Current status on the development of pseudoviruses for enveloped viruses

Optimization and validation of a virus-like particle pseudotyped virus neutralization assay for SARS-CoV-2

Spike-protein-based pseudotyped viruses were used to evaluate vaccines during the COVID-19 pandemic. However, they cannot be used to evaluate the envelope (E), membrane (M), and nucleocapsid (N) proteins. The first generation of virus-like particle (VLP) pseudotyped viruses contains these four structural proteins, but their titers for wild-type severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) are relatively low, even lower for the omicron variant, rendering them unsuitable for neutralizing antibody detection. By optimizing the spike glycoprotein signal peptide, substituting the complexed M and E proteins with SARS-COV-1, optimizing the N protein with specific mutations (P199L, S202R, and R203M), and truncating the packaging signal, PS9, we increased the titer of the wild-type VLP pseudotyped virus over 100-fold, and successfully packaged the omicron VLP pseudotyped virus. The SARS-CoV-2 VLP pseudotyped viruses maintained stable titers, even through 10 freeze-thaw cycles. The key neutralization assay parameters were optimized, including cell type, cell number, and viral inoculum. The assay demonstrated minimal variation in both intra- and interassay results, at 11.5% and 11.1%, respectively. The correlation between the VLP pseudotyped virus and the authentic virus was strong (r = 0.9). Suitable for high-throughput detection of various mutant strains in clinical serum. In summary, we have developed a reliable neutralization assay for SARS-CoV-2 based on VLP pseudotyped virus.

SARS-CoV-2 Neutralization Assays Used in Clinical Trials: A Narrative Review

Since the emergence of COVID-19, extensive research efforts have been undertaken to accelerate the development of multiple types of vaccines to combat the pandemic. These include inactivated, recombinant subunit, viral vector, and nucleic acid vaccines. In the development of these diverse vaccines, appropriate methods to assess vaccine immunogenicity are essential in both preclinical and clinical studies. Among the biomarkers used in vaccine evaluation, the neutralizing antibody level serves as a pivotal indicator for assessing vaccine efficacy. Neutralizing antibody detection methods can mainly be classified into three types: the conventional virus neutralization test, pseudovirus neutralization test, and surrogate virus neutralization test. Importantly, standardization of these assays is critical for their application to yield results that are comparable across different laboratories. The development and use of international or regional standards would facilitate assay standardization and facilitate comparisons of the immune responses induced by different vaccines. In this comprehensive review, we discuss the principles, advantages, limitations, and application of different SARS-CoV-2 neutralization assays in vaccine clinical trials. This will provide guidance for the development and evaluation of COVID-19 vaccines.

Pseudovirus-Based Systems for Screening Natural Antiviral Agents: A Comprehensive Review

Since the outbreak of COVID-19, researchers have been working tirelessly to discover effective ways to combat coronavirus infection. The use of computational drug repurposing methods and molecular docking has been instrumental in identifying compounds that have the potential to disrupt the binding between the spike glycoprotein of SARS-CoV-2 and human ACE2 (hACE2). Moreover, the pseudovirus approach has emerged as a robust technique for investigating the mechanism of virus attachment to cellular receptors and for screening targeted small molecule drugs. Pseudoviruses are viral particles containing envelope proteins, which mediate the virus's entry with the same efficiency as that of live viruses but lacking pathogenic genes. Therefore, they represent a safe alternative to screen potential drugs inhibiting viral entry, especially for highly pathogenic enveloped viruses. In this review, we have compiled a list of antiviral plant extracts and natural products that have been extensively studied against enveloped emerging and re-emerging viruses by pseudovirus technology. The review is organized into three parts: (1) construction of pseudoviruses based on different packaging systems and applications; (2) knowledge of emerging and re-emerging viruses; (3) natural products active against pseudovirus-mediated entry. One of the most crucial stages in the life cycle of a virus is its penetration into host cells. Therefore, the discovery of viral entry inhibitors represents a promising therapeutic option in fighting against emerging viruses.

Development and characterization of an antibody that recognizes influenza virus N1 neuraminidases

Influenza A viruses (IAVs) continue to pose a huge threat to public health, and their prevention and treatment remain major international issues. Neuraminidase (NA) is the second most abundant surface glycoprotein on influenza viruses, and antibodies to NA have been shown to be effective against influenza infection. In this study, we generated a monoclonal antibody (mAb), named FNA1, directed toward N1 NAs. FNA1 reacted with H1N1 and H5N1 NA, but failed to react with the NA proteins of H3N2 and H7N9. In vitro, FNA1 displayed potent antiviral activity that mediated both NA inhibition (NI) and blocking of pseudovirus release. Moreover, residues 219, 254, 358, and 388 in the NA protein were critical for FNA1 binding to H1N1 NA. However, further validation is necessary to confirm whether FNA1 mAb is indeed a good inhibitor against NA for application against H1N1 and H5N1 viruses.

Identification and epidemiological study of an uncultured flavivirus from ticks using viral metagenomics and pseudoinfectious viral particles

During their blood-feeding process, ticks are known to transmit various viruses to vertebrates, including humans. Recent viral metagenomic analyses using next-generation sequencing (NGS) have revealed that blood-feeding arthropods like ticks harbor a large diversity of viruses. However, many of these viruses have not been isolated or cultured, and their basic characteristics remain unknown. This study aimed to present the identification of a difficult-to-culture virus in ticks using NGS and to understand its epidemic dynamics using molecular biology techniques. During routine tick-borne virus surveillance in Japan, an unknown flaviviral sequence was detected via virome analysis of host-questing ticks. Similar viral sequences have been detected in the sera of sika deer and wild boars in Japan, and this virus was tentatively named the Saruyama virus (SAYAV). Because SAYAV did not propagate in any cultured cells tested, single-round infectious virus particles (SRIP) were generated based on its structural protein gene sequence utilizing a yellow fever virus-based replicon system to understand its nationwide endemic status. Seroepidemiological studies using SRIP as antigens have demonstrated the presence of neutralizing antibodies against SAYAV in sika deer and wild boar captured at several locations in Japan, suggesting that SAYAV is endemic throughout Japan. Phylogenetic analyses have revealed that SAYAV forms a sister clade with the Orthoflavivirus genus, which includes important mosquito- and tick-borne pathogenic viruses. This shows that SAYAV evolved into a lineage independent of the known orthoflaviviruses. This study demonstrates a unique approach for understanding the epidemiology of uncultured viruses by combining viral metagenomics and pseudoinfectious viral particles.

Development of a SARS-CoV-2 neutralization assay based on a pseudotyped virus using a HIV system

Regarding the extensive global attention to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) that constitutes an international public health emergency, pseudovirus neutralization assays have been widely applied due to their advantages of being able to be conducted in biosafety level 2 laboratories and having a high safety factor. In this study, by adding a blue fluorescent protein (AmCyan) gene to the HIV system pSG3-△env backbone plasmid HpaI and truncating the C-terminal 21 amino acids of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein (S), high-titer SARS-CoV-2-Sdel21-AmCyan fluorescent pseudovirus was successfully packaged. The fluorescent pseudovirus was used to establish a neutralization assay in a 96-well plate using 293T cells stably transfected with the AF cells. Then, parameters such as the ratio of backbone and membrane plasmid, sensitive cells, inoculation of cells and virus, as well as incubation and detection time were optimized. The pseudovirus neutralization assay demonstrated high accuracy, sensitivity, repeatability, and a strong correlation with the luminescent pseudovirus neutralization assay. Additionally, we scaled up the neutralizing antibody determination method by increasing the plate size from 96 wells to 384 wells. We have established a robust fluorescent pseudotyped virus neutralization assay for SARS-CoV-2 using the HIV system, providing a foundation for serum neutralization antibody detection, monoclonal antibody screening, and vaccine development.

Safety and neutralization antibody levels of inactivated SARS-CoV-2 vaccine in adult patients with Myasthenia Gravis: a prospective observational cohort study

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Myasthenia gravis (MG) is an autoimmune disease affecting the neuromuscular junction. No cohort study has investigated the efficacy of inactivated vaccines in patients with MG.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This prospective observational cohort study included healthy controls (HCs) and patients with MG with or without immunosuppressive treatment. Vaccination occurred between May and December 2021. Patients with MG were subjected to a clinical scale assessment for disease severity. The neutralization antibodies (Nabs) levels were measured in all participants using the pseudovirus neutralization assay.

RESULTS

Twenty-one patients (Female/Male:10/11); age median [interquartile range (IQR)]: 43 [30, 56]) were included in this study. Two patients (2/21) were lost during follow-up after enrollment. No sustained vaccine-related adverse effects occurred in any visit of patients with MG. No exacerbation of MG was observed. Acetylcholine receptor antibody (AChR-Ab) levels showed no statistically significant changes between the first and second visit (median [IQR]: 2.22 [0.99, 2.63] nmol/L vs. 1.54 [1.07, 2.40] nmol/L, p = 0.424). However, levels of AChR-Ab decreased at the third visit (median [IQR]: 2.22 [0.96, 2.70] nmol/L vs. 1.69 [0.70, 1.85] nmol/L, p = 0.011). No statistically significant difference in Nabs levels was found between HCs and patients with MG (median [IQR]: 102.89 [33.13, 293.86] vs. 79.29 [37.50, 141.93], p = 0.147).

DISCUSSION

The safety of the SARS-CoV-2 inactivated vaccine was reconfirmed in this study. No significant difference in Nabs level was found between patients with MG and HCs. Nabs levels correlated with AChR-Ab levels before vaccination and ΔAChR-Ab levels.

ACE2 Receptor-Targeted Inhaled Nanoemulsions Inhibit SARS-CoV-2 and Attenuate Inflammatory Responses

Three kinds of coronaviruses are highly pathogenic to humans, and two of them mainly infect humans through Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 （ACE2）receptors. Therefore, specifically blocking ACE2 binding at the interface with the receptor-binding domain is promising to achieve both preventive and therapeutic effects of coronaviruses. Alternatively, drug-targeted delivery based on ACE2 receptors can further improve the efficacy and safety of inhalation drugs. Here, these two approaches are innovatively combined by designing a nanoemulsion (NE) drug delivery system (termed NE-AYQ) for inhalation that targets binding to ACE2 receptors. This inhalation-delivered remdesivir nanoemulsion (termed RDSV-NE-AYQ) effectively inhibits the infection of target cells by both wild-type and mutant viruses. The RDSV-NE-AYQ strongly inhibits Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 at two dimensions: they not only block the binding of the virus to host cells at the cell surface but also restrict virus replication intracellularly. Furthermore, in the mouse model of acute lung injury, the inhaled drug delivery system loaded with anti-inflammatory drugs (TPCA-1-NE-AYQ) can significantly alleviate the lung tissue injury of mice. This smart combination provides a new choice for dealing with possible emergencies in the future and for the rapid development of inhaled drugs for the treatment of respiratory diseases.

Characterization of antibodies targeting severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus glycoprotein Gc

Severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome (SFTS) is a hemorrhagic fever caused by SFTS virus (SFTSV), which is primarily found in East Asian countries. Despite its high mortality rate and increasing incidence, no vaccines or therapeutics have yet been approved for use against SFTS. Antibody drugs have shown promise in treating lethal infectious diseases that currently have no established treatments. In the case of SFTS, however, only a limited amount of research has been done on SFTSV-neutralizing antibodies targeting the transmembrane proteins Gn and Gc, which play critical roles in viral infection. This study focuses on the production and characterization of antibodies targeting the SFTSV Gc protein. Monoclonal antibodies against Gc were generated through immunization of mice, and their antiviral activity was evaluated. Three out of four anti-Gc antibody clones from this study demonstrated dose-dependent SFTSV neutralization activity, two of which exhibited a synergistic effect on the neutralization activity of the anti-Gn antibody clone Mab4-5. Further studies are necessary to identify key sites on the SFTSV glycoprotein and to develop novel agents as well as antibodies with diverse mechanisms of action against SFTSV.

Pseudoviruses, a safer toolbox for vaccine development against enveloped viruses

INTRODUCTION

Pseudoviruses are recombinant, replication-incompetent, viral particles designed to mimic the surface characteristics of native enveloped viruses. They are a safer, and cost-effective research alternative to live viruses. With the potential emergence of the next major infectious disease, more vaccine scientists must become familiar with the pseudovirus platform as a vaccine development tool to mitigate future outbreaks.

AREAS COVERED

This review aims at vaccine developers to provide a basic understanding of pseudoviruses, list their production methods, and discuss their utility to assess vaccine efficacy against enveloped viral pathogens. We further illustrate their usefulness as wet-lab simulators for emerging mutant variants, and new viruses to help prepare for current and future viral outbreaks, minimizing the need for gain-of-function experiments with highly infectious or lethal enveloped viruses.

EXPERT OPINION

With this platform, researchers can better understand the role of virus-receptor interactions and entry in infections, prepare for dangerous mutations, and develop effective vaccines.

SARS-CoV-2 S-RBD IgG & Neutralizing antibodies among different categories of health care workers post third dose BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 vaccine

Neutralizing antibodies (NTAb) play a significant role in preventing and protecting against SARS-CoV-2 virus infection. Identifying NTAb is undoubtedly imperative in understanding the immunity toward COVID-19 better. However, it is interesting to note that the production of NTAb varies among individuals, especially among healthcare workers (HCWs), as they are exposed to the virus daily. Hence, we would like to investigate factors affecting the production of S-RBD IgG and NTAb among different categories of HCWs, particularly after receiving the third dose of the BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 Vaccine. A total of 361 HCWs from our hospital were prospectively enrolled and had their S-RBD IgG and NTAb titers measured. They were studied in relation to the degree of exposure to COVID-19, breakthrough infections, gender, age, race, household income, housing type, household number, and education levels. HCWs with the highest risk of exposure to COVID-19, breakthrough infections, and male gender displayed the highest median titers of both S-RBD IgG and NTAb, and the differences were statistically significant (p < .05). Age, race, household income, housing type, household number, and education levels were revealed to be insignificant. We concluded that the degree of exposure to COVID-19, breakthrough infections, and male gender are significant factors in NTAb production among HCWs.

From bench to bedside via bytes: Multi-omic immunoprofiling and integration using machine learning and network approaches

A significant surge in research endeavors leverages the vast potential of high-throughput omic technology platforms for broad profiling of biological responses to vaccines and cutting-edge immunotherapies and stem-cell therapies under development. These profiles capture different aspects of core regulatory and functional processes at different scales of resolution from molecular and cellular to organismal. Systems approaches capture the complex and intricate interplay between these layers and scales. Here, we summarize experimental data modalities, for characterizing the genome, epigenome, transcriptome, proteome, metabolome, and antibody-ome, that enable us to generate large-scale immune profiles. We also discuss machine learning and network approaches that are commonly used to analyze and integrate these modalities, to gain insights into correlates and mechanisms of natural and vaccine-mediated immunity as well as therapy-induced immunomodulation.

The development and application of pseudoviruses: assessment of SARS-CoV-2 pseudoviruses

Although most Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) patients can recover fully, the disease remains a significant cause of morbidity and mortality. In addition to the consequences of acute infection, a proportion of the population experiences long-term adverse effects associated with SARS-CoV-2. Therefore, it is still critical to comprehend the virus's characteristics and how it interacts with its host to develop effective drugs and vaccines against COVID-19. SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus, a replication-deficient recombinant glycoprotein chimeric viral particle, enables investigations of highly pathogenic viruses to be conducted without the constraint of high-level biosafety facilities, considerably advancing virology and being extensively employed in the study of SARS-CoV-2. This review summarizes three methods of establishing SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus and current knowledge in vaccine development, neutralizing antibody research, and antiviral drug screening, as well as recent progress in virus entry mechanism and susceptible cell screening. We also discuss the potential advantages and disadvantages.

Development of an automated, high-throughput SARS-CoV-2 neutralization assay based on a pseudotyped virus using a vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) vector

ABSTRACTThe global outbreak of COVID-19 has caused a severe threat to human health; therefore, simple, high-throughput neutralization assays are desirable for developing vaccines and drugs against COVID-19. In this study, a high-titre SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus was successfully packaged by truncating the C-terminus of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein by 21 amino acids and infecting 293 T cells that had been stably transfected with the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor and furin (named AF cells), to establish a simple, high-throughput, and automated 384-well plate neutralization assay. The method was optimized for cell amount, virus inoculation, incubation time, and detection time. The automated assay showed good sensitivity, accuracy, reproducibility, Z' factor, and a good correlation with the live virus neutralization assay. The high-throughput approach would make it available for the SARS-CoV-2 neutralization test in large-scale clinical trials and seroepidemiological surveys which would aid the accelerated vaccine development and evaluation.

Re-Engineered Pseudoviruses for Precise and Robust 3D Mapping of Viral Infection

Engineered vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) pseudotyping offers an essential method for exploring virus-cell interactions, particularly for viruses that require high biosafety levels. Although this approach has been employed effectively, the current methodologies for virus visualization and labeling can interfere with infectivity and lead to misinterpretation of results. In this study, we introduce an innovative approach combining genetic code expansion (GCE) and click chemistry with pseudotyped VSV to produce highly fluorescent and infectious pseudoviruses (clickVSVs). These clickVSVs enable robust and precise virus-cell interaction studies without compromising the biological function of the viral surface proteins. We evaluated this approach by generating VSVs bearing a unique chemical handle for click labeling and assessing the infectivity in relevant cell lines. Our results demonstrate that clickVSVs maintain their infectivity post-labeling and present an efficiency about two times higher in detecting surface proteins compared to classical immunolabeling. The utilization of clickVSVs further allowed us to visualize and track 3D virus binding and infection in living cells, offering enhanced observation of virus-host interactions. Thus, clickVSVs provide an efficient alternative for virus-associated research under the standard biosafety levels.

Production of retroviral vectors in continuous high cell density culture

Retroviral vectors derived from murine leukemia virus (MLV) are used in somatic gene therapy applications e.g. for genetic modification of hematopoietic stem cells. Recently, we reported on the establishment of a suspension viral packaging cell line (VPC) for the production of MLV vectors. Human embryonic kidney 293-F (HEK293-F) cells were genetically modified for this purpose using transposon vector technology. Here, we demonstrate the establishment of a continuous high cell density (HCD) process using this cell line. First, we compared different media regarding the maximum achievable viable cell concentration (VCC) in small scale. Next, we transferred this process to a stirred tank bioreactor before we applied intensification strategies. Specifically, we established a perfusion process using an alternating tangential flow filtration system. Here, VCCs up to 27.4E + 06 cells/mL and MLV vector titers up to 8.6E + 06 transducing units/mL were achieved. Finally, we established a continuous HCD process using a tubular membrane for cell retention and continuous viral vector harvesting. Here, the space-time yield was 18-fold higher compared to the respective batch cultivations. Overall, our results clearly demonstrate the feasibility of HCD cultivations for high yield production of viral vectors, especially when combined with continuous viral vector harvesting. KEY POINTS: • A continuous high cell density process for MLV vector production was established • The tubular cell retention membrane allowed for continuous vector harvesting • The established process had a 18-fold higher space time yield compared to a batch.

Pseudotyping Improves the Yield of Functional SARS-CoV-2 Virus-like Particles (VLPs) as Tools for Vaccine and Therapeutic Development

Virus-like particles (VLPs) have been proposed as an attractive tool in SARS-CoV-2 vaccine development, both as (1) a vaccine candidate with high immunogenicity and low reactogenicity and (2) a substitute for live virus in functional and neutralization assays. Though multiple SARS-CoV-2 VLP designs have already been explored in Sf9 insect cells, a key parameter ensuring VLPs are a viable platform is the VLP spike yield (i.e., spike protein content in VLP), which has largely been unreported. In this study, we show that the common strategy of producing SARS-CoV-2 VLPs by expressing spike protein in combination with the native coronavirus membrane and/or envelope protein forms VLPs, but at a critically low spike yield (~0.04-0.08 mg/L). In contrast, fusing the spike ectodomain to the influenza HA transmembrane domain and cytoplasmic tail and co-expressing M1 increased VLP spike yield to ~0.4 mg/L. More importantly, this increased yield translated to a greater VLP spike antigen density (~96 spike monomers/VLP) that more closely resembles that of native SARS-CoV-2 virus (~72-144 Spike monomers/virion). Pseudotyping further allowed for production of functional alpha (B.1.1.7), beta (B.1.351), delta (B.1.617.2), and omicron (B.1.1.529) SARS-CoV-2 VLPs that bound to the target ACE2 receptor. Finally, we demonstrated the utility of pseudotyped VLPs to test neutralizing antibody activity using a simple, acellular ELISA-based assay performed at biosafety level 1 (BSL-1). Taken together, this study highlights the advantage of pseudotyping over native SARS-CoV-2 VLP designs in achieving higher VLP spike yield and demonstrates the usefulness of pseudotyped VLPs as a surrogate for live virus in vaccine and therapeutic development against SARS-CoV-2 variants.

Correlation between pseudotyped virus and authentic virus neutralisation assays, a systematic review and meta-analysis of the literature

Background

The virus neutralization assay is a principal method to assess the efficacy of antibodies in blocking viral entry. Due to biosafety handling requirements of viruses classified as hazard group 3 or 4, pseudotyped viruses can be used as a safer alternative. However, it is often queried how well the results derived from pseudotyped viruses correlate with authentic virus. This systematic review and meta-analysis was designed to comprehensively evaluate the correlation between the two assays.

Methods

Using PubMed and Google Scholar, reports that incorporated neutralisation assays with both pseudotyped virus, authentic virus, and the application of a mathematical formula to assess the relationship between the results, were selected for review. Our searches identified 67 reports, of which 22 underwent a three-level meta-analysis.

Results

The three-level meta-analysis revealed a high level of correlation between pseudotyped viruses and authentic viruses when used in an neutralisation assay. Reports that were not included in the meta-analysis also showed a high degree of correlation, with the exception of lentiviral-based pseudotyped Ebola viruses.

Conclusion

Pseudotyped viruses identified in this report can be used as a surrogate for authentic virus, though care must be taken in considering which pseudotype core to use when generating new uncharacterised pseudotyped viruses.

Heat-Denatured Lysozyme is a Novel Potential Non-alcoholic Disinfectant Against Respiratory Virus

Respiratory diseases are significant recurrent threats to global public health. Since the 1918 Spanish flu pandemic, seasonal influenza viruses continue to cause epidemics around the world each year. More recently, the COVID-19 global pandemic conducted a public health crisis with more than 6 million deaths and it also severely affected the global economy. Due to the phenomenon that people get infection from objects carrying viruses, it has aroused people's attention to home disinfection. As there is no ideal existing common domestic disinfectant, new and safer antiviral disinfectants are urgently needed. Lysozyme is a natural antibacterial agent widespread in nature and widely used in healthcare and food industry because of is recognized safety. Recently, it has been shown that thermally denatured lysozyme has the ability to kill murine norovirus and hepatitis A virus. In our study, we also demonstrated that heat-denatured lysozyme (HDLz) had an antiviral effect against H1N1 influenza A virus, and we optimized its antiviral activities by testing different heating denaturation conditions, to generalize this property, using pseudotype virus neutralization assay, we found that HDLz can also inhibit the entry of H5N1, H5N6, and H7N1 avian influenza viruses as well as SARS-CoV and SARS-CoV-2 particles in cell with IC50 at the ng/mL range. Finally, using western blot analysis, we provide evidence that HDLz polymerization correlates with antiviral effect, which may be a precious possible quality control test. Altogether, our data support HDLz as a powerful anti-respiratory virus disinfectant as a sole or additive of current disinfectants to reduce concentration of toxic component.

A Pseudovirus-Based Entry Assay to Evaluate Neutralizing Activity against Respiratory Syncytial Virus

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection can cause life-threatening pneumonia and bronchiolitis, posing a significant threat to human health worldwide, especially to children and the elderly. Currently, there is no specific treatment for RSV infection. The most effective measures for preventing RSV infection are vaccines and prophylactic medications. However, not all population groups are eligible for the approved vaccines or antibody-based preventive medications. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop novel vaccines and prophylactic drugs available for people of all ages. High-throughput assays that evaluate the efficacy of viral entry inhibitors or vaccine-induced neutralizing antibodies in blocking RSV entry are crucial for evaluating vaccine and prophylactic drug candidates. We developed an efficient entry assay using a lentiviral pseudovirus carrying the fusion (F) protein of type A or B RSV. In addition, the essential parameters were systematically optimized, including the number of transfected plasmids, storage conditions of the pseudovirus, cell types, cell numbers, virus inoculum, and time point of detection. Furthermore, the convalescent sera exhibited comparable inhibitory activity in this assay as in the authentic RSV virus neutralization assay. We established a robust pseudovirus-based entry assay for RSV, which holds excellent promise for studying entry mechanisms, evaluating viral entry inhibitors, and assessing vaccine-elicited neutralizing antibodies against RSV.

Preventive treatment of coronavirus disease-2019 virus using coronavirus disease-2019-receptor-binding domain 1C aptamer by suppress the expression of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 receptor

The cause of the worldwide coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2). It is known to employ the same entry portal as SARS-CoV, which is the type 1 transmembrane angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor. The receptor-binding domain (RBD) is located on the spike S-protein's S1 subunit of the spike glycoprotein. The most important and effective therapy method is inhibiting the interaction between the ACE2 receptor and the S-spike RBD. An aptamer is a small, single-chain oligonucleotide that binds strongly to the target molecule. Recently, a CoV-2-RBD-1C aptamer-based system with a 51-base hairpin structure was discovered to have substantial binding affinity against the SARS-CoV-2RBD with similar binding sites at ACE. In the current study, we will study the aptamer's effect as a SARS-CoV-2 spike blocker and inhibit its ACE2 receptors' binding by studying the toxicity of aptamer for this cell line by calcein assay and the inhibition test of CoV-2-RBD-1C aptamers on spike RBD-ACE2 binding. The results show the half-maximum inhibitory concentration of CoV-2-RBD-1C aptamer is 0.08188 μM. The inhibition effect of CoV-2-RBD-1C aptamer on spike RBD-ACE2 binding was determined at half-maximal effective concentration of 0.5 μM concentration. The percentage of spike-ACE2 binding inhibition in A549-hACE2 cells in the D614G variant after 30 s was 77%. This percentage is higher than D614 and N501Y and equals 55% and 65%, respectively, at 0.15 μM of CoV-2-RBD-1C aptamer. The CoV-2-RBD-1C aptamer prevents virus entrance through spike inhibition, which results in a 90% reduction in spike D614 virus transduction at 1.28 μM. In conclusion, the CoV-2-RBD-1C aptamer might be an effective treatment against COVID-19 infection because it directly affects the virus by blocking the S-spike of SARS-CoV-2 and preventing ACE2 receptor binding.

Development of an Effective Neutralizing Antibody Assay for SARS-CoV-2 Diagnosis

Introduction

Neutralizing antibodies (NAbs) are essential for preventing reinfection with SARS-CoV-2 and the recurrence of COVID-19; nonetheless, the formation of NAbs following vaccination and infection remains enigmatic due to the lack of a practical and effective NAb assay in routine laboratory settings. In this study, we developed a convenient lateral flow assay for the rapid and precise measurement of serum NAb levels within 20 minutes.

Methods

Receptor-binding domain-fragment crystallizable (RBD-Fc) and angiotensin-converting enzyme 2-histidine tag (ACE2-His) were expressed by the eukaryotic expression systems of Spodoptera frugiperda clone 9 and human embryonic kidney 293T, respectively. Then, colloidal gold was synthesized and conjugated with ACE2. After optimizing various operating parameters, an NAb lateral flow assay was constructed. Subsequently, its detection limit, specificity, and stability were systematically evaluated, and clinical samples were analyzed to validate its clinical feasibility.

Results

RBD-Fc and ACE2-His were obtained with 94.01% and 90.05% purity, respectively. The synthesized colloidal gold had a uniform distribution with an average diameter of 24.15 ± 2.56 nm. With a detection limit of 2 μg/mL, the proposed assay demonstrated a sensitivity of 97.80% and a specificity of 100% in 684 uninfected clinical samples. By evaluating 356 specimens from infected individuals, we observed that the overall concordance rate between the proposed assay and conventional enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was 95.22%, and we noticed that 16.57% (59/356) of individuals still did not produce NAbs after infection (both by ELISA and the proposed assay). All the above tests by this assay can obtain results within 20 minutes by the naked eye without any additional instruments or equipment.

Conclusion

The proposed assay can expediently and reliably detect anti-SARS-CoV-2 NAbs after infection, and the results provide valuable data to facilitate effective prevention and control of SARS-CoV-2.

Clinical trial registration

Serum and blood samples were used under approval from the Biomedical Research Ethics Subcommittee of Henan University, and the clinical trial registration number was HUSOM-2022-052. We confirm that this study complies with the Declaration of Helsinki.

Research progress in methods for detecting neutralizing antibodies against SARS-CoV-2

The emergence of SARS-CoV-2 has seriously affected the lives of people worldwide. Clarifying the attenuation rule of SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibody (NAb) in vivo is the key to prevent reinfection and recurrence of virus. Currently, the commonly used methods for detecting NAb include virus neutralization tests, pseudovirus neutralization assays, lateral flow immunochromatography and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. The detection of NAb not only can be used to evaluate the level of immunity after vaccination or infection but also can provide important theoretical support for virus reinfection, recurrence and vaccine iteration. In this research, the related technologies of SARS-CoV-2 NAb detection were reviewed, aiming to provide better research ideas for SARS-CoV-2 epidemic prevention and control.

Uses and Challenges of Antiviral Polyclonal and Monoclonal Antibody Therapies

Viral diseases represent a major public health concerns and ever-present risks for developing into future pandemics. Antiviral antibody therapeutics, either alone or in combination with other therapies, emerged as valuable preventative and treatment options, including during global emergencies. Here we will discuss polyclonal and monoclonal antiviral antibody therapies, focusing on the unique biochemical and physiological properties that make them well-suited as therapeutic agents. We will describe the methods of antibody characterization and potency assessment throughout development, highlighting similarities and differences between polyclonal and monoclonal products as appropriate. In addition, we will consider the benefits and challenges of antiviral antibodies when used in combination with other antibodies or other types of antiviral therapeutics. Lastly, we will discuss novel approaches to the characterization and development of antiviral antibodies and identify areas that would benefit from additional research.

Neutralization of the new coronavirus by extracting their spikes using engineered liposomes

The devastating COVID-19 pandemic motivates the development of safe and effective antivirals to reduce morbidity and mortality associated with infection. We developed nanoscale liposomes that are coated with the cell receptor of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the virus that causes COVID-19. Lentiviral particles pseudotyped with the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 were constructed and used to test the virus neutralization potential of the engineered liposomes. Under TEM, we observed for the first time a dissociation of spike proteins from the pseudovirus surface when the pseudovirus was purified. The liposomes potently inhibit viral entry into host cells by extracting the spike proteins from the pseudovirus surface. As the receptor on the liposome surface can be readily changed to target other viruses, the receptor-coated liposome represents a promising strategy for broad spectrum antiviral development.

Pseudotyped Viruses for Coronaviruses

Seven coronaviruses have been identified that can infect humans, four of which usually cause mild symptoms, including HCoV-229E, HCoV-NL63, HCoV-OC43, and HCoV-HKU1, three of which are lethal coronaviruses, named severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus, Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus, and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. Pseudotyped virus is an important tool in the field of human coronavirus research because it is safe, easy to prepare, easy to detect, and highly modifiable. In addition to the application of pseudotyped viruses in the study of virus infection mechanism, vaccine, and candidate antiviral drug or antibody evaluation and screening, pseudotyped viruses can also be used as an important platform for further application in the prediction of immunogenicity and antigenicity after virus mutation, cross-species transmission prediction, screening, and preparation of vaccine strains with better broad spectrum and antigenicity. Meanwhile, as clinical trials of various types of vaccines and post-clinical studies are also being carried out one after another, the establishment of a high-throughput and fully automated detection platform based on SARS-CoV-2 pseudotyped virus to further reduce the cost of detection and manual intervention and improve the efficiency of large-scale detection is also a demand for the development of SARS-CoV-2 pseudotyped virus.

Pseudotyped Viruses for Lyssavirus

Lyssaviruses, which belong to the family Rhabdoviridae, are enveloped and bullet-shaped ssRNA viruses with genetic diversity. All members of Lyssavirus genus are known to infect warm-blooded animals and cause the fatal disease rabies. The rabies virus (RABV) in lyssavirus is the major pathogen to cause fatal rabies. The pseudotyped RABV is constructed to study the biological functions of G protein and evaluation of anti-RABV products including vaccine-induced antisera, rabies immunoglobulins (RIG), neutralizing mAbs, and other antiviral inhibitors. In this chapter, we focus on RABV as a representative and describe the construction of RABV G protein bearing pseudotyped virus and its applications. Other non-RABV lyssaviruses are also included.

Production and characterization of lentivirus vector-based SARS-CoV-2 pseudoviruses with dual reporters: Evaluation of anti-SARS-CoV-2 viral effect of Korean Red Ginseng

Background

Pseudotyped virus systems that incorporate viral proteins have been widely employed for the rapid determination of the effectiveness and neutralizing activity of drug and vaccine candidates in biosafety level 2 facilities. We report an efficient method for producing severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pseudovirus with dual luciferase and fluorescent protein reporters. Moreover, using the established method, we also aimed to investigate whether Korean Red Ginseng (KRG), a valuable Korean herbal medicine, can attenuate infectivity of the pseudotyped virus.

Methods

A pseudovirus of SARS-CoV-2 (SARS-2pv) was constructed and efficiently produced using lentivirus vector systems available in the public domain by the introduction of critical mutations in the cytoplasmic tail of the spike protein. KRG extract was dose-dependently treated to Calu-3 cells during SARS2-pv treatment to evaluate the protective activity against SARS-CoV-2.

Results

The use of Calu-3 cells or the expression of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) in HEK293T cells enabled SARS-2pv infection of host cells. Coexpression of transmembrane protease serine subtype 2 (TMPRSS2), which is the activator of spike protein, with ACE2 dramatically elevated luciferase activity, confirming the importance of the TMPRSS2-mediated pathway during SARS-CoV-2 entry. Our pseudovirus assay also revealed that KRG elicited resistance to SARS-CoV-2 infection in lung cells, suggesting its beneficial health effect.

Conclusion

The method demonstrated the production of SARS-2pv for the analysis of vaccine or drug candidates. When KRG was assessed by the method, it protected host cells from coronavirus infection. Further studies will be followed for demonstrating this potential benefit.

Stability of SARS-CoV-2 in cold-chain transportation environments and the efficacy of disinfection measures

Background

Low temperature is conducive to the survival of COVID-19. Some studies suggest that cold-chain environment may prolong the survival of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and increase the risk of transmission. However, the effect of cold-chain environmental factors and packaging materials on SARS-CoV-2 stability remains unclear.

Methods

This study aimed to reveal cold-chain environmental factors that preserve the stability of SARS-CoV-2 and further explore effective disinfection measures for SARS-CoV-2 in the cold-chain environment. The decay rate of SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus in the cold-chain environment, on various types of packaging material surfaces, i.e., polyethylene plastic, stainless steel, Teflon and cardboard, and in frozen seawater was investigated. The influence of visible light (wavelength 450 nm-780 nm) and airflow on the stability of SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus at -18°C was subsequently assessed.

Results

Experimental data show that SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus decayed more rapidly on porous cardboard surfaces than on nonporous surfaces, including polyethylene (PE) plastic, stainless steel, and Teflon. Compared with that at 25°C, the decay rate of SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus was significantly lower at low temperatures. Seawater preserved viral stability both at -18°C and with repeated freeze-thaw cycles compared with that in deionized water. Visible light from light-emitting diode (LED) illumination and airflow at -18°C reduced SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirus stability.

Conclusion

Our studies indicate that temperature and seawater in the cold chain are risk factors for SARS-CoV-2 transmission, and LED visible light irradiation and increased airflow may be used as disinfection measures for SARS-CoV-2 in the cold-chain environment.

Assays Based on Pseudotyped Viruses

Pseudotyped viruses are more and more widely used in virus research and the evaluation of antiviral products because of their high safety, simple operation, high accessibility, ease in achieving standardization, and high throughput. The development of measures based on pseudotyped virus is closely related to the characteristics of viruses, and it is also necessary to follow the principles of assay development. Only in the process of method development, where the key parameters that affect the results are systematically optimized and the preliminary established method is fully validated, can the accuracy, reliability, and repeatability of the test results be ensured. Only the method established on this basis can be transferred to different laboratories and make the results of different laboratories comparable. This paper summarizes the specific aspects and general principles in the development of assays based on pseudotyped virus, which is of reference value for the development of similar methods.

Pseudotyped Viruses for Orthohantavirus

Orthohantaviruses, members of the Orthohantavirus genus of Hantaviridae family of the Bunyavirales order, are enveloped, negative-sense, single-stranded, tripartite RNA viruses. They are emerging zoonotic pathogens carried by small mammals including rodents, moles, shrews, and bats and are the etiologic agents of hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome (HFRS) and hantavirus cardiopulmonary syndrome (HCPS) among humans. With the characteristics of low biological risk but strong operability, a variety of pseudotyped viruses have been constructed as alternatives to authentic orthohantaviruses to help delineate the roles of host factors in viral entry and other virus-host interactions, to assist in deciphering mechanisms of immune response and correlates of protection, to enhance our understanding of viral antigenic property, to characterize viral entry inhibitors, and to be developed as vaccines. In this chapter, we will discuss the general property of orthohantavirus, construction of pseudotyped orthohantaviruses based on different packaging systems, and their current applications.

Pseudotyped Virus for Flaviviridae

Members of Flaviviridae are enveloped single positive-stranded RNA viruses including hepacivirus, pestivirus, pegivirus, and mosquito-transmitted flavivirus, which are important pathogens of infectious diseases and pose serious threats to human health. Pseudotyped virus is an artificially constructed virus-like particle, which could infect host cells similar to a live virus but cannot produce infectious progeny virus. Therefore, pseudotyped virus has the advantages of a wide host range, high transfection efficiency, low biosafety risk, and accurate and objective quantification. It has been widely used in biological characteristics, drug screening, detection methods, and vaccine evaluation of Flaviviridae viruses like hepatitis C virus, Japanese encephalitis virus, dengue virus, and Zika virus.

Pseudotyped Viruses for the Alphavirus Chikungunya Virus

Members of the genus Alphavirus are mostly mosquito-borne pathogens that cause disease in their vertebrate hosts. Chikungunya virus (CHIKV), which is one member of the genus Alphavirus [1], has been a major health problem in endemic areas since its re-emergence in 2006. CHIKV is transmitted to mammalian hosts by the Aedes mosquito, causing persistent debilitating symptoms in many cases. At present, there is no specific treatment or vaccine. Experiments involving live CHIKV need to be performed in BSL-3 facilities, which limits vaccine and drug research. The emergence of pseudotyped virus technology offered the potential for the development of a safe and effective evaluation method. In this chapter, we review the construction and application of pseudotyped CHIKVs, the findings from which have enhanced our understanding of CHIKV. This will, in turn, enable the exploration of promising therapeutic strategies in animal models, with the ultimate aim of developing effective treatments and vaccines against CHIKV and other related viruses.

Pseudotyped Viruses

Pseudotyped viruses have been constructed for many viruses. They can mimic the authentic virus and have many advantages compared to authentic viruses. Thus, they have been widely used as a surrogate of authentic virus for viral function analysis, detection of neutralizing antibodies, screening viral entry inhibitors, and others. This chapter reviewed the progress in the field of pseudotyped viruses in general, including the definition and the advantages of pseudotyped viruses, their potential usage, different strategies or vectors used for the construction of pseudotyped viruses, and factors that affect the construction of pseudotyped viruses.

Application of Pseudotyped Viruses

Highly pathogenic emerging and reemerging viruses have serious public health and socioeconomic implications. Although conventional live virus research methods can more reliably investigate disease pathogenicity and evaluate antiviral products, they usually depend on high-level biosafety laboratories and skilled researchers; these requirements hinder in vitro assessments of efficacy, as well as efforts to test vaccines and antibody drugs. In contrast, pseudotyped viruses (i.e., single-round infectious viruses that mimic the membrane structures of various live viruses) are widely used in studies of highly pathogenic viruses because they can be handled in biosafety level 2 facilities. This chapter provides a concise overview of various aspects of pseudotyped virus technologies, including (1) exploration of the mechanisms of viral infection; (2) evaluation of the efficacies of vaccines and monoclonal antibodies based on pseudovirion-based neutralization assay; (3) assessment of antiviral agents (i.e., antibody-based drugs and inhibitors); (4) establishment of animal models of pseudotyped virus infection in vivo; (5) investigation of the evolution, infectivity, and antigenicity of viral variants and viral glycosylation; and (6) prediction of antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxic activity.

Infectivity of pseudotyped SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern in different human cell types and inhibitory effects of recombinant spike protein and entry-related cellular factors

Since the report of the first COVID-19 case in 2019, SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern (VOCs) have continued to emerge, manifesting diverse infectivity, evasion of host immunity and pathology. While ACE2 is the predominant receptor of SARS-CoV-2, TMPRSS2, Kim-1, NRP-1, CD147, furin, CD209L, and CD26 have also been implicated as viral entry-related cofactors. To understand the variations in infectivity and pathogenesis of VOCs, we conducted infection analysis in human cells from different organ systems using pseudoviruses of VOCs including Alpha, Beta, Gamma, and Delta. Recombinant spike S1, RBD, ACE2, Kim-1, and NRP-1 proteins were tested for their ability to block infection to dissect their roles in SARS-CoV-2 entry into cells. Compared with wild type SARS-CoV-2 (WT), numerous VOCs had significant increases of infectivity across a wide spectrum of cell types. Recombinant ACE2 protein more effectively inhibited the infection of VOCs including Delta and Omicron (BA.1 and BA.2) than that of WT. Interestingly, recombinant S1, RBD, Kim-1, and NRP-1 proteins inhibited the infection of all pseudoviruses in a manner dependent on the levels of ACE2 expression in different cell types. These results provide insights into the diverse infectivity of SARS-CoV-2 VOCs, which might be helpful for managing the emergence of new VOCs.

Repurposing of berbamine hydrochloride to inhibit Ebola virus by targeting viral glycoprotein

Ebola virus (EBOV) infection leads to staggeringly high mortality rate. Effective and low-cost treatments are urgently needed to control frequent EBOV outbreaks in Africa. In this study, we report that a natural compound called berbamine hydrochloride strongly inhibits EBOV replication in vitro and in vivo. Our work further showed that berbamine hydrochloride acts by directly binding to the cleaved EBOV glycoprotein (GPcl), disrupting GPcl interaction with viral receptor Niemann-Pick C1, thus blocking the fusion of viral and cellular membranes. Our data support the probability of developing anti-EBOV small molecule drugs by targeting viral GPcl. More importantly, since berbamine hydrochloride has been used in clinic to treat leukopenia, it holds great promise of being quickly repurposed as an anti-EBOV drug.

(+)-Usnic Acid and Its Derivatives as Inhibitors of a Wide Spectrum of SARS-CoV-2 Viruses

In order to test the antiviral activity, a series of usnic acid derivatives were synthesized, including new, previously undescribed compounds. The activity of the derivatives against three strains of SARS-CoV-2 virus was studied. To understand the mechanism of antiviral action, the inhibitory activity of the main protease of SARS-CoV-2 virus was studied using the developed model as well as the antiviral activity against the pseudoviral system with glycoprotein S of SARS-CoV-2 virus on its surface. It was shown that usnic acid exhibits activity against three strains of SARS-CoV-2 virus: Wuhan, Delta, and Omicron. Compounds 10 and 13 also showed high activity against the three strains. The performed biological studies and molecular modeling allowed us to assume that the derivatives of usnic acid bind in the N-terminal domain of the surface glycoprotein S at the binding site of the hemoglobin decay metabolite.

Comparative analysis of the neutralizing activity against SARS-CoV-2 Wuhan-Hu-1 strain and variants of concern: Performance evaluation of a pseudovirus-based neutralization assay

Objectives

Emergence of new variants of SARS-CoV-2 might affect vaccine efficacy. Therefore, assessing the capacity of sera to neutralize variants of concern (VOCs) in BSL-2 conditions will help evaluating the immune status of population following vaccination or infection.

Methods

Pseudotyped viruses bearing SARS-CoV-2 spike protein from Wuhan-Hu-1/D614G strains (wild type, WT), B.1.617.2 (Delta), or B.1.1.529 (Omicron) VOCs were generated to assess the neutralizing antibodies (nAbs) activity by a pseudovirus-based neutralization assay (PVNA). PVNA performance was assessed in comparison to the micro-neutralization test (MNT) based on live viruses. Sera collected from COVID-19 convalescents and vaccinees receiving mRNA (BNT16b2 or mRNA-1273) or viral vector (AZD1222 or Ad26.COV2.S) vaccines were used to measure nAbs elicited by two-dose BNT16b2, mRNA-1273, AZD1222 or one-dose Ad26.CO2.S, at different times from completed vaccination, ~ 1.5 month and ~ 4-6 months. Sera from pre-pandemic and unvaccinated individuals were analyzed as controls. Neutralizing activity following booster vaccinations against VOCs was also determined.

Results

PVNA titers correlated with the gold standard MNT assay, validating the reliability of PVNA. Sera analyzed late from the second dose showed a reduced neutralization activity compared to sera collected earlier. Ad26.CO2.S vaccination led to very low or absent nAbs. Neutralization of Delta and Omicron BA.1 VOCs showed significant reduction of nAbs respect to WT strain. Importantly, booster doses enhanced Omicron BA.1 nAbs, with persistent levels at 3 months from boosting.

Conclusions

PVNA is a reliable tool for assessing anti-SARS-CoV-2 nAbs helping the establishment of a correlate of protection and the management of vaccination strategies.

Applications of self-replicating RNA

Self-replicating RNA viral vectors have been engineered for both prophylactic and therapeutic applications. Mainly the areas of infectious diseases and cancer have been targeted. Both positive and negative strand RNA viruses have been utilized including alphaviruses, flaviviruses, measles viruses and rhabdoviruses. The high-level of RNA amplification has provided efficient expression of viral surface proteins and tumor antigens. Immunization studies in animal models have elicit robust neutralizing antibody responses. In the context of infectious diseases, immunization with self-replicating RNA viral vectors has provided protection against challenges with lethal doses of pathogens in animal models. Similarly, immunization with vectors expressing tumor antigens has resulted in tumor regression and eradication and protection against tumor challenges in animal models. The transient nature and non-integration of viral RNA into the host genome are ideal features for vaccine development. Moreover, self-replicating RNA viral vectors show great flexibility as they can be applied as recombinant viral particles, RNA replicons or DNA replicon plasmids. Several clinical trials have been conducted especially in the area of cancer immunotherapy.

Endodomain truncation of the HIV-1 envelope protein improves the packaging efficiency of pseudoviruses

HIV-1 remains one of the most devastating infectious pathogens without available vaccines. A valid neutralization assay using multiple representative virus strains is prerequisite for antibody response analysis in HIV-1 vaccine development, where HIV pseudoviruses (PsVs) commonly serve as surrogate agents for the authentic HIV, offering a safer manipulation in Biosafety Level 2+. However, PsV production is of low efficiency and is unstable in this field. Here, we optimize PsV production conditions via the use of alternative host cells, packaging ratios and gene truncation. We show that a 153-aa truncation of the endodomain substantially enhances the packaging efficiency of HIV PsVs, providing 4 to 25 times higher infection titers than the full-length Env. Further, we obtained a robust HIV-1 PsV panel covering 12 representative global strains for neutralization assay testing. This work sheds light on how to optimize HIV PsV packaging, and provides functional insight into the cytoplasmic domain of HIV-1.

Immunodetection assays for the quantification of seasonal common cold coronaviruses OC43, NL63, or 229E infection confirm nirmatrelvir as broad coronavirus inhibitor

Besides pandemic SARS-CoV-2, also endemic seasonal human common cold coronaviruses (hCoVs) have a significant impact on human health and economy. Studies on hCoVs and the identification of antivirals are therefore crucial to improve human well-being. However, hCoVs have long been neglected and the methodology to study virus infection, replication and inhibition warrants being updated. We here evaluated the established plaque-based assays to determine viral titers and cell-to-cell spread and developed protocols for the immunodetection of the viral nucleocapsid protein by flow cytometry and in-cell ELISA to study infection rates at early time points. The developed protocols allow detection of hCoV-229E infection after 2, and hCoV-NL63 and -OC43 infection after 3 days at a single cell level or in a 96 well microtiter format, in large sample numbers without being laborious or expensive. Both assays can be applied to assess the susceptibility of cells to hCoV infection and replication, and to determine the efficacy of antiviral compounds as well as neutralizing antibodies in a sensitive and quantitative manner. Application revealed that clinically applied SARS-CoV-2 targeting monoclonal antibodies are inactive against hCoVs, but that the viral polymerase targeting antivirals remdesivir and molnupiravir are broadly active also against all three hCoVs. Further, the in-cell ELISA provided evidence that nirmatrelvir, previously shown to broadly inhibit coronavirus proteases, also prevents replication of authentic hCoVs. Importantly, the protocols described here can be easily adapted to other coronavirus strains and species as well as viruses of other families within a short time. This will facilitate future research on known and emerging (corona)viruses, support the identification of antivirals and increase the preparedness for future virus outbreaks.

A Novel and Secure Pseudovirus Reporter System Based Assay for Neutralizing and Enhancing Antibody Assay Against Marburg Virus

Marburg virus (MARV) is one of the principal members of the filovirus family, which can cause fatal hemorrhagic fever in humans. There are currently no prophylactic and therapeutic drugs on the market, and the high pathogenicity and infectivity of MARV make its research highly dependent on biosafety level 4 conditions, severely hindering the development of vaccines and therapies. Therefore, the development of medicines, such as MARV serological diagnosis, vaccines, and therapeutic antibody drugs, urgently needs a safe, convenient, and biosafety level 2 detection method to measure the neutralizing activity of MARV antibodies. To this end, we report a neutralization assay relying on a Rabies virus (RABV) reverse genetic operating system. We constructed infectious clones carrying the eGFP reporter gene and the full length of the original unmodified MARV GP gene. Based on the critical parameters of phylogenetic analysis, recombinant viruses targeting representative strains in the two major MARV lineages were successfully rescued. These pseudoviruses are safe in mice, and their inability to infect cells after being neutralized by antibodies can be visualized under a fluorescence microscope. We tested the system using the neutralizing antibody MR191. MR191 can significantly block the infection of BSR cells with pseudovirus. We compared it with the traditional lentivirus-type pseudovirus system to verify the system’s credibility and obtained the same results as reported in the literature. In general, we have established a safe and visualized method for evaluating the neutralizing activity of MARV antibodies. Compared with traditional methods, it has the advantages of convenient operation, short cycle, and low cost. It is a candidate method that can replace actual viruses for a neutralization assay.

Preparation and application of chikungunya pseudovirus containing double reporter genes

Chikungunya virus (CHIKV), a highly infectious and rapidly spread viral pathogen, is classified as a pathogenic agent at the biosafety level 3. Operation of live authentic CHIKV needs a specific laboratory with the P3 or above containment, which greatly confines the CHIKV-associated studies. To establish an evaluation system of CHIKV that can be utilized in a BSL2 laboratory, we constructed a pseudovirus (PsV) system of CHIKV containing double reporter genes (ZsGreen1 and luciferase). The fluorescent ZsGreen1 is a convenient and cheap reporter for monitoring the efficiency of transfection and titration of PsV. The enzyme luciferase is a sensitive reporter for the application of PsV to neutralization assay or drug screening. The CHIKV PsV produced in this study, with a titer of up to 3.16 × 10⁶ TU/ml, was confirmed by Western blotting and transmission electronic microscopy (TEM). Finally, we developed a microneutralization assay with the CHIKV PsV produced in this study, which was successfully applied to evaluate neutralizing activities of convalescent sera from CHIKV-infected patients. In summary, we have established a convenient and sensitive double-reporter CHIKV pseudovirus system, which provides a safe and effective platform for screening anti-CHIKV drugs and evaluating vaccines against CHIKV.

Construction and Characterization of HIV-1 env-Pseudoviruses of the Recombinant Form CRF63_02A and Subtype A6

HIV-1 env-pseudoviruses are a useful tool in the search for antiviral drugs (entry inhibitors) and evaluation of the efficacy of HIV-1 vaccines. Given the high genetic variability of HIV-1, it is necessary to regularly update the panels of pseudoviruses in accordance with the emergence of new strains. Based on genetic variants of HIV-1 circulating in the regions of the Siberian Federal District, 13 HIV-1 env-pseudoviruses of recombinant form CRF63_02A and subtype A6 were obtained. Most pseudoviruses have been shown to be sensitive to neutralization by bnAbs VRC01, PGT126, and 10E8, moderately sensitive to bnAbs PG9 and 4E10, and resistant to bnAbs 2G12, PG16, and 2F5. All obtained variants of pseudoviruses are CCR5-tropic.

Antiviral activity of aframomum melegueta against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronaviruses type 1 and 2

Plant-based compounds with antiviral properties against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) have been identified in Aframomum melegueta through computational models. The seed extract have been traditionally used to treat different illnesses. In this study, ethanolic extracts were prepared for six commercial samples of A. melegueta seeds. Antiviral activity was tested using the XTT cytotoxicity assay and cell-based SARS-CoV-1 and 2 pseudoviral models. The presence of gingerols and other non-volatile components in the seed extracts was determined using an Agilent 1290 UPLC/DAD in tandem with an Agilent 6546 QTOF-MS. Our results showed selective antiviral activity with TI values as high as 13.1. Fifteen gingerols were identified by chromatographic analysis, with 6-gingerol being the dominant component in each seed extract. A combination of 6-gingerol with techtochrysin, previously identified in computational models as a potential active ingredient against SARS-CoV-2, demonstrated additive antiviral activity with CI values between 0.8715 and 0.9426. We confirmed the antiviral activity of A. melegueta predicted through computational models and identified a different compound, 6-gingerol, as a potential active ingredient.

Safety and Immunogenicity of Inactivated COVID-19 Vaccines Among People Living with HIV in China

Purpose

Vaccination reduces the incidence of severe COVID-19 and death and effectively limits viral spread. Concerns have been raised about COVID-19 vaccine responses in the large population of HIV-infected patients. This study aims to explore the safety and immunogenicity of the inactivated COVID-19 vaccine in people living with HIV (PLWH).

Patients and Methods

All participants in this study already had their second dose of an inactivated COVID-19 vaccine at least 14 days earlier, without a history of SARS-CoV-2 infection. The primary safety outcomes were the incidence of adverse reactions and changes in CD4⁺ T-cell counts. SARS-CoV-2 IgG and neutralizing antibody responses to the D614G variant and delta variant were measured for immune response assessment.

Results

Forty-seven HIV-infected patients and 18 healthy donors (HDs) were enrolled in this study. Adverse reactions were mild or self-limiting and were reported in 19.1% of HIV-infected patients. Most PLWH developed antibody responses against the inactivated COVID-19 vaccine. The longitudinal analysis of antibody responses in PLWH (median interval between detection and complete vaccination, 59 days) showed that antibodies were maintained for at least three months, though their titers were reduced. However, the antibody-positive rates in PLWH were significantly lower than those in HDs. Additionally, compared to HDs (Geomean titers (GMT) of 165 for D614G and GMT of 72 for delta), the neutralizing antibody titers against the two variants in PLWH (GMT of 43 for D614G and GMT 13 for delta) were decreased significantly (p = 0.018 and p < 0.001, respectively). HIV-infected patients with CD4⁺T-cell counts ≤350 cells/μL appeared to exhibit a poor antibody response to inactivated vaccination.

Conclusion

Inactivated COVID-19 vaccines appear to be efficacious in PLWH. However, antibody responses in HIV-infected patients are inferior to those in healthy individuals, especially PLWH with lower CD4⁺T-cell counts.

Development of a hybrid alphavirus-SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirion for rapid quantification of neutralization antibodies and antiviral drugs

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) spike protein (S)-pseudotyped viruses are commonly used for quantifying antiviral drugs and neutralizing antibodies. Here, we describe the development of a hybrid alphavirus-SARS-CoV-2 (Ha-CoV-2) pseudovirion, which is a non-replicating SARS-CoV-2 virus-like particle composed of viral structural proteins (S, M, N, and E) and an RNA genome derived from a fast-expressing alphaviral vector. We validated Ha-CoV-2 for rapid quantification of neutralization antibodies, antiviral drugs, and viral variants. In addition, as a proof of concept, we used Ha-CoV-2 to quantify the neutralizing antibodies from an infected and vaccinated individual and found that the one-dose vaccination with Moderna mRNA-1273 greatly increased the anti-serum titer by approximately 6-fold. The post-vaccination serum can neutralize all nine variants tested. These results demonstrate that Ha-CoV-2 can be used as a robust platform for the rapid quantification of neutralizing antibodies against SARS-CoV-2 and its emerging variants.

Photodynamic disinfection of SARS-CoV-2 clinical samples using a methylene blue formulation

Abstract

The amplitude of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic motivated global efforts to find therapeutics that avert severe forms of this illness. The urgency of the medical needs privileged repositioning of approved medicines. Methylene blue (MB) has been in clinical use for a century and proved especially useful as a photosensitizer for photodynamic disinfection (PDI). We describe the use of MB to photo-inactivate SARS-CoV-2 in samples collected from COVID-19 patients. One minute of treatment can reduce the percentage inhibition of amplification by 99.99% under conditions of low cytotoxicity. We employed a pseudotyped lentiviral vector (LVs) encoding the luciferase reporter gene and exhibiting the S protein of SARS-CoV-2 at its surface, to infect human ACE2-expressing HEK293T cells. Pre-treatment of LVs with MB-PDI prevented infection at low micromolar MB concentrations and 1 min of illumination. These results reveal the potential of MB-PDI to reduce viral loads in the nasal cavity and oropharynx in the early stages of COVID-19, which may be employed to curb the transmission and severity of the disease.

Graphical Abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s43630-022-00202-6.