts, which are able to influence muscle contraction. Physiologically, gallbladder tone is regulated by spontaneous muscle activity, hormones, and neurotransmitters released into the muscle from intrinsic neurons and extrinsic sympathetic nerves. Methods to explore gallbladder smooth muscle function in vitro include cholecystokinin (CCK) receptor-binding studies and contractility studies. In human and animal models, studies have focused on cellular and molecular events in health and disease, and in vitro findings mirror in vivo events. The interplay between contraction and relaxation of the gallbladder muscularis leads in vivo to appropriate gallbladder emptying and refilling during fasting and postprandially. Defective smooth muscle contractility and/or relaxation are found in cholesterol stone-containing gallbladders, featuring a type of gallbladder leiomyopathy; defects of CCKA receptors and signal transduction may coexist with abnormal responses to oxidative stress and inflammatory mediators. Abnormal smooth musculature contractility, impaired gallbladder motility, and increased stasis are key factors in the pathogenesis of cholesterol gallstones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piero Portincasa
- Gastrointestinal Research Unit, University of Medical Center Utrecht, The Netherlands.
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29
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Abstract
Orexins (hypocretins) are a novel pair of neuropeptides implicated in the regulation of energy balances and arousal. Previous reports have indicated that orexins are produced only in the lateral hypothalamic area, although orexin-containing nerve fibers were observed throughout the neuroaxis. Recent evidence shows that orexins and functional orexin receptors are found in the periphery. Vagal and spinal primary afferent neurons, enteric neurons, and endocrine cells in both the gut and pancreas display orexin- and orexin receptor-like immunoreactivity. Orexins excite secretomotor neurons in the guinea pig gut and modulate gastric and intestinal motility and secretion. In addition, orexins modulate hormone release from pancreatic endocrine cells. Moreover, fasting up-regulates the phosphorylated form of cAMP response element binding protein in orexin-immunoreactive enteric neurons, indicating a functional response to food status in these cells. The purpose of this article is to summarize evidence for the existence of a brain-gut network of orexin-containing cells that appears to play a role in the acute regulation of energy homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annette L Kirchgessner
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, State University of New York Downstate Medical Center, Brooklyn, New York 11203-2098, USA.
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Konomi H, Meedeniya ACB, Simula ME, Toouli J, Saccone GTP. Characterization of circular muscle motor neurons of the duodenum and distal colon in the Australian brush-tailed possum. J Comp Neurol 2002; 443:15-26. [PMID: 11793344 DOI: 10.1002/cne.10094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The motor innervation of the duodenum and distal colon remains uncharacterized within the same species. Our aim was to compare the projections and neurochemical properties of duodenal and distal colon circular muscle motor neurons. Circular muscle motor neurons were retrogradely traced by using a neural tracer in vitro, processed for choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) and nitric oxide synthase (NOS) immunoreactivity and then visualized by using indirect immunofluorescence. A mean of 372 +/- 64 and 156 +/- 23 neurons (mean +/- SEM) were tracer-labeled within the duodenum and colon, respectively. The ChAT+/NOS- neurons comprised 57.6 +/- 6.6% and 39.6 +/- 4.4% of all labeled cells in the duodenum and colon, respectively, and projected mainly in the oral direction. Of all labeled cells, the ChAT-/NOS+ neurons comprised 8.5 +/- 2.3% in the duodenum and 46.6 +/- 5.0% in the distal colon and projected mainly in the anal direction. Of the remainder, 20.6 +/- 5.0% and 8.2 +/- 2.4% were ChAT+/NOS+ and 13.2 +/- 0.9% and 5.6 +/- 1.4% were ChAT-/NOS- in the duodenum and distal colon, respectively. Within both regions, the distribution of the ChAT+/NOS- and ChAT-/NOS+ neurons are consistent with the ascending excitatory and descending inhibitory reflexes. The proportion of ChAT-/NOS+ neurons is greater within the colon in comparison with the duodenum. A considerable proportion of duodenal motor neurons were ChAT+/NOS+ and ChAT-/NOS-. These two classes may underlie nonperistaltic motor patterns, which predominate within the duodenum. These findings demonstrate regional differences in the innervation of intestinal circular muscle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroyuki Konomi
- Department of General and Digestive Surgery and the Centre for Neuroscience, Flinders University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia 5001, Australia
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31
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Jennings LJ, Mawe GM. PGE2 hyperpolarizes gallbladder neurons and inhibits synaptic potentials in gallbladder ganglia. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSIOLOGY 1998; 274:G493-502. [PMID: 9530150 DOI: 10.1152/ajpgi.1998.274.3.g493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Gallbladder prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) levels are significantly elevated in pathophysiological conditions, resulting in changes in gallbladder motility or secretion that may involve actions of the prostanoid in intramural ganglia. This study was undertaken to examine the effects of PGE2 on neurons of the intramural ganglia of the guinea pig gallbladder. Application of PGE2 by microejection or superfusion elicited a complex triphasic change in the resting membrane potential (RMP). For example, application of PGE2 by microejection (100 microM) resulted in a brief hyperpolarization (mean duration 11.1 +/- 1.3 s), followed by a mid-phase repolarization toward or above RMP (mean duration 50.7 +/- 8.1 s), and finally a long-lasting hyperpolarization (mean duration 157.3 +/- 36.7 s). Associated with these PGE2-evoked alterations in RMP were changes in input resistance measured via injection of hyperpolarizing current pulses. An examination of the action potential afterhyperpolarization (AHP) during the PGE2-evoked response revealed an attenuation of both the amplitude and duration of the AHP. However, only a slight increase in excitability of gallbladder neurons in the presence of PGE2 was evident in response to depolarizing current pulses, and PGE2 did not cause the cells to fire spontaneous action potentials. Application of PGE2 reduced the amplitudes of both fast and slow excitatory synaptic potentials. These results suggest that increased prostaglandin production may decrease ganglionic output and therefore contribute to gallbladder stasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- L J Jennings
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Vermont, Burlington 05405, USA
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32
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Abstract
This paper serves to introduce a topical section of fifteen invited original research contributions dealing with normal and pathological development of the human biliary tract. This section also includes comparative anatomy of the gallbladder and the cystic duct as well as, the formation of gallstone. This series of reports have used advanced microscopic and ancillary techniques to study adaptative changes in gallbladder epithelial cell changes regarding permeability, renewal, mucous secretion as well as cholesterol uptake and nucleation. Several contributions deal with the blood and lymphatic drainage of the gallbladder. The gallbladder contractility is clarified by recent findings about its innervation, elegantly demonstrated and supported by complementary immunohistochemical and neurophysiological techniques. In vivo models for production of cholelithiasis in the ground squirrel and the Syrian hamster are introduced. Recent in vitro cellular and molecular models have substantially increased the understanding of biliary tract calculi formation. Finally, a survey and new data about progesterone gene regulation of both cholesterol metabolism and gallstone formation obtained in the Syrian hamster model are compared with cholelithogenesis in human.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Gilloteaux
- Summa Health System Foundation, Akron, Ohio 44304, USA
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