Pigment epithelium-derived factor as a multifunctional antitumor factor

Proteomic Insights into Senescence of Testicular Peritubular Cells from a Nonhuman Primate Model

Age-related changes in the human testis may include morphological alterations, disturbed steroidogenesis, and impaired spermatogenesis. However, the specific impact of cell age remains poorly understood and difficult to assess. Testicular peritubular cells fulfill essential functions, including sperm transport, contributions to the spermatogonial stem cell niche, and paracrine interactions within the testis. To study their role in age-associated decline of testicular functions, we performed comprehensive proteome and secretome analyses of repeatedly passaged peritubular cells from Callithrix jacchus. This nonhuman primate model better reflects the human testicular biology than rodents and further gives access to young donors unavailable from humans. Among 5095 identified proteins, 583 were differentially abundant between samples with low and high passage numbers. The alterations indicate a reduced ability of senescent peritubular cells to contract and secrete proteins, as well as disturbances in nuclear factor (NF)-κB signaling and a reduced capacity to handle reactive oxygen species. Since this in vitro model may not exactly mirror all molecular aspects of in vivo aging, we investigated the proteomes and secretomes of testicular peritubular cells from young and old donors. Even though the age-related alterations at the protein level were less pronounced, we found evidence for impaired protein secretion, altered NF-κB signaling, and reduced contractility of these in vivo aged peritubular cells.

Essential roles of interstitial cells in testicular development and function

BACKGROUND

Testicular architecture and sperm production are supported by a complex network of communication between various cell types. These signals ensure fertility by: regulating spermatogonial stem/progenitor cells; promoting steroidogenesis; and driving male-specific differentiation of the gonad. Sertoli cells have long been assumed to be the major cellular player in testis organogenesis and spermatogenesis. However, cells in the interstitial compartment, such as Leydig, vascular, immune, and peritubular cells, also play prominent roles in the testis but are less well understood.

OBJECTIVES

Here, we aim to outline our current knowledge of the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which interstitial cell types contribute to spermatogenesis and testicular development, and how these diverse constituents of the testis play essential roles in ensuring male sexual differentiation and fertility.

METHODS

We surveyed scientific literature and summarized findings in the field that address how interstitial cells interact with other interstitial cell populations and seminiferous tubules (i.e., Sertoli and germ cells) to support spermatogenesis, male-specific differentiation, and testicular function. These studies focused on 4 major cell types: Leydig cells, vascular cells, immune cells, and peritubular cells.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A growing number of studies have demonstrated that interstitial cells play a wide range of functions in the fetal and adult testis. Leydig cells, through secretion of hormones and growth factors, are responsible for steroidogenesis and progression of spermatogenesis. Vascular, immune, and peritubular cells, apart from their traditionally acknowledged physiological roles, have a broader importance than previously appreciated and are emerging as essential players in stem/progenitor cell biology.

CONCLUSION

Interstitial cells take part in complex signaling interactions with both interstitial and tubular cell populations, which are required for several biological processes, such as steroidogenesis, Sertoli cell function, spermatogenesis, and immune regulation. These various processes are essential for testicular function and demonstrate how interstitial cells are indispensable for male fertility.

Therapeutic Potential of Pigment Epithelium-derived Factor in Cancer

Pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) is one of the serine protease inhibitors with multifunctional properties, which is produced by various types of organs and tissues. There is an accumulating body of evidence that PEDF plays an important role in the maintenance of tissue homeostasis. Indeed, PEDF not only works as an endogenous inhibitor of angiogenesis, but also suppresses oxidative stress, inflammatory and thrombotic reactions in cell culture systems, animal models, and humans. Furthermore, we, along with others, have found that PEDF inhibits proliferation of, and induces apoptotic cell death in, numerous kinds of tumors. In addition, circulating as well as tumor expression levels of PEDF have been inversely associated with tumor growth and metastasis. These observations suggest that supplementation of PEDF proteins and/or enhancement of endogenous PEDF expression could be a novel therapeutic strategy for the treatment of cancer. Therefore, in this paper, we review the effects of PEDF on diverse types of cancer, and discuss its therapeutic perspectives.

Cancer-targeted PEDF-DNA therapy for metastatic colorectal cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a major cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide. Moreover, metastasis is one of the main causes of death in CRC patients. Nanotechnology-based gene therapy has shown significant therapeutic benefits in recent clinical trials for cancer treatment. Recent studies have shown that pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) protein can inhibit tumor growth and metastasis by anti-angiogenesis and pro-apoptosis. In this study, we prepared a PEDF-DNA-loaded liposome for cancer-targeted gene therapy for metastatic CRC using an iRGD peptide. Our results showed that cancer-targeted PEDF-DNA liposomes (R-LP/PEDF) exhibited enhanced inhibitory effects on invasion, migration, and pro-apoptosis of CRC cells in vitro. In addition, it reduced metastasis tumor nodules in lung and prolonged the survival time in a mouse model of metastatic CRC.

Potential of Protein-based Anti-metastatic Therapy with Serpins and Inter α-Trypsin Inhibitors

In this review we summarize the principles of anti-metastatic therapy with selected serpin family proteins, such as pigment epithelial-derived factor (PEDF) and maspin, as well as inter α-trypsin inhibitor (IαIs) light chains (bikunin) and heavy chains (ITIHs). Case-by-case, antimetastatic activity may be dependent or independent of the protease-inhibitory activity of the corresponding proteins. We discuss the incidence of target deregulation in different tumor entities, mechanisms of deregulation, context-dependent functional issues as well as in vitro and in vivo target validation studies with transfected tumor cells or recombinant protein as anti-metastatic agents. Finally, we comment on possible clinical evaluation of these proteins in adjuvant therapy.

The pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF): an important potential therapeutic agent for infantile hemangioma

In previous studies, the expression and the role of proangiogenic factors in infantile hemangiomas have been well studied. However, the role of angiogenic inhibitors has been revealed rarely. The expression of PEDF, as the strongest and safe endogenous inhibitor, is still unrecognized until the current study. In order to investigate the expression and significance of the pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in the proliferating and regressing phases of infantile hemangiomas, the expression of PEDF, VEGF, Ki-67, and CD34 protein in hemangioma tissues was examined with immunohistochemical polymer HRP method in 42 cases during the proliferative phase, 40 cases during the regressing phase, and 11 cases of non-involuting congenital hemangiomas (NICHs). Meanwhile, the mRNA expression of these factors was detected with quantitative realtime RT-PCR. We found the protein and mRNA expression of PEDF in regressing phase was significantly higher than those in proliferative phase and NICHs (P < 0.001), while the protein and mRNA expression of VEGF were much lower (P < 0.001). The microvessel density (MVD), Ki-67 changes, and the expression of PEDF and VEGF were found significantly correlated. These results indicated that the reduction of VEGF and increase in PEDF are causative to the evolution of infantile hemangioma. PEDF may play a key role in the spontaneous regression of infantile hemangioma and may become an important potential therapeutic agent for infantile hemangioma.

Secretion of N- and O-linked Glycoproteins from 4T1 Murine Mammary Carcinoma Cells

Breast cancer is one of the most common cancers that affect women globally and accounts for ~23% of all cancers diagnosed in women. Breast cancer is also one of the leading causes of death primarily due to late stage diagnoses and a lack of effective treatments. Therefore, discovering protein expression biomarkers is mandatory for early detection and thus, critical for successful therapy. Two-dimensional electrophoresis (2D-E) coupled with lectin-based analysis followed by mass spectrometry were applied to identify potential biomarkers in the secretions of a murine mammary carcinoma cell line. Comparisons of the protein profiles of the murine 4T1 mammary carcinoma cell line and a normal murine MM3MG mammary cell line indicated that cadherin-1 (CDH), collagenase 3 (MMP-13), Viral envelope protein G7e (VEP), Gag protein (GAG) and Hypothetical protein LOC433182 (LOC) were uniquely expressed by the 4T1 cells, and pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) was exclusively secreted by the MM3MG cells. Further analysis by a lectin-based study revealed that aberrant O-glycosylated CDH, N-glycosylated MMP-13 and LOC were present in the 4T1 medium. These differentially expressed N- and O-linked glycoprotein candidates, which were identified by combining lectin-based analysis with 2D-E, could serve as potential diagnostic and prognostic markers for breast cancer.

Biomolecular features of inflammation in obese rheumatoid arthritis patients: management considerations

Adipose tissue is an active organ playing a role not only in metabolism but also in immune and inflammatory processes, releasing several pro-inflammatory mediators. This can explain the possible association between obesity and rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and its role in the progression of the disease. Adipose and synovial tissues share common histological features of local inflammation in terms of activation of target tissues infiltrating cells (i.e. myeloid cells). Among the so-called adipocytokines, PEDF and Chemerin orchestrate the cellular cross-talk between adipose and myeloid cells, being possible biomarkers to monitor the effect of weight loss or the decrease of adipose tissue in patients with RA. Moreover, dietary intervention has been demonstrated to reduce Chemerin as well as IL-6 and MCP-1 expression. Finally, epigenetic regulators such as micro-RNAs (i.e. miR-155) are key regulators of myeloid cells activation in RA and obesity as well as in adipocytes. In this review, we will summarize the biological link between obesity/overweight state and RA focusing on pathophysiological mechanisms, consequences and management considerations.

Anti-tumor effects of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF): implication for cancer therapy. A mini-review

Pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) is a secreted glycoprotein and a non-inhibitory member of the serine protease inhibitor (serpin) family. It is widely expressed in human fetal and adult tissues but its expression decreases with age and in malignant tissues. The main anti-cancer activities of PEDF derive from its dual effects, either indirectly on the tumor microenvironment (indirect antitumor action) or directly on the tumor itself (direct antitumor influence). The indirect antitumor activities of PEDF were uncovered from the early findings that it stimulates retinoblastoma cell differentiation and that additionally it possesses anti-angiogenic, anti-tumorigenic and anti-metastatic properties. The mechanisms of its direct antitumor effect, however, have not been fully elucidated. This review highlights recent progress in our understanding of the multifunctional activities of PEDF and, in particular, its anti-cancer signaling mechanisms. Additionally, we discuss the possibility of using novel phosphaplatin compounds that can upregulate PEDF expression as a chemotherapy for cancer treatment.

Human testicular peritubular cells secrete pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF), which may be responsible for the avascularity of the seminiferous tubules

Male fertility depends on spermatogenesis, which takes place in the seminiferous tubules of the testis. This compartment is devoid of blood vessels, which are however found in the wall of the seminiferous tubules. Our proteomic study using cultured human testicular peritubular cells (HTPCs) i.e. the cells, which form this wall, revealed that they constitutively secrete pigment epithelium-derived factor, PEDF, which is known to exert anti-angiogenic actions. Immunohistochemistry supports its presence in vivo, in the human tubular wall. Co-culture studies and analysis of cell migration patterns showed that human endothelial cells (HUVECs) are repulsed by HTPCs. The factor involved is likely PEDF, as a PEDF-antiserum blocked the repulsing action. Thus testicular peritubular cells, via PEDF, may prevent vascularization of human seminiferous tubules. Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) increased PEDF (qPCR) in HTPCs, however PEDF expression in the testis of a non-human primate occurs before puberty. Thus PEDF could be involved in the establishment of the avascular nature of seminiferous tubules and after puberty androgens may further reinforce this feature. Testicular microvessels and blood flow are known to contribute to the spermatogonial stem cell niche. Hence HTPCs via control of testicular microvessels may contribute to the regulation of spermatogonial stem cells, as well.

PEDF improves cardiac function in rats with acute myocardial infarction via inhibiting vascular permeability and cardiomyocyte apoptosis

Pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) is a pleiotropic gene with anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and anti-angiogenic properties. However, recent reports about the effects of PEDF on cardiomyocytes are controversial, and it is not known whether and how PEDF acts to inhibit hypoxic or ischemic endothelial injury in the heart. In the present study, adult Sprague-Dawley rat models of acute myocardial infarction (AMI) were surgically established. PEDF-small interfering RNA (siRNA)-lentivirus (PEDF-RNAi-LV) or PEDF-LV was delivered into the myocardium along the infarct border to knockdown or overexpress PEDF, respectively. Vascular permeability, cardiomyocyte apoptosis, myocardial infarct size and animal cardiac function were analyzed. We also evaluated PEDF’s effect on the suppression of the endothelial permeability and cardiomyocyte apoptosis under hypoxia in vitro. The results indicated that PEDF significantly suppressed the vascular permeability and inhibited hypoxia-induced endothelial permeability through PPARγ-dependent tight junction (TJ) production. PEDF protected cardiomyocytes against ischemia or hypoxia-induced cell apoptosis both in vivo and in vitro via preventing the activation of caspase-3. We also found that PEDF significantly reduced myocardial infarct size and enhanced cardiac function in rats with AMI. These data suggest that PEDF could protect cardiac function from ischemic injury, at least by means of reducing vascular permeability, cardiomyocyte apoptosis and myocardial infarct size.

Identification of PLXDC1 and PLXDC2 as the transmembrane receptors for the multifunctional factor PEDF

Pigment Epithelium Derived Factor (PEDF) is a secreted factor that has broad biological activities. It was first identified as a neurotrophic factor and later as the most potent natural antiangiogenic factor, a stem cell niche factor, and an inhibitor of cancer cell growth. Numerous animal models demonstrated its therapeutic value in treating blinding diseases and diverse cancer types. A long-standing challenge is to reveal how PEDF acts on its target cells and the identities of the cell-surface receptors responsible for its activities. Here we report the identification of transmembrane proteins PLXDC1 and PLXDC2 as cell-surface receptors for PEDF. Using distinct cellular models, we demonstrate their cell type-specific receptor activities through loss of function and gain of function studies. Our experiments suggest that PEDF receptors form homooligomers under basal conditions, and PEDF dissociates the homooligomer to activate the receptors. Mutations in the intracellular domain can have profound effects on receptor activities.

Obesity as a risk and severity factor in rheumatic diseases (autoimmune chronic inflammatory diseases)

The growing body of evidence recognizing the adipose tissue (AT) as an active endocrine organ secreting bioactive mediators involved in metabolic and inflammatory disorders, together with the global epidemic of overweight and obesity, rise obesity as a hot topic of current research. The chronic state of low-grade inflammation present in the obese condition and the multiple pleiotropic effects of adipokines on the immune system has been implicated in the pathogenesis of several inflammatory conditions including rheumatic autoimmune and inflammatory diseases. We will discuss the main relevant evidences on the role of the AT on immune and inflammatory networks and the more recent evidences regarding the effects of obesity on the incidence and outcomes of the major autoimmune chronic inflammatory diseases.

Regulatory and functional connection of microphthalmia-associated transcription factor and anti-metastatic pigment epithelium derived factor in melanoma

Pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF), a member of the serine protease inhibitor superfamily, has potent anti-metastatic effects in cutaneous melanoma through its direct actions on endothelial and melanoma cells. Here we show that PEDF expression positively correlates with microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF) in melanoma cell lines and human samples. High PEDF and MITF expression is characteristic of low aggressive melanomas classified according to molecular and pathological criteria, whereas both factors are decreased in senescent melanocytes and naevi. Importantly, MITF silencing down-regulates PEDF expression in melanoma cell lines and primary melanocytes, suggesting that the correlation in the expression reflects a causal relationship. In agreement, analysis of Chromatin immunoprecipitation coupled to high throughput sequencing (ChIP-seq) data sets revealed three MITF binding regions within the first intron of SERPINF1, and reporter assays demonstrated that the binding of MITF to these regions is sufficient to drive transcription. Finally, we demonstrate that exogenous PEDF expression efficiently halts in vitro migration and invasion, as well as in vivo dissemination of melanoma cells induced by MITF silencing. In summary, these results identify PEDF as a novel transcriptional target of MITF and support a relevant functional role for the MITF-PEDF axis in the biology of melanoma.

Effects of pigment epithelium derived factor (PEDF) on malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumours (MPNSTs)

Neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1) is an inherited genetic disease affecting 1 in 3,500 individuals. A prominent feature of NF1 is the formation of benign tumours of the peripheral nerve sheath (neurofibromas). However, these can become malignant and form highly metastatic malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumours (MPNST), which are usually fatal despite aggressive surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy. Recent studies have shown that pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) can induce differentiation and inhibit angiogenesis in several kinds of tumours. The present study was designed to determine the in vitro and in vivo effects of PEDF on MPNST angiogenesis and tumour growth. PEDF inhibited proliferation and augmented apoptosis in S462 MPNST cells after 48 h of treatment in culture. In xenografts of S462 MPNST cells in athymic nude mice, PEDF suppressed MPNST tumour burden, due mainly to inhibition of angiogenesis. These results demonstrate for the first time inhibitory effects of PEDF on the growth of human MPNST via induction of anti-angiogenesis and apoptosis. Our results suggest that PEDF could be a novel approach for future therapeutic purposes against MPNST.

Enhanced efficacy of combination therapy with adeno‑associated virus-delivered pigment epithelium-derived factor and cisplatin in a mouse model of Lewis lung carcinoma

Pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) is a potent inhibitor of angiogenesis, and the antitumor effect of adeno-associated virus (AAV)-mediated PEDF expression has been demonstrated in a range of animal models. The combined treatment of low-dose chemotherapy and gene therapy inhibits the growth of solid tumors more effectively than current traditional therapies or gene therapy alone. In the present study, the effect of treatment with an AAV2 vector harboring the human PEDF (hPEDF) gene in combination with low-dose cisplatin on the growth of Lewis lung carcinoma (LLC) in mice was assessed. LLC cells were infected with AAV-enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) in the presence or absence of cisplatin, and then the effect of cisplatin on AAV-mediated gene expression was evaluated by image and flow cytometric analysis. Tumor growth, survival time, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression, microvessel density (MVD) and apoptotic index were analyzed in C57BL/6 mice treated with AAV-hPEDF, cisplatin or cisplatin plus AAV-hPEDF. The results of the present study provide evidence that cisplatin treatment is able to enhance AAV-mediated gene expression in LLC cells. In addition, the combined treatment of cisplatin plus AAV-hPEDF markedly prolonged the survival time of the mice and inhibited tumor growth, resulting in significant suppression of tumor angiogenesis and induction of tumor apoptosis in vivo, and also protected against cisplatin-related toxicity. These findings suggest that combination of AAV-hPEDF and cisplatin has potential as a novel therapeutic strategy for lung cancer.

Dual regulation of adipose triglyceride lipase by pigment epithelium-derived factor: a novel mechanistic insight into progressive obesity

Both elevated plasma free fatty acids (FFA) and accumulating triglyceride in adipose tissue are observed in the process of obesity and insulin resistance. This contradictory phenomenon and its underlying mechanisms have not been thoroughly elucidated. Recent studies have demonstrated that pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) contributes to elevated plasma FFA and insulin resistance in obese mice via the activation of adipose triglyceride lipase (ATGL). However, we found that PEDF downregulated adipose ATGL protein expression despite of enhancing lipolysis. Plasma PEDF and FFA were increased in associated with a progressive high-fat-diet, and those outcomes were also accompanied by fat accumulation and a reduction in adipose ATGL. Exogenous PEDF injection downregulated adipose ATGL protein expression and elevated plasma FFA, while endogenous PEDF neutralization significantly rescued the adipose ATGL reduction and also reduced plasma FFA in obese mice. PEDF reduced ATGL protein expression in a time- and dose-dependent manner in differentiated 3T3-L1 cells. Small interfering RNA-mediated PEDF knockdown and antibody-mediated PEDF blockage increased endogenous ATGL expression, and PEDF overexpression downregulated ATGL. PEDF resulted in a decreased half-life of ATGL and regulated ATGL degradation via ubiquitin-dependent proteasomal degradation pathway. PEDF stimulated lipolysis via ATGL using ATGL inhibitor bromoenol lactone, and PEDF also downregulated G0/G1 switch gene 2 (G0S2) expression, which is an endogenous inhibitor of ATGL activation. Overall, PEDF attenuated ATGL protein accumulation via proteasome-mediated degradation in adipocytes, and PEDF also promoted lipolysis by activating ATGL. Elevated PEDF may contribute to progressive obesity and insulin resistance via its dual regulation of ATGL.

SERPINA3K induces apoptosis in human colorectal cancer cells via activating the Fas/FasL/caspase-8 signaling pathway

SERPINA3K, also known as kallikrein-binding protein (KBP), is a serine proteinase inhibitor with anti-inflammatory and anti-angiogenic activities. Our previous studies showed that SERPINA3K inhibited proliferation in a dose-dependent manner and induced apoptosis of endothelial cells but had no influence on SGC-7901 gastric carcinoma cells or HepG2 hepatocarcinoma cells. However, it is unknown whether SERPINA3K has a direct impact on other carcinoma cells and which mechanisms are involved. In this study, we report for the first time that SERPINA3K not only decreased cell viability but also induced apoptosis in the colorectal carcinoma cell lines SW480 and HT-29. SERPINA3K-induced apoptosis of SW480 and HT-29 was rescued by interference with Fas ligand (FasL) small hairpin RNA. Moreover, SERPINA3K increased the expression of FasL and activated caspase-8. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ), a transcription factor of FasL, was also upregulated by SERPINA3K in a dose-dependent manner. The upregulation effect of FasL induced by SERPINA3K was reversed after interference with PPARγ small interfering RNA. These results demonstrated that SERPINA3K-induced SW480 and HT-29 cell apoptosis was mediated by the PPARγ/Fas/FasL signaling pathway. Therefore, our study provides additional insight into the direct anti-tumor function by inducing tumor cell apoptosis of SERPINA3K in colorectal tumors.

The many facets of PEDF in drug discovery and disease: a diamond in the rough or split personality disorder?

INTRODUCTION

Pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) was discovered as a neurotrophic factor secreted by retinal pigment epithelial cells. A decade later, it re-emerged as a powerful angiogenesis inhibitor guarding ocular function. Since then, significant advances were made identifying PEDF's mechanisms, targets and biomedical applications.

AREAS COVERED

The authors review several methodologies that have generated significant new information about the potential of PEDF as a drug. Furthermore, the authors review and discuss mechanistic and structure-function analyses combined with the functional mapping of active fragments, which have yielded several short bioactive PEDF peptides. Additionally, the authors present functional studies in knockout animals and human correlates that have provided important information about conditions amenable to PEDF-based therapies.

EXPERT OPINION

Through its four known receptors, PEDF causes a wide range of cellular events vitally important for the organism, which include survival and differentiation, migration and invasion, lipid metabolism and stem cell maintenance. These processes are deregulated in multiple pathological conditions, including cancer, metabolic and cardiovascular disease. PEDF has been successfully used in countless preclinical models of these conditions and human correlates suggest a wide utility of PEDF-based drugs. The most significant clinical application of PEDF, to date, is its potential therapeutic use for age-related macular degeneration. Moreover, PEDF-based gene therapy has advanced to early stage clinical trials. PEDF active fragments have been mapped and used to design short peptide mimetics conferring distinct functions of PEDF, which may address specific clinical problems and become prototype drugs.

The effects of PEDF on cancer biology: mechanisms of action and therapeutic potential

The potent actions of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) on tumour-associated cells, and its extracellular localization and secretion, stimulated research on this multifunctional serpin. Such studies have identified several PEDF receptors and downstream signalling pathways. Known cellular PEDF responses have expanded from the initial discovery that PEDF induces retinoblastoma cell differentiation to its anti-angiogenic, antitumorigenic and antimetastatic properties. Although the diversity of PEDF activities seems to be complex, they are consistent with the varied mechanisms that regulate this multimodal factor. If PEDF is to be used for cancer management, a deeper appreciation of its many functions and mechanisms of action is needed.

Thrombospondin-1 and pigment epithelium-derived factor enhance responsiveness of KM12 colon tumor to metronomic cyclophosphamide but have disparate effects on tumor metastasis

The anti-tumor activity, metronomic chemotherapy sensitization potential and metastatic effects of the endogenous angiogenesis inhibitors thrombospondin-1 and PEDF were investigated in KM12 colon adenocarcinoma xenografts. Thrombospondin-1 and PEDF decreased KM12 tumor microvessel density, increased macrophage infiltration, and improved responsiveness to metronomic cyclophosphamide (CPA) treatment, but did not activate the anti-tumor innate immunity that metronomic CPA induces in other tumor models. Moreover, thrombospondin-1, but not PEDF, significantly increased KM12 metastasis to the lung, while PEDF augmented the anti-metastatic activity of metronomic CPA. Thus, while thrombospondin-1 and PEDF both increase the KM12 tumor responsiveness to metronomic CPA, they have disparate effects on tumor metastasis.

Loss of pigment epithelium-derived factor: a novel mechanism for the development of endocrine resistance in breast cancer

INTRODUCTION

Despite the benefits of endocrine therapies such as tamoxifen and aromatase inhibitors in treating estrogen receptor (ER) alpha-positive breast cancer, many tumors eventually become resistant. The molecular mechanisms governing resistance remain largely unknown. Pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) is a multifunctional secreted glycoprotein that displays broad anti-tumor activity based on dual targeting of the tumor microenvironment (anti-angiogenic action) and the tumor cells (direct anti-tumor action). Recent studies indicate that PEDF expression is significantly reduced in several tumor types, including breast cancer, and that its reduction is associated with disease progression and poor patient outcome. In the current study, we investigated the role of PEDF in the development of endocrine resistance in breast cancer.

METHODS

PEDF mRNA and protein levels were measured in several endocrine-resistant breast cancer cell lines including MCF-7:5C, MCF-7:2A, and BT474 and in endocrine-sensitive cell lines MCF-7, T47D, and ZR-75-1 using real-time PCR and western blot analyses. Tissue microarray analysis and immunohistochemistry were used to assess the PEDF protein level in tamoxifen-resistant breast tumors versus primary tumors. Lentiviruses were used to stably express PEDF in endocrine-resistant breast cancer cell lines to determine their sensitivity to tamoxifen following PEDF re-expression.

RESULTS

We found that PEDF mRNA and protein levels were dramatically reduced in endocrine-resistant MCF-7:5C, MCF-7:2A, and BT474 breast cancer cells compared with endocrine-sensitive MCF-7, T47D, and ZR-75-1 cells, and that loss of PEDF was associated with enhanced expression of pSer167ERα and the receptor tyrosine kinase rearranged during transfection (RET). Importantly, we found that silencing endogenous PEDF in tamoxifen-sensitive MCF-7 and T47D breast cancer cells conferred tamoxifen resistance whereas re-expression of PEDF in endocrine-resistant MCF-7:5C and MCF-7:2A cells restored their sensitivity to tamoxifen in vitro and in vivo through suppression of RET. Lastly, tissue microarray studies revealed that PEDF protein was reduced in ~52.4% of recurrence tumors (31 out of 59 samples) and loss of PEDF was associated with disease progression and poor patient outcome.

CONCLUSION

Overall, these findings suggest that PEDF silencing might be a novel mechanism for the development of endocrine resistance in breast cancer and that PEDF expression might be a predictive marker of endocrine sensitivity.

The expression of pigment epithelium-derived factor in bladder transitional cell carcinoma

Background

Pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) is an anti-angiogenic factor. The purpose of this study is to examine the involvement of PEDF in the angiogenesis and biological behavior of bladder transitional cell carcinoma (TCC).

Methods

We examined the expression of PEDF in 99 bladder TCCs and ten non-neoplastic tissues, and evaluated microvessel density (MVD).

Results

The positive immunoreactivity for PEDF was seen in normal urothelium in 60% (6/10) and TCC in 13% (13/99). The PEDF expression had a significant correlation with MVD, i.e., a low MVD in 42% (5/12), a middle MVD in 11% (8/76) and a high MVD 0% (0/11) of tumors. The PEDF expression was not significantly correlated with the differentiation and invasion of TCC, but the degree of MVD was significantly higher in both high grade TCC and the pT2 tumors.

Conclusions

The degree of PEDF expression is significantly higher in normal bladder urothelium than bladder TCC; it is inversely correlated with the angiogenesis; and it is not related to the differentiation and progression of TCC. It can therefore be concluded that bladder TCC would initially occur if there is a lack of the PEDF expression.

Hypoxia negatively regulates antimetastatic PEDF in melanoma cells by a hypoxia inducible factor-independent, autophagy dependent mechanism

Pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF), a member of the serine protease inhibitor (SERPIN) superfamily, displays a potent antiangiogenic and antimetastatic activity in a broad range of tumor types. Melanocytes and low aggressive melanoma cells secrete high levels of PEDF, while its expression is lost in highly aggressive melanomas. PEDF efficiently abrogates a number of functional properties critical for the acquisition of metastatic ability by melanoma cells, such as neovascularization, proliferation, migration, invasiveness and extravasation. In this study, we identify hypoxia as a relevant negative regulator of PEDF in melanocytes and low aggressive melanoma cells. PEDF was regulated at the protein level. Importantly, although downregulation of PEDF was induced by inhibition of 2-oxoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases, it was independent of the hypoxia inducible factor (HIF), a key mediator of the adaptation to hypoxia. Decreased PEDF protein was not mediated by inhibition of translation through untranslated regions (UTRs) in melanoma cells. Degradation by metalloproteinases, implicated on PEDF degradation in retinal pigment epithelial cells, or by the proteasome, was also excluded as regulatory mechanism in melanoma cells. Instead, we found that degradation by autophagy was critical for PEDF downregulation under hypoxia in human melanoma cells. Our findings show that hypoxic conditions encountered during primary melanoma growth downregulate antiangiogenic and antimetastasic PEDF by a posttranslational mechanism involving degradation by autophagy and could therefore contribute to the acquisition of highly metastatic potential characteristic of aggressive melanoma cells.

Opposing effects of pigment epithelium-derived factor on breast cancer cell versus neuronal survival: implication for brain metastasis and metastasis-induced brain damage

Brain metastases are a significant cause of morbidity and mortality for patients with cancer, yet preventative and therapeutic options remain an unmet need. The cytokine pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) is downregulated in resected human brain metastases of breast cancer compared with primary breast tumors, suggesting that restoring its expression might limit metastatic spread. Here, we show that outgrowth of large experimental brain metastases from human 231-BR or murine 4T1-BR breast cancer cells was suppressed by PEDF expression, as supported by in vitro analyses as well as direct intracranial implantation. Notably, the suppressive effects of PEDF were not only rapid but independent of the effects of this factor on angiogenesis. Paralleling its cytotoxic effects on breast cancer cells, PEDF also exerted a prosurvival effect on neurons that shielded the brain from tumor-induced damage, as indicated by a relative 3.5-fold reduction in the number of dying neurons adjacent to tumors expressing PEDF. Our findings establish PEDF as both a metastatic suppressor and a neuroprotectant in the brain, highlighting its role as a double agent in limiting brain metastasis and its local consequences.

Excretion of anti-angiogenic proteins in patients with chronic allograft dysfunction

BACKGROUND

We have recently documented the appearance of an anti-angiogenic peptide, endorepellin, in the urine of patients with chronic allograft dysfunction (CAD).

METHODS

Here, we analyzed using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay the excretion of anti-angiogenic peptides endostatin, pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) and Kruppel-like factor-2 (KLF-2), in healthy individuals, patients with stable graft function and patients with various degrees of CAD.

RESULTS

In healthy subjects and patients with CAD-0, endostatin, PEDF and KLF-2 excretions were at the level of detection. In contrast, there were significant differences between the patients with CAD-3 and CAD-0, CAD-1 and healthy controls for endostatin and CAD-0 versus CAD-3 for PEDF, but no differences in KLF-2 excretion. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analyses demonstrated a highly discriminative profile for all three biomarkers: the combination of these parameters offered 83% sensitivity and 90% specificity in distinguishing CAD-0 from CAD-1-3. The quality of these potential biomarkers of CAD was, however, highest in discriminating CAD status in biopsy-proven cases and dropped when CAD-0 was diagnosed based on clinical criteria.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, these findings indicate the diagnostic potential of urinary detection of endostatin, PEDF and to lesser degree KLF-2 and suggest a mechanistic role played by anti-angiogenic substances in the developing vasculopathy and vascular rarefaction in patients with CAD.

Pigment epithelium-derived factor blocks tumor extravasation by suppressing amoeboid morphology and mesenchymal proteolysis

Metastatic melanoma cells are highly adaptable to their in vivo microenvironment and can switch between protease-dependent mesenchymal and protease-independent amoeboid invasion to facilitate metastasis. Such adaptability can be visualized in vitro, when cells are cultured in conditions that recapitulate three-dimensional microenvironments. Using thick collagen layers in cell culture and in vivo extravasation assays, we found that pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) suppressed lung extravasation of aggressive melanoma by coordinated regulation of cell shape and proteolysis. In cells grown on a thick collagen bed, PEDF overexpression and exogenous PEDF blocked the rapidly invasive, rounded morphology, and promoted an elongated, mesenchymal-like phenotype associated with reduced invasion. These changes in cell shape depended on decreased RhoA and increased Rac1 activation and were mediated by the up-regulation of Rac1-GEF, DOCK3 and down-regulation of Rac1-GAP, ARHGAP22. Surprisingly, we found that PEDF overexpression also blocked the trafficking of membrane-tethered, MT1-MMP to the cell surface through RhoA inhibition and Rac1 activation. In vivo, knockdown of Rac1 and DOCK3 or overexpression of MT1-MMP was sufficient to reverse the inhibitory effect of PEDF on extravasation. Using functional studies, we demonstrated that PEDF suppressed the rounded morphology and MT1-MMP surface localization through its antiangiongenic, 34-mer epitope and the recently identified PEDF receptor candidate, PNPLA2. Our findings unveil the coordinated regulation of cell shape and proteolysis and identify an unknown mechanism for PEDF's antimetastatic activity.

Changes in the gene expression profile of A375 human melanoma cells induced by overexpression of multifunctional pigment epithelium-derived factor

Pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) is a broad-spectrum angiogenesis inhibitor that displays potent antimetastatic activity in multiple tumor types. We have previously shown that PEDF prevents primary tumor growth and metastatic spread of human melanoma in mouse experimental models. Consistent with these observations, PEDF expression is lost at the late stages of melanoma progression, allowing melanoma cells to become angiogenic, migratory, and invasive. PEDF's ability to modify the interplay between the host and tumor tissues strongly supports its use as a therapeutic agent for the treatment of metastatic melanoma. However, transition to the clinic requires a more detailed knowledge of the molecular mechanisms underpinning PEDF's activity. In this study, we describe changes in the gene expression profile of A375 human melanoma cells induced by PEDF overexpression. PEDF modulated diverse categories of genes known to be involved in angiogenesis and migration. It downregulated cytokines such as interleukin-8 and extracellular matrix proteins such as collagen IV, while it upregulated fibronectin. Multiple transcripts previously described as contributing to the acquisition of malignant phenotype by melanoma were also diminished by PEDF overexpression, among which we validated galectin 3 and jagged 1. In addition, PEDF downregulated S100β and melanoma inhibitory activity, which are widely used in the pathological diagnosis of melanoma. Interestingly, PEDF increased the expression of melanophilin and decreased rab27A, which are relevant targets for melanosome transport; suggesting that PEDF could directly impinge on melanocytic lineage-specific processes. Our study identifies new molecular targets and signaling pathways that may potentially contribute to determine PEDF's ability to restrict the aggressiveness of A375 human melanoma cells.

PEDF inhibits IL8 production in prostate cancer cells through PEDF receptor/phospholipase A2 and regulation of NFκB and PPARγ

Interleukin-8 (IL8/CXCL8) has been described as a key effector in prostate cancer progression and resistance to standard chemotherapeutic drugs. In the present study, we investigated the effect of the natural, angio-inhibitory and anti-tumoral Pigment Epithelium-Derived Factor (PEDF) on the expression of IL8 cytokine by prostate cancer cells. Using a cytokine antibody array and ELISA, in addition to IL8 quantitative RT PCR, we showed that PEDF inhibits the production of IL8 in human hormone-refractory prostate cancer cells, and delays the growth of these cells in vitro. IL8 reduction was mimicked in cancer cells treated with PPARγ agonist and NFκB-specific inhibitors. Accordingly, PPARγ expression increased in response to PEDF, whereas RelA/p65 expression and nuclear localization, and NFκB transcriptional activity decreased. NFκB deactivation was reversed by the PPARγ antagonist GW9662 and PPARγ (Leu(468)/Glu(471)) dominant negative suggesting a PPARγ-dependent process. We also investigated PEDF Receptor/PLA2 as key player in this pathway by small interference RNA. PEDFR knock down in prostate cancer cells reversed PEDF-induced PPARγ up-regulation, and NFκB and IL8 inhibition compared to non-targeting control siRNA. We conclude that by binding to PEDFR, PEDF up-regulates PPARγ, leading subsequently to suppressed NFκB-mediated transcriptional activation, reduced production of IL8 and limited proliferation of prostate cancer cells. These results reinforce PEDF's therapeutic potential and imply that blocking IL8 could represent a novel alternative for prostate cancer treatment.

Hydrophilic agarose macrobead cultures select for outgrowth of carcinoma cell populations that can restrict tumor growth

Cancer cells and their associated tumors have long been considered to exhibit unregulated proliferation or growth. However, a substantial body of evidence indicates that tumor growth is subject to both positive and negative regulatory controls. Here, we describe a novel property of tumor growth regulation that is neither species nor tumor-type specific. This property, functionally a type of feedback control, is triggered by the encapsulation of neoplastic cells in a growth-restricting hydrogel composed of an agarose matrix with a second coating of agarose to form 6- to 8-mm diameter macrobeads. In a mouse cell model of renal adenocarcinoma (RENCA cells), this process resulted in selection for a stem cell-like subpopulation which together with at least one other cell subpopulation drove colony formation in the macrobeads. Cells in these colonies produced diffusible substances that markedly inhibited in vitro and in vivo proliferation of epithelial-derived tumor cells outside the macrobeads. RENCA cells in monolayer culture that were exposed to RENCA macrobead-conditioned media exhibited cell-cycle accumulation in S phase due to activation of a G(2)/M checkpoint. At least 10 proteins with known tumor suppression functions were identified by analysis of RENCA macrobead-conditioned media, the properties of which offer opportunities to further dissect the molecular basis for tumor growth control. More generally, macrobead culture may permit the isolation of cancer stem cells and other cells of the stem cell niche, perhaps providing strategies to define more effective biologically based clinical approaches to treat neoplastic disease.

Pigment epithelium-derived factor expression in colorectal cancer patients

Pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) is a potent inhibitor of angiogenesis and has been proposed to be a tumor suppressor in a variety of tumors. Limited reports exist of PEDF in colorectal cancer (CRC). We noted a 55% lower plasma level (p < .001) of PEDF in the CRC patient group (1.6 μg/mL) than in of a healthy control group (3.6 μg/mL). A single nucleotide polymorphism (rs1136287, T>C) was screened. In the control group, the CC genotype showed 30% lower PEDF plasma levels compared with the TT genotype (p < .01), whereas the CRC patients failed to show any association regarding these genotypes.

Pigment epithelium-derived factor stimulates tumor macrophage recruitment and is downregulated by the prostate tumor microenvironment

Pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) is a potent inhibitor of angiogenesis but whether it has additional effects on the tumor microenvironment is largely unexplored. We show that overexpression of PEDF in orthotopic MatLyLu rat prostate tumors increased tumor macrophage recruitment. The fraction of macrophages expressing inducible nitric oxide synthase, a marker of cytotoxic M1 macrophages, was increased, suggesting that PEDF could enhance antitumor immunity. In addition, PEDF overexpression reduced vascular growth both in the tumor and in the surrounding normal tissue, slowed tumor growth, and decreased lymph node metastasis. Contrary, extratumoral lymphangiogenesis was increased. PEDF expression is, for reasons unknown, often decreased or lost during prostate tumor progression. When AT-1 rat prostate tumor cells, expressing high levels of PEDF messenger RNA (mRNA) and protein, were injected into the prostate, PEDF is markedly downregulated, suggesting that factors in the microenvironment suppressed its expression. One such factor could be macrophage-derived tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha). A fraction of the accumulating macrophages expressed TNFalpha, and TNFalpha treatment downregulated the expression of PEDF protein and mRNA in prostate AT-1 tumor cells in vitro and in the rat ventral prostate in vivo. PEDF apparently has multiple effects in prostate tumors: it suppresses angiogenesis and metastasis, but it also causes macrophage accumulation. Accumulating macrophages may inhibit tumor growth, but they may also suppress PEDF and enhance lymph angiogenesis and, in this way, eventually enhance tumor growth.

Evaluation of protein pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) and microvessel density (MVD) as prognostic indicators in breast cancer

PURPOSE

Angiogenesis, which plays an important role in tumor growth and metastasis, is regulated by a balance between angiogenic stimulators and inhibitors. Pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF), a secreted glycoprotein is an important inhibitor of angiogenesis. Although the precise mechanisms by which PEDF exerts its actions remain poorly understood, there is growing evidence supporting the role of PEDF as a candidate antitumor agent. In this study, we investigated the role of PEDF in breast cancer.

METHODS

We investigated the correlation of PEDF protein levels with cancer progression and prognosis in patients with invasive ductal breast cancer (IDC). We used immunohistochemistry in a cohort of 119 breast cancer patients to examine the expression of PEDF protein with an anti-PEDF antibody and to measure the microvessel density (MVD) with an anti-CD34 antibody.

RESULTS

PEDF was an endogenous inhibitor of angiogenesis in endothelial cells. Decreased intratumoral expression of PEDF was associated with a higher microvessel density (MVD), a more metastatic phenotype, and poorer clinical outcome. PEDF was positive in 43.7% patients. Patients with low PEDF expression had a significantly higher MVD count when compared with patients with high PEDF expression. In univariate and multivariate analysis, PEDF was an independent prognostic factor.

CONCLUSION

The inverse correlation between PEDF expression and MVD in human breast cancer suggests that low PEDF expression is associated with angiogenesis in breast cancer. PEDF expression is therefore a potentially useful prognostic marker for breast cancer.

Cancer and pregnancy: parallels in growth, invasion, and immune modulation and implications for cancer therapeutic agents

Many proliferative, invasive, and immune tolerance mechanisms that support normal human pregnancy are also exploited by malignancies to establish a nutrient supply and evade or edit the host immune response. In addition to the shared capacity for invading through normal tissues, both cancer cells and cells of the developing placenta create a microenvironment supportive of both immunologic privilege and angiogenesis. Systemic alterations in immunity are also detectable, particularly with respect to a helper T cell type 2 polarization evident in advanced cancers and midtrimester pregnancy. This review summarizes the similarities between growth and immune privilege in cancer and pregnancy and identifies areas for further investigation. Our PubMed search strategy included combinations of terms such as immune tolerance, pregnancy, cancer, cytokines, angiogenesis, and invasion. We did not place any restrictions on publication dates. The knowledge gained from analyzing similarities and differences between the physiologic state of pregnancy and the pathologic state of cancer could lead to identification of new potential targets for cancer therapeutic agents.

'Loss of pigment epithelium-derived factor enables migration, invasion and metastatic spread of human melanoma'

Pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) is a multifunctional secreted glycoprotein that displays broad anti-tumor activity based on dual targeting of the tumor microenvironment (anti-angiogenic action) and the tumor cells (direct anti-tumor action). Here, we show that PEDF expression is high in melanocytes, but it is lost during malignant progression of human melanoma. Using a high-throughput analysis of the data from microarray studies of molecular profiling of human melanoma, we found that PEDF expression is lost in highly invasive melanomas. In paired cell lines established from the same lesion but representing the high and low extremes of malignant potential, abundant PEDF expression was restricted to the poorly aggressive counterparts. We used RNA interference to directly address the functional consequences of PEDF silencing. PEDF knockdown in poorly aggressive melanoma cell lines augmented migration, invasion and vasculogenic mimicry, which translated into an increased in vivo metastatic potential. PEDF interference also significantly enhanced the migratory and invasive capability of normal melanocytes and moderately increased their proliferative potential. Our results show that loss of PEDF enables melanoma cells to acquire an invasive phenotype and, therefore, modulation of this multifunctional factor could be critical for the malignant progression of human melanoma.

Constitutive overexpression of pigment epithelium-derived factor inhibition of ocular melanoma growth and metastasis

PURPOSE

Pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) is known to be an angiogenesis suppressor and to have antitumor effects. This study investigates whether constitutive overexpression of PEDF inhibits the growth and hepatic micrometastasis of ocular melanoma.

METHODS

Real-time RT-PCR was used to detect endogenous PEDF expression in human uveal melanoma cell lines and mouse melanoma cells. A lentiviral vector containing a mouse PEDF expression sequence was constructed and transduced into mouse melanoma cells in vitro. Transgene expression was assessed by Western blot analysis. Angiogenesis and transendothelial migration assays were performed in constitutively stable PEDF-overexpressing cells and transduced lentiviral vector control cells. The size and microvessel density of the ocular tumor and the number of hepatic micrometastasis were compared between the mice inoculated with PEDF-overexpressing tumor cells and those mice with the control cell line.

RESULTS

Four human uveal melanoma and three mouse melanoma cell lines were found to express PEDF mRNA. Endogenous overexpressing PEDF melanoma cells lost the ability to migrate and form tubes in vitro. In the animal experiment, the size of the ocular melanoma and the number of hepatic micrometastasis were decreased and microvessel density was also reduced in mice inoculated with constitutively overexpressing PEDF melanoma cells.

CONCLUSIONS

Lentivirus-mediated gene transfer of PEDF decreased the growth of ocular melanoma and its hepatic micrometastasis in a mouse ocular melanoma model. Dual antitumor/antiangiogenic activities of PEDF suggest that PEDF gene therapy may be considered an approach for the treatment of ocular melanoma.

Characterization of PEDF: a multi-functional serpin family protein

Pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) is a 50 kDa secreted glycoprotein that belongs to the non-inhibitory serpin family group. PEDF has been described as a natural angiogenesis inhibitor with neurotrophic and immune-modulation properties; it balances angiogenesis in the eye and blocks tumor progression. The mechanisms underlying most of these events are not completely clear; however, it appears that PEDF acts via multiple high affinity ligands and cell receptors. In this review article, we will summarize the current knowledge on the biochemical properties of PEDF and its receptors, the multimodal activities of PEDF and finally address the therapeutic potential of PEDF in treating angiogenesis-, neurodegeneration- and inflammation-related diseases.

Short pigment epithelial-derived factor-derived peptide inhibits angiogenesis and tumor growth

PURPOSE

Pigment epithelial-derived factor (PEDF) is a potent angiogenesis inhibitor with multiple other functions, some of which enhance tumor growth. Our previous studies mapped PEDF antiangiogenic and prosurvival activities to distinct epitopes. This study was aimed to determine the minimal fragment of PEDF, which maintains antiangiogenic and antitumor efficacy.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN

We analyzed antigenicity, hydrophilicity, and charge distribution of the angioinhibitory epitope (the 34-mer) and designed three peptides covering its COOH terminus, P14, P18, and P23. We analyzed their ability to block endothelial cell chemotaxis and induce apoptosis in vitro and their antiangiogenic activity in vivo. The selected peptide was tested for the antitumor activity against mildly aggressive xenografted prostate carcinoma and highly aggressive renal cell carcinoma. To verify that P18 acts in the same manner as PEDF, we used immunohistochemistry to measure PEDF targets, vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2, and CD95 ligand expression in P18-treated vasculature.

RESULTS

P14 and P18 blocked endothelial cell chemotaxis; P18 and P23 induced apoptosis. P18 showed the highest IC50 and blocked angiogenesis in vivo: P23 was inactive and P14 was proangiogenic. P18 increased the production of CD95 ligand and reduced the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 by the endothelial cells in vivo. In tumor studies, P18 was more effective in blocking the angiogenesis and growth of the prostate cancer than parental 34-mer; in the renal cell carcinoma, P18 strongly decreased angiogenesis and halted the progression of established tumors.

CONCLUSIONS

P18 is a novel and potent antiangiogenic biotherapeutic agent that has potential to be developed for the treatment of prostate and renal cancer.

PEDF and GDNF are key regulators of photoreceptor development and retinal neurogenesis in reaggregates from chick embryonic retina

Here, role(s) of pigment epithelial-derived factor (PEDF) and glial-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) on photoreceptor development in three-dimensional reaggregates from the retinae of the E6 chick embryo (rosetted spheroids) was investigated. Fully dispersed cells were reaggregated under serum-reduced conditions and supplemented with 50 ng/ml PEDF alone or in combination with 50 ng/ml GDNF. The spheroids were analyzed for cell growth, differentiation, and death using proliferating cell nuclear antigen, terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase deoxyuridine triphosphate nick end labeling, and other immunocytochemical stainings and semi-quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) methods. PEDF strongly promoted synthesis of the messenger RNAs for blue and violet cone opsins and to a lesser extent on the red and green cone opsins. This correlated with an increase in the number of cone photoreceptors, as determined by the cone cell marker CERN906. Likewise, PEDF nearly completely inhibited rod differentiation, as detected by immunostaining with anti-rho4D2 and RT-PCR. Furthermore, PEDF accelerated proliferation of cells in the spheroids and inhibited apoptosis. As negative effects, PEDF inhibited the normal histotypic tissue formation of retinal aggregates and reduced the frequency of photoreceptor rosettes and IPL-like areas. Noticeably, supplementation of PEDF-treated cultures with GDNF reversed the effects of PEDF on spheroid morphology and on rod differentiation. This study establishes that PEDF strongly affects three-dimensional retinogenesis in vitro, most notably by inhibiting rod development and supporting proliferation and differentiation of cones, effects which are partially counteracted by GDNF.

Pigment epithelium-derived factor binds to hyaluronan. Mapping of a hyaluronan binding site

Pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) is a multifunctional serpin with antitumorigenic, antimetastatic, and differentiating activities. PEDF is found within tissues rich in the glycosaminoglycan hyaluronan (HA), and its amino acid sequence contains putative HA-binding motifs. We show that PEDF coprecipitation with glycosaminoglycans in media conditioned by human retinoblastoma Y-79 cells decreased after pretreatments with hyaluronidase, implying an association between HA and PEDF. Direct binding of human recombinant PEDF to highly purified HA was demonstrated by coprecipitation in the presence of cetylpyridinium chloride. Binding of PEDF to HA was concentration-dependent and saturable. The PEDF-HA interactions were sensitive to increasing NaCl concentrations, indicating an ionic nature of these interactions and having affinity higher than PEDF-heparin. Competition assays showed that PEDF can bind heparin and HA simultaneously. PEDF chemically modified with fluorescein retained the capacity for interacting with HA but lacked heparin affinity, suggesting one or more distinct HA-binding regions on PEDF. The HA-binding region was examined by site-directed mutagenesis. Single-point and cumulative alterations at basic residues within the putative HA-binding motif K189A/K191A/R194A/K197A drastically reduced the HA-binding activity without affecting heparin- or collagen I binding of PEDF. Cumulative alterations at sites critical for heparin binding (K146A/K147A/R149A) decreased HA affinity but not collagen I binding. Thus these clusters of basic residues (BXBXXBXXB and BX3AB2XB motifs) in PEDF are functional regions for binding HA. In the spatial PEDF structure they are located in distinct areas away from the collagen-binding site. The HA-binding activity of PEDF may contribute to deposition in the extracellular matrix and to its reported antitumor/antimetastatic effects.

Protein expression of pigment-epithelium-derived factor in rat cochlea

Pigment-epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) is a 50-kDa glycoprotein with well-recognised expression in various mammalian organs showing diverse (e.g. anti-angiogenic and neuroprotective) activities. However, at present, no information is available regarding the potential function of this cytokine in the inner ear. As a first approach to investigating whether PEDF is involved in cochlear function, we have explored its protein expression in the rat cochlea by immunocytochemistry. Our results show that PEDF expression in the cochlea is most prominent in the basilar membrane below the organ of Corti, in the lateral wall (especially in the stria vascularis), in ganglion neurons, and in the endothelia of blood vessels. Our findings on its distribution in the cochlea suggest that PEDF in the basilar membrane prevents blood vessel formation that would disturb cochlear micromechanics and would interfere with the mechano-electrical transduction in the organ of Corti. In cochlear ganglion neurons, PEDF might serve a neuroprotective function possibly protecting these neurons from excessive glutamate released by the inner hair cells. Our data constitute the first report on the morphological protein distribution of this multifunctional molecule in the rat cochlea and suggest its role in important functions of the internal ear.

Regulation of DNA synthesis and the cell cycle in human prostate cancer cells and lymphocytes by ovine uterine serpin

Background

Uterine serpins are members of the serine proteinase inhibitor superfamily. Like some other serpins, these proteins do not appear to be functional proteinase inhibitors. The most studied member of the group, ovine uterine serpin (OvUS), inhibits proliferation of several cell types including activated lymphocytes, bovine preimplantation embryos, and cell lines for lymphoma, canine primary osteosarcoma and human prostate cancer (PC-3) cells. The goal for the present study was to evaluate the mechanism by which OvUS inhibits cell proliferation. In particular, it was tested whether inhibition of DNA synthesis in PC-3 cells involves cytotoxic actions of OvUS or the induction of apoptosis. The effect of OvUS in the production of the autocrine and angiogenic cytokine interleukin (IL)-8 by PC-3 cells was also determined. Finally, it was tested whether OvUS blocks specific steps in the cell cycle using both PC-3 cells and lymphocytes.

Results

Recombinant OvUS blocked proliferation of PC-3 cells at concentrations as low as 8 μg/ml as determined by measurements of [³H]thymidine incorporation or ATP content per well. Treatment of PC-3 cells with OvUS did not cause cytotoxicity or apoptosis or alter interleukin-8 secretion into medium. Results from flow cytometry experiments showed that OvUS blocked the entry of PC-3 cells into S phase and the exit from G₂/M phase. In addition, OvUS blocked entry of lymphocytes into S phase following activation of proliferation with phytohemagglutinin.

Conclusion

Results indicate that OvUS acts to block cell proliferation through disruption of the cell cycle dynamics rather than induction of cytotoxicity or apoptosis. The finding that OvUS can regulate cell proliferation makes this one of only a few serpins that function to inhibit cell growth.