Sequence and transcription of Raji Epstein-Barr virus DNA spanning the B95-8 deletion region

Malignancy and viral infections in Sub-Saharan Africa: A review

The burden of malignancy related to viral infection is increasing in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). In 2018, approximately 2 million new cancer cases worldwide were attributable to infection. Prevention or treatment of these infections could reduce cancer cases by 23% in less developed regions and about 7% in developed regions. Contemporaneous increases in longevity and changes in lifestyle have contributed to the cancer burden in SSA. African hospitals are reporting more cases of cancer related to infection (e.g., cervical cancer in women and stomach and liver cancer in men). SSA populations also have elevated underlying prevalence of viral infections compared to other regions. Of 10 infectious agents identified as carcinogenic by the International Agency for Research on Cancer, six are viruses: hepatitis B and C viruses (HBV and HCV, respectively), Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), high-risk types of human papillomavirus (HPV), Human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1), and Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus (KSHV, also known as human herpesvirus type 8, HHV-8). Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV) also facilitates oncogenesis. EBV is associated with lymphomas and nasopharyngeal carcinoma; HBV and HCV are associated with hepatocellular carcinoma; KSHV causes Kaposi's sarcoma; HTLV-1 causes T-cell leukemia and lymphoma; HPV causes carcinoma of the oropharynx and anogenital squamous cell cancer. HIV-1, for which SSA has the greatest global burden, has been linked to increasing risk of malignancy through immunologic dysregulation and clonal hematopoiesis. Public health approaches to prevent infection, such as vaccination, safer injection techniques, screening of blood products, antimicrobial treatments and safer sexual practices could reduce the burden of cancer in Africa. In SSA, inequalities in access to cancer screening and treatment are exacerbated by the perception of cancer as taboo. National level cancer registries, new screening strategies for detection of viral infection and public health messaging should be prioritized in SSA's battle against malignancy. In this review, we discuss the impact of carcinogenic viruses in SSA with a focus on regional epidemiology.

Comprehensive Epstein-Barr Virus Transcriptome by RNA-Sequencing in Angioimmunoblastic T Cell Lymphoma (AITL) and Other Lymphomas

The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is associated with angioimmunoblastic T cell lymphoma (AITL) in more than 80% of cases. Few studies have focused on this association and it is not clear now what role the virus plays in this pathology. We used next-generation sequencing (NGS) to study EBV transcriptome in 14 AITLs compared to 21 other lymphoma samples and 11 cell lines including 4 lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCLs). Viral transcripts were recovered using capture probes and sequencing was performed on Illumina. Bam-HI A rightward transcripts (BARTs) were the most latency transcripts expressed in AITLs, suggesting they may play a role in this pathology. Thus, BARTs, already described as highly expressed in carcinoma cells, are also very present in AITLs and other lymphomas. They were poorly expressed in cell lines other than LCLs. AITLs showed a latency IIc, with BNLF2a gene expression. For most AITLs, BCRF1, which encodes a homologous protein of human interleukin 10, vIL-10, was in addition expressed. This co-expression can contribute to immune escape and survival of infected cells. Considering these results, it can be assumed that EBV plays a pathogenic role in AITLs.

A global phylogenetic analysis of Japanese tonsil-derived Epstein-Barr virus strains using viral whole-genome cloning and long-read sequencing

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) establishes lifelong latent infection in the majority of healthy individuals, while it is a causative agent for various diseases, including some malignancies. Recent high-throughput sequencing results indicate that there are substantial levels of viral genome heterogeneity among different EBV strains. However, the extent of EBV strain variation among asymptomatically infected individuals remains elusive. Here, we present a streamlined experimental strategy to clone and sequence EBV genomes derived from human tonsillar tissues, which are the reservoirs of asymptomatic EBV infection. Complete EBV genome sequences, including those of repetitive regions, were determined for seven tonsil-derived EBV strains. Phylogenetic analyses based on the whole viral genome sequences of worldwide non-tumour-derived EBV strains revealed that Asian EBV strains could be divided into several distinct subgroups. EBV strains derived from nasopharyngeal carcinoma-endemic areas constitute different subgroups from a subgroup of EBV strains from non-endemic areas, including Japan. The results could be consistent with biased regional distribution of EBV-associated diseases depending on the different EBV strains colonizing different regions in Asian countries.

The BHLF1 Locus of Epstein-Barr Virus Contributes to Viral Latency and B-Cell Immortalization

The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) BHLF1 gene encodes an abundant linear and several circular RNAs believed to perform noncoding functions during virus replication, although an open reading frame (ORF) is retained among an unknown percentage of EBV isolates. Evidence suggests that BHLF1 is also transcribed during latent infection, which prompted us to investigate the contribution of this locus to latency. Analysis of transcripts transiting BHLF1 revealed that its transcription is widespread among B-cell lines supporting the latency I or III program of EBV protein expression and is more complex than originally presumed. EBV-negative Burkitt lymphoma cell lines infected with either wild-type or two different BHLF1 mutant EBVs were initially indistinguishable in supporting latency III. However, cells infected with BHLF1 ^- virus ultimately transitioned to the more restrictive latency I program, whereas cells infected with wild-type virus either sustained latency III or transitioned more slowly to latency I. Upon infection of primary B cells, which require latency III for growth in vitro, both BHLF1 ^- viruses exhibited variably reduced immortalization potential relative to the wild-type virus. Finally, in transfection experiments, efficient protein expression from an intact BHLF1 ORF required the EBV posttranscriptional regulator protein SM, whose expression is limited to the replicative cycle. Thus, one way in which BHLF1 may contribute to latency is through a mechanism, possibly mediated or regulated by a long noncoding RNA, that supports latency III critical for the establishment of EBV latency and lifelong persistence within its host, whereas any retained protein-dependent function of BHLF1 may be restricted to the replication cycle.IMPORTANCE Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) has significant oncogenic potential that is linked to its latent infection of B lymphocytes, during which virus replication is not supported. The establishment of latent infection, which is lifelong and can precede tumor development by years, requires the concerted actions of nearly a dozen EBV proteins and numerous small non-protein-coding RNAs. Elucidating how these EBV products contribute to latency is crucial for understanding EBV's role in specific malignancies and, ultimately, for clinical intervention. Historically, EBV genes that contribute to virus replication have been excluded from consideration of a role in latency, primarily because of the general incompatibility between virus production and cell survival. However, here, we provide evidence that the genetic locus containing one such gene, BHLF1, indeed contributes to key aspects of EBV latency, including its ability to promote the continuous growth of B lymphocytes, thus providing significant new insight into EBV biology and oncogenic potential.

First Days in the Life of Naive Human B Lymphocytes Infected with Epstein-Barr Virus

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infects and activates resting human B lymphocytes, reprograms them, induces their proliferation, and establishes a latent infection in them. In established EBV-infected cell lines, many viral latent genes are expressed. Their roles in supporting the continuous proliferation of EBV-infected B cells in vitro are known, but their functions in the early, prelatent phase of infection have not been investigated systematically. In studies during the first 8 days of infection using derivatives of EBV with mutations in single genes of EBVs, we found only Epstein-Barr nuclear antigen 2 (EBNA2) to be essential for activating naive human B lymphocytes, inducing their growth in cell volume, driving them into rapid cell divisions, and preventing cell death in a subset of infected cells. EBNA-LP, latent membrane protein 2A (LMP2A), and the viral microRNAs have supportive, auxiliary functions, but mutants of LMP1, EBNA3A, EBNA3C, and the noncoding Epstein-Barr virus with small RNA (EBERs) had no discernible phenotype compared with wild-type EBV. B cells infected with a double mutant of EBNA3A and 3C had an unexpected proliferative advantage and did not regulate the DNA damage response (DDR) of the infected host cell in the prelatent phase. Even EBNA1, which has very critical long-term functions in maintaining and replicating the viral genomic DNA in established cell lines, was dispensable for the early activation of infected cells. Our findings document that the virus dose is a decisive parameter and indicate that EBNA2 governs the infected cells initially and implements a strictly controlled temporal program independent of other viral latent genes. It thus appears that EBNA2 is sufficient to control all requirements for clonal cellular expansion and to reprogram human B lymphocytes from energetically quiescent to activated cells.IMPORTANCE The preferred target of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is human resting B lymphocytes. We found that their infection induces a well-coordinated, time-driven program that starts with a substantial increase in cell volume, followed by cellular DNA synthesis after 3 days and subsequent rapid rounds of cell divisions on the next day accompanied by some DNA replication stress (DRS). Two to 3 days later, the cells decelerate and turn into stably proliferating lymphoblast cell lines. With the aid of 16 different recombinant EBV strains, we investigated the individual contributions of EBV's multiple latent genes during early B-cell infection and found that many do not exert a detectable phenotype or contribute little to EBV's prelatent phase. The exception is EBNA2 that is essential in governing all aspects of B-cell reprogramming. EBV relies on EBNA2 to turn the infected B lymphocytes into proliferating lymphoblasts preparing the infected host cell for the ensuing stable, latent phase of viral infection. In the early steps of B-cell reprogramming, viral latent genes other than EBNA2 are dispensable, but some, EBNA-LP, for example, support the viral program and presumably stabilize the infected cells once viral latency is established.

Translational profiling of B cells infected with the Epstein-Barr virus reveals 5' leader ribosome recruitment through upstream open reading frames

The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) genome encodes several hundred transcripts. We have used ribosome profiling to characterize viral translation in infected cells and map new translation initiation sites. We show here that EBV transcripts are translated with highly variable efficiency, owing to variable transcription and translation rates, variable ribosome recruitment to the leader region and coverage by monosomes versus polysomes. Some transcripts were hardly translated, others mainly carried monosomes, showed ribosome accumulation in leader regions and most likely represent non-coding RNAs. A similar process was visible for a subset of lytic genes including the key transactivators BZLF1 and BRLF1 in cells infected with weakly replicating EBV strains. This suggests that ribosome trapping, particularly in the leader region, represents a new checkpoint for the repression of lytic replication. We could identify 25 upstream open reading frames (uORFs) located upstream of coding transcripts that displayed 5′ leader ribosome trapping, six of which were located in the leader region shared by many latent transcripts. These uORFs repressed viral translation and are likely to play an important role in the regulation of EBV translation.

Genome-Wide Analysis of Epstein-Barr Virus Isolated from Extranodal NK/T-Cell Lymphoma, Nasal Type

BACKGROUND

Extranodal natural killer (NK) cell/T-cell lymphoma (NKTCL), a rare type of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma, has strongly been associated with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection. However, there are no EBV genomes isolated from NKTCL, and the roles the variations of EBV strains play in the pathogenesis of NKTCL are still unclear.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this study, whole EBV genomes from eight primary NKTCL biopsy specimens were obtained using next-generation sequencing, designated NKTCL-EBV1 to NKTCL-EBV8.

RESULTS

Compared with the six mostly referenced EBV strains, NKTCL-EBVs closely resemble the GD1 strain but still harbor 2,072 variations, including 1,938 substitutions, 58 insertions, and 76 deletions. The majority of nonsynonymous mutations were located in latent and tegument genes. Moreover, the results from phylogenetic analysis of whole NKTCL genomes and specific genes demonstrated that all the NKTCL-EBVs were related to Asian EBV strains. Based on the amino acid changes in certain residues of latent membrane protein 1 (LMP1) and EBV-determined nuclear antigen 1 (EBNA1), all the NKTCL-EBVs were sorted to China 1 and V-val subtype, respectively. Furthermore, changes in CD4+ and CD8+ T-cell epitopes of EBNA1 and LMP1 may affect the efficacy for a cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL)-based therapy.

CONCLUSION

This is the first large study to our knowledge to obtain EBV genomes isolated from NKTCL and show the diversity of EBV genomes in a whole genome level by phylogenetic analysis.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

In this study, the full-length sequence of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) isolated from eight patients with nasal natural killer/T-cell lymphoma (NKTCL) was determined and further compared with the sequences previously reported isolated from other malignancies. Phylogenetic analysis showed that NKTCL-EBV strains are close to other Asian subtypes instead of non-Asian ones, leading to the conclusion that EBV infections are more likely affected by different geographic regions rather than particular EBV-associated malignancies. Therefore, these data have implications for the development of effective prophylactic and therapeutic vaccine approaches targeting the personalized or geographic-specific EBV antigens in these aggressive diseases.

Epstein-Barr virus strain variation and cancer

Epstein‐Barr virus (EBV) is a human tumor virus and is etiologically linked to various malignancies. Certain EBV‐associated diseases, such as Burkitt lymphomas and nasopharyngeal carcinomas, are endemic and exhibit biased geographic distribution worldwide. Recent advances in deep sequencing technology enabled high‐throughput sequencing of the EBV genome from clinical samples. Rapid cloning and sequencing of cancer‐derived EBV genomes, followed by reconstitution of infectious virus, have also become possible. These developments have revealed that various EBV strains are differentially distributed throughout the world, and that the behavior of cancer‐derived EBV strains is different from that of the prototype EBV strain of non‐cancerous origin. In this review, we summarize recent progress and future perspectives regarding the association between EBV strain variation and cancer.

A Genome-Wide Epstein-Barr Virus Polyadenylation Map and Its Antisense RNA to EBNA

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a ubiquitous human pathogen associated with Burkitt's lymphoma and nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Although the EBV genome harbors more than a hundred genes, a full transcription map with EBV polyadenylation profiles remains unknown. To elucidate the 3' ends of all EBV transcripts genome-wide, we performed the first comprehensive analysis of viral polyadenylation sites (pA sites) using our previously reported polyadenylation sequencing (PA-seq) technology. We identified that EBV utilizes a total of 62 pA sites in JSC-1, 60 in Raji, and 53 in Akata cells for the expression of EBV genes from both plus and minus DNA strands; 42 of these pA sites are commonly used in all three cell lines. The majority of identified pA sites were mapped to the intergenic regions downstream of previously annotated EBV open reading frames (ORFs) and viral promoters. pA sites lacking an association with any known EBV genes were also identified, mostly for the minus DNA strand within the EBNA locus, a major locus responsible for maintenance of viral latency and cell transformation. The expression of these novel antisense transcripts to EBNA were verified by 3' rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE) and Northern blot analyses in several EBV-positive (EBV+) cell lines. In contrast to EBNA RNA expressed during latency, expression of EBNA-antisense transcripts, which is restricted in latent cells, can be significantly induced by viral lytic infection, suggesting potential regulation of viral gene expression by EBNA-antisense transcription during lytic EBV infection. Our data provide the first evidence that EBV has an unrecognized mechanism that regulates EBV reactivation from latency.IMPORTANCE Epstein-Barr virus represents an important human pathogen with an etiological role in the development of several cancers. By elucidation of a genome-wide polyadenylation landscape of EBV in JSC-1, Raji, and Akata cells, we have redefined the EBV transcriptome and mapped individual polymerase II (Pol II) transcripts of viral genes to each one of the mapped pA sites at single-nucleotide resolution as well as the depth of expression. By unveiling a new class of viral lytic RNA transcripts antisense to latent EBNAs, we provide a novel mechanism of how EBV might control the expression of viral latent genes and lytic infection. Thus, this report takes another step closer to understanding EBV gene structure and expression and paves a new path for antiviral approaches.

Phylogenetic comparison of Epstein-Barr virus genomes

Technologies used for genome analysis and whole genome sequencing are useful for us to understand genomic characterization and divergence. The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is an oncogenic virus that causes diverse diseases such as Burkitt's lymphoma (BL), nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC), Hodgkin's lymphoma (HL), and gastric carcinoma (GC). EBV genomes found in these diseases can be classified either by phases of EBV latency (type-I, -II, and -III latency) or types of EBNA2 sequence difference (type-I EBV, type-II EBV or EBV-1, EBV-2). EBV from EBV-transformed lymphoblastoid cell line (LCL) establishes type-III latency, EBV from NPC establishes type-II latency, and EBV from GC establishes type-I latency. However, other important factors play key roles in classifying numerous EBV strains because EBV genomes are highly diverse and not phylogenetically related to types of EBV-associated diseases. Herein, we first reviewed previous studies to describe molecular characteristics of EBV genomes. Then, using comparative and phylogenetic analyses, we phylogenetically analyzed molecular variations of EBV genomes and proteins. The review of previous studies and our phylogenetic analysis showed that EBV genomes and proteins were highly diverse regardless of types of EBV-associated diseases. Other factors should be considered in determining EBV taxonomy. This review will be helpful to understand complicated phylogenetic relationships of EBV genomes.

Early Epstein-Barr Virus Genomic Diversity and Convergence toward the B95.8 Genome in Primary Infection

Over 90% of the world's population is persistently infected with Epstein-Barr virus. While EBV does not cause disease in most individuals, it is the common cause of acute infectious mononucleosis (AIM) and has been associated with several cancers and autoimmune diseases, highlighting a need for a preventive vaccine. At present, very few primary, circulating EBV genomes have been sequenced directly from infected individuals. While low levels of diversity and low viral evolution rates have been predicted for double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) viruses, recent studies have demonstrated appreciable diversity in common dsDNA pathogens (e.g., cytomegalovirus). Here, we report 40 full-length EBV genome sequences obtained from matched oral wash and B cell fractions from a cohort of 10 AIM patients. Both intra- and interpatient diversity were observed across the length of the entire viral genome. Diversity was most pronounced in viral genes required for establishing latent infection and persistence, with appreciable levels of diversity also detected in structural genes, including envelope glycoproteins. Interestingly, intrapatient diversity declined significantly over time (P < 0.01), and this was particularly evident on comparison of viral genomes sequenced from B cell fractions in early primary infection and convalescence (P < 0.001). B cell-associated viral genomes were observed to converge, becoming nearly identical to the B95.8 reference genome over time (Spearman rank-order correlation test; r = -0.5589, P = 0.0264). The reduction in diversity was most marked in the EBV latency genes. In summary, our data suggest independent convergence of diverse viral genome sequences toward a reference-like strain within a relatively short period following primary EBV infection.IMPORTANCE Identification of viral proteins with low variability and high immunogenicity is important for the development of a protective vaccine. Knowledge of genome diversity within circulating viral populations is a key step in this process, as is the expansion of intrahost genomic variation during infection. We report full-length EBV genomes sequenced from the blood and oral wash of 10 individuals early in primary infection and during convalescence. Our data demonstrate considerable diversity within the pool of circulating EBV strains, as well as within individual patients. Overall viral diversity decreased from early to persistent infection, particularly in latently infected B cells, which serve as the viral reservoir. Reduction in B cell-associated viral genome diversity coincided with a convergence toward a reference-like EBV genotype. Greater convergence positively correlated with time after infection, suggesting that the reference-like genome is the result of selection.

Evidence for a Mesothelial Origin of Body Cavity Effusion Lymphomas

Background

Primary effusion lymphoma (PEL) is a Kaposi's sarcoma herpes virus (KSHV)-induced lymphoma that typically arises in body cavities of HIV-infected patients. PEL cells are often co-infected with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). "PEL-like" lymphoma is a KSHV-unrelated lymphoma that arises in body cavities of HIV-negative patients. "PEL-like" lymphoma is sometimes EBV positive. The derivation of PEL/"PEL-like" cells is unclear.

Methods

Mesothelial cells were cultured from body cavity effusions of 23 patients. Cell proliferation, cytokine secretion, marker phenotypes, KSHV/EBV infection, and clonality were evaluated by standard methods. Gene expression was measured by quantitative polymerase chain reaction and immunoblotting. A mouse model of PEL (3 mice/group) was used to evaluate tumorigenicity.

Results

We found that the mesothelia derived from six effusions of HIV-infected patients with PEL or other KSHV-associated diseases contained rare KSHV + or EBV + mesothelial cells. After extended culture (16-17 weeks), some mesothelial cells underwent a trans-differentiation process, generating lymphoid-type CD45 + /B220 + , CD5 + , CD27 + , CD43 + , CD11c + , and CD3 - cells resembling "B1-cells," most commonly found in mouse body cavities. These "B1-like" cells were short lived. However, long-term KSHV + EBV - and EBV + KSHV - clonal cell lines emerged from mesothelial cultures from two patients that were clonally distinct from the monoclonal or polyclonal B-cell populations found in the patients' original effusions.

Conclusions

Mesothelial-to-lymphoid transformation is a newly identified in vitro process that generates "B1-like" cells and is associated with the emergence of long-lived KSHV or EBV-infected cell lines in KSHV-infected patients. These results identify mesothelial cultures as a source of PEL cells and lymphoid cells in humans.

Comparative analysis of 22 Epstein-Barr virus genomes from diseased and healthy individuals

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infects most of the world's population and is causally associated with several human cancers, but little is known about how EBV genetic variations might influence EBV-associated diseases and their geographical patterns. In the present study, 22 EBV whole-genome sequences from diseased and healthy individuals were analysed to explore EBV sequence variations at the whole-genome level. We found that the 22 EBV genomes were generally highly similar to each other at the genome level. However, varying degrees of genetic diversity were detected across the entire genome, especially in the latent genes. In contrast, the sequences of promoters and non-coding RNAs were strictly conserved. These findings suggested that both latent genes and non-coding RNAs play important roles in the EBV life cycle. When we investigated changes in known T-cell epitopes in some latent and lytic proteins, we observed that some T-cell epitopes were changed, while others were conserved. These findings indicate that the effect of EBV variations in protein sequences that seem to have been selected by the host immune system should be considered when conducting EBV-targeted immunotherapy. Taken together, our results provide a global view of EBV genome sequence variation, which not only is important for designing vaccines and immunotherapy for EBV but also adds to the understanding of EBV biology and the relationships between viral sequence variation and EBV-associated diseases.

Interplay of Murine Gammaherpesvirus 68 with NF-kappaB Signaling of the Host

Herpesviruses establish a chronic infection in the host characterized by intervals of lytic replication, quiescent latency, and reactivation from latency. Murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (MHV68) naturally infects small rodents and has genetic and biologic parallels with the human gammaherpesviruses (gHVs), Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus and Epstein-Barr virus. The murine gammaherpesvirus model pathogen system provides a platform to apply cutting-edge approaches to dissect the interplay of gammaherpesvirus and host determinants that enable colonization of the host, and that shape the latent or lytic fate of an infected cell. This knowledge is critical for the development of novel therapeutic interventions against the oncogenic gHVs. The nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) signaling pathway is well-known for its role in the promotion of inflammation and many aspects of B cell biology. Here, we review key aspects of the virus lifecycle in the host, with an emphasis on the route that the virus takes to gain access to the B cell latency reservoir. We highlight how the murine gammaherpesvirus requires components of the NF-κB signaling pathway to promote replication, latency establishment, and maintenance of latency. These studies emphasize the complexity of gammaherpesvirus interactions with NF-κB signaling components that direct innate and adaptive immune responses of the host. Importantly, multiple facets of NF-κB signaling have been identified that might be targeted to reduce the burden of gammaherpesvirus-associated diseases.

Identification and Characterization of Epstein-Barr Virus Genomes in Lung Carcinoma Biopsy Samples by Next-Generation Sequencing Technology

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) has been detected in the tumor cells of several cancers, including some cases of lung carcinoma (LC). However, the genomic characteristics and diversity of EBV strains associated with LC are poorly understood. In this study, we sequenced the EBV genomes isolated from four primary LC tumor biopsy samples, designated LC1 to LC4. Comparative analysis demonstrated that LC strains were more closely related to GD1 strain. Compared to GD1 reference genome, a total of 520 variations in all, including 498 substitutions, 12 insertions, and 10 deletions were found. Latent genes were found to harbor the most numbers of nonsynonymous mutations. Phylogenetic analysis showed that all LC strains were closely related to Asian EBV strains, whereas different from African/American strains. LC2 genome was distinct from the other three LC genomes, suggesting at least two parental lineages of EBV among the LC genomes may exist. All LC strains could be classified as China 1 and V-val subtype according to the amino acid sequence of LMP1 and EBNA1, respectively. In conclusion, our results showed the genomic diversity among EBV genomes isolated from LC, which might facilitate to uncover the previously unknown variations of pathogenic significance.

Epstein- Barr Virus: Clinical and Epidemiological Revisits and Genetic Basis of Oncogenesis

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is classified as a member in the order herpesvirales, family herpesviridae, subfamily gammaherpesvirinae and the genus lymphocytovirus. The virus is an exclusively human pathogen and thus also termed as human herpesvirus 4 (HHV4). It was the first oncogenic virus recognized and has been incriminated in the causation of tumors of both lymphatic and epithelial nature. It was reported in some previous studies that 95% of the population worldwide are serologically positive to the virus. Clinically, EBV primary infection is almost silent, persisting as a life-long asymptomatic latent infection in B cells although it may be responsible for a transient clinical syndrome called infectious mononucleosis. Following reactivation of the virus from latency due to immunocompromised status, EBV was found to be associated with several tumors. EBV linked to oncogenesis as detected in lymphoid tumors such as Burkitt's lymphoma (BL), Hodgkin's disease (HD), post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorders (PTLD) and T-cell lymphomas (e.g. Peripheral T-cell lymphomas; PTCL and Anaplastic large cell lymphomas; ALCL). It is also linked to epithelial tumors such as nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC), gastric carcinomas and oral hairy leukoplakia (OHL). In vitro, EBV many studies have demonstrated its ability to transform B cells into lymphoblastoid cell lines (LCLs). Despite these malignancies showing different clinical and epidemiological patterns when studied, genetic studies have suggested that these EBV- associated transformations were characterized generally by low level of virus gene expression with only the latent virus proteins (LVPs) upregulated in both tumors and LCLs. In this review, we summarize some clinical and epidemiological features of EBV- associated tumors. We also discuss how EBV latent genes may lead to oncogenesis in the different clinical malignancies

Epstein-Barr Virus Strain Variation

What is wild-type Epstein-Barr virus and are there genetic differences in EBV strains that contribute to some of the EBV-associated diseases? Recent progress in DNA sequencing has resulted in many new Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) genome sequences becoming available. EBV isolates worldwide can be grouped into type 1 and type 2, a classification based on the EBNA2 gene sequence. Type 1 transforms human B cells into lymphoblastoid cell lines much more efficiently than type 2 EBV and molecular mechanisms that may account for this difference in cell transformation are now becoming understood. Study of geographic variation of EBV strains independent of the type 1/type 2 classification and systematic investigation of the relationship between viral strains, infection and disease are now becoming possible. So we should consider more directly whether viral sequence variation might play a role in the incidence of some EBV-associated diseases.

GAGE12 mediates human gastric carcinoma growth and metastasis

The spontaneous metastasis from human gastric carcinoma (GC) remains poorly reproduced in animal models. Here, we established an experimental mouse model in which GC progressively developed in the orthotopic stomach wall and metastasized to multiple organs; the tumors colonized in the ovary exhibited typical characteristics of Krukenberg tumor. The expression of mesenchymal markers was low in primary tumors and high in those in intravasating and extravasating veins. However, the expression of epithelial markers did not differ, indicating that the acquisition of mesenchymal markers without a concordant loss of typical epithelial markers was associated with metastasis. We identified 35 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in GC cells metastasized to ovary, among which overexpression of GAGE12 family genes, the top-ranked DEGs, were validated. In addition, knockdown of the GAGE12 gene family affected transcription of many of the aforementioned 35 DEGs and inhibited trans-well migration, tumor sphere formation in vitro and tumor growth in vivo. In accordance, GAGE12 overexpression augmented migration, tumor sphere formation and sustained in vivo tumor growth. Taken together, the GAGE12 gene family promotes GC growth and metastasis by modulating the expression of GC metastasis-related genes.

High-throughput RNA sequencing-based virome analysis of 50 lymphoma cell lines from the Cancer Cell Line Encyclopedia project

Using high-throughput RNA sequencing data from 50 common lymphoma cell culture models from the Cancer Cell Line Encyclopedia project, we performed an unbiased global interrogation for the presence of a panel of 740 viruses and strains known to infect human and other mammalian cells. This led to the findings of previously identified infections by Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus (KSHV), and human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1). In addition, we also found a previously unreported infection of one cell line (DEL) with a murine leukemia virus. High expression of murine leukemia virus (MuLV) transcripts was observed in DEL cells, and we identified four transcriptionally active integration sites, one being in the TNFRSF6B gene. We also found low levels of MuLV reads in a number of other cell lines and provided evidence suggesting cross-contamination during sequencing. Analysis of HTLV-1 integrations in two cell lines, HuT 102 and MJ, identified 14 and 66 transcriptionally active integration sites with potentially activating integrations in immune regulatory genes, including interleukin-15 (IL-15), IL-6ST, STAT5B, HIVEP1, and IL-9R. Although KSHV and EBV do not typically integrate into the genome, we investigated a previously identified integration of EBV into the BACH2 locus in Raji cells. This analysis identified a BACH2 disruption mechanism involving splice donor sequestration. Through viral gene expression analysis, we detected expression of stable intronic RNAs from the EBV BamHI W repeats that may be part of long transcripts spanning the repeat region. We also observed transcripts at the EBV vIL-10 locus exclusively in the Hodgkin's lymphoma cell line, Hs 611.T, the expression of which were uncoupled from other lytic genes. Assessment of the KSHV viral transcriptome in BCP-1 cells showed expression of the viral immune regulators, K2/vIL-6, K4/vIL-8-like vCCL1, and K5/E2-ubiquitin ligase 1 that was significantly higher than expression of the latency-associated nuclear antigen. Together, this investigation sheds light into the virus composition across these lymphoma model systems and provides insights into common viral mechanistic principles.

IMPORTANCE

Viruses cause cancer in humans. In lymphomas the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus (KSHV) and human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 are major contributors to oncogenesis. We assessed virus-host interactions using a high throughput sequencing method that facilitates the discovery of new virus-host associations and the investigation into how the viruses alter their host environment. We found a previously unknown murine leukemia virus infection in one cell line. We identified cellular genes, including cytokine regulators, that are disrupted by virus integration, and we determined mechanisms through which virus integration causes deregulation of cellular gene expression. Investigation into the KSHV transcriptome in the BCP-1 cell line revealed high-level expression of immune signaling genes. EBV transcriptome analysis showed expression of vIL-10 transcripts in a Hodgkin's lymphoma that was uncoupled from lytic genes. These findings illustrate unique mechanisms of viral gene regulation and to the importance of virus-mediated host immune signaling in lymphomas.

Whole-genome sequencing of the Akata and Mutu Epstein-Barr virus strains

Using a simple viral genome enrichment approach, we report the de novo assembly of the Akata and Mutu Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) genomes from a single lane of next-generation sequencing (NGS) reads. The Akata and Mutu viral genomes are type I EBV strains of approximately 171 kb in length. Evidence for genome heterogeneity was found for the Akata but not for the Mutu strain. A comparative analysis of Akata with another four completely sequenced EBV strains, B95-8/Raji, AG876, Mutu, and GD1, demonstrated that the Akata strain is most closely related to the GD1 strain and exhibits the greatest divergence from the type II strain, AG876. A global comparison of latent and lytic gene sequences showed that the four latency genes, EBNA2, EBNA3A, EBNA3B, and EBNA3C, are uniquely defining of type I and type II strain differences. Within type I strains, LMP1, the latency gene, is among the most divergent of all EBV genes, with three insertion or deletion loci in its CTAR2 and CTAR3 signaling domains. Analysis of the BHLF1 and LF3 genes showed that the reading frames identified in the B95-8/Raji genome are not conserved in Akata (or Mutu, for BHLF1), suggesting a primarily non-protein-coding function in EBV's life cycle. The Akata and Mutu viral-genome sequences should be a useful resource for homology-based functional prediction and for molecular studies, such as PCR, RNA-seq, recombineering, and transcriptome studies. As an illustration, we identified novel RNA-editing events in ebv-miR-BART6 antisense transcripts using the Akata and Mutu reference genomes.

Epstein-barr virus sequence variation-biology and disease

Some key questions in Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) biology center on whether naturally occurring sequence differences in the virus affect infection or EBV associated diseases. Understanding the pattern of EBV sequence variation is also important for possible development of EBV vaccines. At present EBV isolates worldwide can be grouped into Type 1 and Type 2, a classification based on the EBNA2 gene sequence. Type 1 EBV is the most prevalent worldwide but Type 2 is common in parts of Africa. Type 1 transforms human B cells into lymphoblastoid cell lines much more efficiently than Type 2 EBV. Molecular mechanisms that may account for this difference in cell transformation are now becoming clearer. Advances in sequencing technology will greatly increase the amount of whole EBV genome data for EBV isolated from different parts of the world. Study of regional variation of EBV strains independent of the Type 1/Type 2 classification and systematic investigation of the relationship between viral strains, infection and disease will become possible. The recent discovery that specific mutation of the EBV EBNA3B gene may be linked to development of diffuse large B cell lymphoma illustrates the importance that mutations in the virus genome may have in infection and human disease.

Diversity of Epstein-Barr virus BamHI-A rightward transcripts and their expression patterns in lytic and latent infections

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) BamHI-A rightward transcripts (BARTs; also designated complementary strand transcripts or CSTs) have been demonstrated to contain several splicing forms in EBV-infected cells. To date, however, little is known about the actual full-length splicing form and its functions. In the present study, we proved that six forms of BARTs were present in EBV-positive cell lines and various tissue specimens with different EBV infection patterns. Of the BART-encoded genes, mRNA of four major splicing forms, including BARF0, RPMS1, RPMS1A and A73, were expressed in all EBV-infected cells. On the other hand, mRNA of two minor splicing forms, RK-BARF0 and RB3, was rarely detected, or if at all, at very low expression levels. Both RPMS1A and RPMS1 mRNA was transcribed at higher levels in EBV-infected cells. In particular, RPMS1 mRNA was expressed abundantly in epithelial carcinoma cells, including gastric carcinoma and nasopharyngeal carcinoma, in association with a lytic infection signal, BZLF1 mRNA. The four major splicing forms were expressed much less in B-cell lines with an integrated EBV genome than in those with episomal EBV genomes. These data indicate that at least six splicing forms can be expressed by EBV-infected cells or tissues, although the expression patterns or levels differ for different infection states such as lytic and latent infections.

Genomic sequencing and comparative analysis of Epstein-Barr virus genome isolated from primary nasopharyngeal carcinoma biopsy

Whether certain Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) strains are associated with pathogenesis of nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is still an unresolved question. In the present study, EBV genome contained in a primary NPC tumor biopsy was amplified by Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR), and sequenced using next-generation (Illumina) and conventional dideoxy-DNA sequencing. The EBV genome, designated HKNPC1 (Genbank accession number JQ009376) is a type 1 EBV of approximately 171.5 kb. The virus appears to be a uniform strain in line with accepted monoclonal nature of EBV in NPC but is heterogeneous at 172 nucleotide positions. Phylogenetic analysis with the four published EBV strains, B95-8, AG876, GD1, and GD2, indicated HKNPC1 was more closely related to the Chinese NPC patient-derived strains, GD1 and GD2. HKNPC1 contains 1,589 single nucleotide variations (SNVs) and 132 insertions or deletions (indels) in comparison to the reference EBV sequence (accession number NC007605). When compared to AG876, a strain derived from Ghanaian Burkitt's lymphoma, we found 322 SNVs, of which 76 were non-synonymous SNVs and were shared amongst the Chinese GD1, GD2 and HKNPC1 isolates. We observed 88 non-synonymous SNVs shared only by HKNPC1 and GD2, the only other NPC tumor-derived strain reported thus far. Non-synonymous SNVs were mainly found in the latent, tegument and glycoprotein genes. The same point mutations were found in glycoprotein (BLLF1 and BALF4) genes of GD1, GD2 and HKNPC1 strains and might affect cell type specific binding. Variations in LMP1 and EBNA3B epitopes and mutations in Cp (11404 C>T) and Qp (50134 G>C) found in GD1, GD2 and HKNPC1 could potentially affect CD8⁺ T cell recognition and latent gene expression pattern in NPC, respectively. In conclusion, we showed that whole genome sequencing of EBV in NPC may facilitate discovery of previously unknown variations of pathogenic significance.

Unexpected instability of family of repeats (FR), the critical cis-acting sequence required for EBV latent infection, in EBV-BAC systems

A group of repetitive sequences, known as the Family of Repeats (FR), is a critical cis-acting sequence required for EBV latent infection. The FR sequences are heterogeneous among EBV strains, and they are sometimes subject to partial deletion when subcloned in E. coli-based cloning vectors. However, the FR stability in EBV-BAC (bacterial artificial chromosome) system has never been investigated. We found that the full length FR of the Akata strain EBV was not stably maintained in a BAC vector. By contrast, newly obtained BAC clones of the B95-8 strain of EBV stably maintained the full length FR during recombinant virus production and B-cell transformation. Investigation of primary DNA sequences of Akata–derived EBV-BAC clones indicates that the FR instability is most likely due to a putative secondary structure of the FR region. We conclude that the FR instability in EBV-BAC clones can be a pitfall in E. coli-mediated EBV genetics.

A wide extent of inter-strain diversity in virulent and vaccine strains of alphaherpesviruses

Alphaherpesviruses are widespread in the human population, and include herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) and 2, and varicella zoster virus (VZV). These viral pathogens cause epithelial lesions, and then infect the nervous system to cause lifelong latency, reactivation, and spread. A related veterinary herpesvirus, pseudorabies (PRV), causes similar disease in livestock that result in significant economic losses. Vaccines developed for VZV and PRV serve as useful models for the development of an HSV-1 vaccine. We present full genome sequence comparisons of the PRV vaccine strain Bartha, and two virulent PRV isolates, Kaplan and Becker. These genome sequences were determined by high-throughput sequencing and assembly, and present new insights into the attenuation of a mammalian alphaherpesvirus vaccine strain. We find many previously unknown coding differences between PRV Bartha and the virulent strains, including changes to the fusion proteins gH and gB, and over forty other viral proteins. Inter-strain variation in PRV protein sequences is much closer to levels previously observed for HSV-1 than for the highly stable VZV proteome. Almost 20% of the PRV genome contains tandem short sequence repeats (SSRs), a class of nucleic acids motifs whose length-variation has been associated with changes in DNA binding site efficiency, transcriptional regulation, and protein interactions. We find SSRs throughout the herpesvirus family, and provide the first global characterization of SSRs in viruses, both within and between strains. We find SSR length variation between different isolates of PRV and HSV-1, which may provide a new mechanism for phenotypic variation between strains. Finally, we detected a small number of polymorphic bases within each plaque-purified PRV strain, and we characterize the effect of passage and plaque-purification on these polymorphisms. These data add to growing evidence that even plaque-purified stocks of stable DNA viruses exhibit limited sequence heterogeneity, which likely seeds future strain evolution.

Alphaherpesviruses such as herpes simplex virus (HSV) are ubiquitous in the human population. HSV causes oral and genital lesions, and has co-morbidities in acquisition and spread of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The lack of a vaccine for HSV hinders medical progress for both of these infections. A related veterinary alphaherpesvirus, pseudorabies virus (PRV), has long served as a model for HSV vaccine development, because of their similar pathogenesis, neuronal spread, and infectious cycle. We present here the first full genome characterization of a live PRV vaccine strain, Bartha, and reveal a spectrum of unique mutations that are absent from two divergent wild-type PRV strains. These mutations can now be examined individually for their contribution to vaccine strain attenuation and for potential use in HSV vaccine development. These inter-strain comparisons also revealed an abundance of short repetitive elements in the PRV genome, a pattern which is repeated in other herpesvirus genomes and even the unrelated Mimivirus. We provide the first global characterization of repeats in viruses, comparing both their presence and their variation among different viral strains and species. Repetitive elements such as these have been shown to serve as hotspots of variation between individuals or strains of other organisms, generating adaptations or even disease states through changes in length of DNA-binding sites, protein folding motifs, and other structural elements. These data suggest for the first time that similar mechanisms could be widely distributed in viral biology as well.

Latent membrane protein 1 is dispensable for Epstein-Barr virus replication in human embryonic kidney 293 cells

Epstein Barr Virus (EBV) replicates in oral epithelial cells and gains entry to B-lymphocytes. In B-lymphocytes, EBV expresses a restricted subset of genes, the Latency III program, which converts B-lymphocytes to proliferating lymphoblasts. Latent Membrane Protein 1 (LMP1) and the other Latency III associated proteins are also expressed during virus replication. LMP1 is essential for virus replication and egress from Akata Burkitt Lymphoma cells, but a role in epithelial cell replication has not been established. Therefore, we have investigated whether LMP1 enhances EBV replication and egress from HEK293 cells, a model epithelial cell line used for EBV recombinant molecular genetics. We compared wild type (wt) and LMP1-deleted (LMP1Δ) EBV bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) based virus replication and egress from HEK293. Following EBV immediate early Zta protein induction of EBV replication in HEK293 cells, similar levels of EBV proteins were expressed in wt- and LMP1Δ-infected HEK293 cells. LMP1 deletion did not impair EBV replication associated DNA replication, DNA encapsidation, or mature virus release. Indeed, virus from LMP1Δ-infected HEK293 cells was as infectious as EBV from wt EBV infected HEK cells. Trans-complementation with LMP1 reduced Rta expression and subsequent virus production. These data indicate that LMP1 is not required for EBV replication and egress from HEK293 cells.

Cloning of the Epstein-Barr virus-related rhesus lymphocryptovirus as a bacterial artificial chromosome: a loss-of-function mutation of the rhBARF1 immune evasion gene

Rhesus macaques are naturally infected with a gammaherpesvirus which is in the same lymphocryptovirus (LCV) genus as and closely related to Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). The rhesus macaque LCV (rhLCV) contains a repertoire of genes identical to that of EBV, and experimental rhLCV infection of naive rhesus macaques accurately models acute and persistent EBV infection of humans. We cloned the LCL8664 rhLCV strain as a bacterial artificial chromosome to create recombinant rhLCV for investigation in this animal model system. A recombinant rhLCV (clone 16 rhLCV) carrying a mutation in the putative immune evasion gene rhBARF1 was created along with a rescued wild-type (rWT) rhLCV in which the rhBARF1 open reading frame (ORF) was repaired. The rWT rhLCV molecular clone demonstrated viral replication and B-cell immortalization properties comparable to those of the naturally derived LCL8664 rhLCV. Qualitatively, clone 16 rhLCV carrying a mutated rhBARF1 was competent for viral replication and B-cell immortalization, but quantitative assays showed that clone 16 rhLCV immortalized B cells less efficiently than LCL8664 and rWT rhLCV. Functional studies showed that rhBARF1 could block CSF-1 cytokine signaling as well as EBV BARF1, whereas the truncated rhBARF1 from clone 16 rhLCV was a loss-of-function mutant. These recombinant rhLCV can be used in the rhesus macaque animal model system to better understand how a putative viral immune evasion gene contributes to the pathogenesis of acute and persistent EBV infection. The development of a genetic system for making recombinant rhLCV constitutes a major advance in the study of EBV pathogenesis in the rhesus macaque animal model.

Epstein-Barr virus LF2 protein regulates viral replication by altering Rta subcellular localization

The switch from Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) latent infection to lytic replication is governed by two viral transactivators, Zta and Rta. We previously reported that the EBV protein LF2 binds Rta, inhibits Rta promoter activation, and blocks EBV replication in cells. In addition, LF2 induces SUMO2/3 modification of Rta. We now show that this modification occurs at four lysines within the Rta activation domain (426, 446, 517, and 530) and that sumoylation of Rta is not essential for its repression. Coexpression studies demonstrated that Rta is sequestered to the extranuclear cytoskeleton in the presence of LF2. We mapped the LF2 binding site to Rta amino acids (aa) 476 to 519 and showed that LF2 binding is critical for Rta relocalization and repression. The core of this binding site, Rta aa 500 to 526, confers LF2-mediated relocalization and repression onto the artificial transcription factor GAL4-VP16. Mutational analysis of LF2 provided further evidence that Rta redistribution is essential for repression. Rta localization changes during replication of the LF2-positive P3HR1 genome, but not during replication of the LF2-negative B95-8 genome. BLRF2 protein expression was decreased and delayed in P3HR1 cells compared with B95-8 cells, consistent with reduced Rta activity. By contrast, BMRF1 expression, regulated primarily by Zta, did not differ significantly between the two cell lines. Our results support a model in which LF2 regulates EBV replication by binding to Rta and redistributing it out of the nucleus.

Epstein-Barr virus strains defined by the latent membrane protein 1 sequence characterize Thai ethnic groups

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is ubiquitous in the human population and seroepidemiological studies have revealed that more than 90% of adults are infected with the virus in Thailand. It has been suggested that latent membrane protein 1 (LMP1) variants may differ in their tumorigenicity and geographical localization. The distribution of LMP1 variants of EBV in the Thai population was studied. A total of 259 LMP1 sequences from ten Thai ethnic groups (Lahu, Lisu, Shan, Red Karen, White Karen, Hmong, Akha, Mlabri, Moken and Urak Lawoi) were studied using direct PCR sequencing. Nucleotide sequences corresponding to the C terminus of the LMP1, including previously published sequences from central and southern Thais, were used in the phylogenetic analysis. Five strains--the B95-8 prototype, China 1, China 2, Mediterranean (Med) and SEA 2--were identified in ethnic groups in Thailand. The major strain and the distribution pattern differed by group and location. When the ethnic groups were classified by linguistic group, the prevalence of the SEA 2 strain was significantly different between Austro-Thais and other linguistic groups (P=0.0001), whereas, among Tibeto-Burman linguistic groups, the prevalence of the Med strain was different between matrilocal and patrilocal groups (P=0.0245). The distribution of LMP1 strains in ethnic minorities in Thailand is associated with ethnogeographical factors and the social/marriage system. This study thus provides evidence for the importance of interactions between populations in virus diversity.

Epstein-Barr virus growth/latency III program alters cellular microRNA expression

The Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is associated with lymphoid and epithelial cancers. Initial EBV infection alters lymphocyte gene expression, inducing cellular proliferation and differentiation as the virus transitions through consecutive latency transcription programs. Cellular microRNAs (miRNAs) are important regulators of signaling pathways and are implicated in carcinogenesis. The extent to which EBV exploits cellular miRNAs is unknown. Using micro-array analysis and quantitative PCR, we demonstrate differential expression of cellular miRNAs in type III versus type I EBV latency including elevated expression of miR-21, miR-23a, miR-24, miR-27a, miR-34a, miR-146a and b, and miR-155. In contrast, miR-28 expression was found to be lower in type III latency. The EBV-mediated regulation of cellular miRNAs may contribute to EBV signaling and associated cancers.

Points of recombination in Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) strain P3HR-1-derived heterogeneous DNA as indexes to EBV DNA recombinogenic events in vivo

Deletions and rearrangements in the genome of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) strain P3HR-1 generate subgenomic infectious particles that, unlike defective interfering particles in other viral systems, enhance rather than restrict EBV replication in vitro. Reports of comparable heterogeneous (het) DNA in EBV-linked human diseases, based on detection of an abnormal juxtaposition of EBV DNA fragments BamHI W and BamHI Z that disrupts viral latency, prompted us to determine at the nucleotide level all remaining recombination joints formed by the four constituent segments of P3HR-1-derived het DNA. Guided by endonuclease restriction maps, we chose PCR primer pairs that approximated and framed junctions creating the unique BamHI M/B1 and E/S fusion fragments. Sequencing of PCR products revealed points of recombination that lacked regions of extensive homology between constituent fragments. Identical recombination junctions were detected by PCR in EBV-positive salivary samples from human immunodeficiency virus-infected donors, although the W/Z rearrangement that induces EBV reactivation was frequently found in the absence of the other two. In vitro infection of lymphoid cells similarly indicated that not all three het DNA rearrangements need to reside on a composite molecule. These results connote a precision in the recombination process that dictates both composition and regulation of gene segments altered by genomic rearrangement. Moreover, the apparent frequency of het DNA at sites of EBV replication in vivo is consistent with a likely contribution to the pathogenesis of EBV reactivation.

The Epstein-Barr virus LF2 protein inhibits viral replication

The switch from Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) latent infection to lytic replication is governed by two transcriptional regulators, Zta and Rta. We previously reported that the EBV protein encoded by the LF2 gene binds to Rta and can inhibit Rta activity in reporter gene assays. We now report that LF2 associates with Rta in the context of EBV-infected cells induced for lytic replication. LF2 inhibition of Rta occurs in both epithelial and B cells, and this downregulation is promoter specific: LF2 decreases Rta activation of the BALF2, BMLF1, and BMRF1 promoters by 60 to 90% but does not significantly decrease Rta activation of its own promoter (Rp). LF2 decreases Rta activation by at least two mechanisms: decreased DNA binding and interference with transcriptional activation by the Rta acidic activation domain. Coexpression of LF2 also specifically induces modification of Rta by the small ubiquitin-like modifiers SUMO2 and SUMO3. We further demonstrate that LF2 overexpression blocks lytic activation in EBV-infected cells induced with Rta or Zta. Our results demonstrate that LF2, a gene deleted from the EBV reference strain B95-8, encodes a potent inhibitor of EBV replication, and they suggest that future studies of EBV replication need to account for the potential effects of LF2 on Rta activity.

Proteomic analysis of pathogenic and attenuated alcelaphine herpesvirus 1

The gammaherpesvirus alcelaphine herpesvirus 1 (AlHV-1) causes malignant catarrhal fever in susceptible ungulates but infects its natural host, wildebeest, without obvious clinical signs. In tissue culture, AlHV-1 is initially predominantly cell associated and virulent but on extended culture becomes cell-free and attenuated. We wanted to determine what changes in protein composition had taken place during the transition from virulent to attenuated virus in culture. Purified virus preparations were fractionated by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, and proteins were analyzed by liquid chromatography-electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry. Peptides were identified in serial gel slices by using MASCOT software to interrogate virus-specific and nonredundant sequence databases. Twenty-three AlHV-1-encoded proteins and six cellular proteins were identified in the attenuated and virulent viruses. Two polypeptides were detected in only the virulent virus preparations, while one other protein was found in only the attenuated virus. Two of these virus-specific proteins were identified by a single peptide, suggesting that these may be low-abundance virion proteins rather than markers of attenuation or pathogenesis. The results suggest that attenuation of AlHV-1 is not the result of gross changes in the composition of the virus particle but probably due to altered viral gene expression in the infected cell.

Complexities associated with expression of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) lytic origins of DNA replication

EBV has two lytic origins (oriLyt) of DNA replication lying at divergent sites on the viral genome within a duplicated sequence (DS). The latter contains potential hairpin loops, ‘hinge’ elements and the promoters for transcripts from viral genes BHLF1 and LF3. These genes themselves consist largely of 125 and 102 bp repetitive sequences, respectively, and encode basic proteins. We have examined these genomic regions in detail in attempts to understand why lytic replication—necessary for virus survival—is so inefficient, and to identify controlling elements. Our studies uncovered a diverse family of promoters (P) for BHLF1 and LF3, only one pair of which (P1) proved sensitive to chemical inducing agents. The others (P2–P3/4), abutting the replication ‘core’ origin elements in DS and extending into 5′-unique sequences, may play roles in the maintenance of viral latency. We further identified a family of overlapping small complementary-strand RNAs that transverse the replication ‘core’ origin elements in a manner suggesting a role for them as ‘antisense’ species and/or DNA replication primers. Our data are discussed in terms of alternative lytic replication models. We suggest our findings might prove useful in seeking better control over viral lytic replication and devising strategies for therapy.

Multiple roles of Epstein-Barr virus SM protein in lytic replication

The effect of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) SM protein on EBV gene expression was examined using a recombinant EBV strain with the SM gene deleted and DNA microarrays representing all known EBV coding regions. Induction of lytic EBV replication in the absence of SM led to expression of approximately 40% of EBV genes, but a block in expression of over 50% of EBV genes. Contrary to previous findings, several early genes were SM dependent, and lytic EBV DNA replication did not occur in the absence of SM. Notably, two genes essential for lytic EBV DNA replication, BSLF1 and BALF5, encoding EBV DNA primase and polymerase, respectively, were SM dependent. Lytic DNA replication was partially rescued by ectopic expression of EBV primase and polymerase, but virion production was not. Rescue of DNA replication only enhanced expression of a subset of late genes, consistent with a direct requirement for SM for late gene expression in addition to its contribution to DNA replication. Therefore, while SM is essential for most late gene expression, the proximate block to virion production by the EBV SM deletion strain is an inability to replicate linear DNA. The block to DNA replication combined with the direct effect of SM on late gene expression leads to a global deficiency of late gene expression. SM also inhibited BHRF1 expression during productive replication in comparison to that of cells induced into lytic replication in the absence of SM. Thus, SM plays a role in multiple steps of lytic cycle EBV gene expression and that it is transcript-specific in both activation and repression functions.

Genomic sequence analysis of Epstein-Barr virus strain GD1 from a nasopharyngeal carcinoma patient

To date, the only entire Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) genomic sequence available in the database is the prototype B95.8, which was derived from an individual with infectious mononucleosis. A causative link between EBV and nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC), a disease with a distinctly high incidence in southern China, has been widely investigated. However, no full-length analysis of any substrain of EBV from this area has been reported. In this study, we analyzed the entire genomic sequence of an EBV strain from a patient with NPC in Guangdong, China. This EBV strain was termed GD1 (Guangdong strain 1), and the full-length sequence of GD1 was submitted to the GenBank database. The assigned accession number is AY961628. The entire GD1 sequence is 171,656 bp in length, with 59.5% G+C content and 40.5% A+T content. We detected many sequence variations in GD1 compared to prototypical strain B95.8, including 43 deletion sites, 44 insertion sites, and 1,413 point mutations. Furthermore, we evaluated the frequency of some of these GD1 mutations in Cantonese NPC patients and found them to be highly prevalent. These findings suggest that GD1 is highly representative of the EBV strains isolated from NPC patients in Guangdong, China, an area with the highest incidence of NPC in the world. Furthermore, these findings provide the second full-length sequence analysis of any EBV strain as well as the first full-length sequence analysis of an NPC-derived EBV strain.

The genome of Epstein-Barr virus type 2 strain AG876

Two Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) types are known, EBV1 and EBV2, which possess substantially diverged alleles for latency genes EBNA-2, EBNA-3A, EBNA-3B and EBNA-3C but are thought to be otherwise similar. We report the first complete EBV2 genome sequence, for strain AG876, as 172,764 bp. The sequence was interpreted as containing at least 80 protein coding genes. Comparison with the published EBV1 sequence demonstrated that the two sequences are collinear and, outside the known diverged alleles, generally very close. The EBNA-1 gene was identified as another diverged locus, although its variation is believed not to correlate with EBV type. Patterns of substitution between the two genomes presented a wide spectrum of classes of change. No evidence was seen for involvement of B-cell-specific hypermutation systems in generation of the diverged alleles. Overall, genomic comparisons indicated that the two EBV types should be regarded as belonging to the same virus species.

Genome-wide transcription program and expression of the Rta responsive gene of Epstein–Barr virus

Infection with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) usually leads to a latent state in B lymphocytes. The virus can be reactivated through two viral transactivators, Zta and Rta, leading to a cascade of gene expression. An EBV DNA array was generated to analyze the pattern of transcription of the entire EBV genome under various conditions. Firstly, a complete set of temporal expression clusters of EBV genes was displayed by analyzing the array data of anti-IgG-induced Akata cells. In addition to assigning genes of unknown function to the various clusters, increasing expression of latent genes, including EBNA2, EBNA3A and EBNA 3C, was observed during virus replication. Secondly, gene expression independent of viral DNA replication was analyzed in PAA blocked Akata cells and in chemically induced Raji cells. Several genes with presumed late functions were found to be expressed with early kinetics and independent of viral DNA replication, suggesting possible novel functions for these genes. Finally, the EBV array was used to identify Rta responsive gene expression in Raji cells, and in the EBV-positive epithelial cells NA, using a Zta siRNA strategy. The array data were confirmed by Northern blotting, RT-PCR and reporter assays. All the information here thus provides a better understanding of the control of EBV lytic gene expression.

New genes from old: redeployment of dUTPase by herpesviruses

Published work (D. J. McGeoch, Nucleic Acids Res. 18:4105-4110, 1990; J. E. McGeehan, N. W. Depledge, and D. J. McGeoch, Curr. Protein Peptide Sci. 2:325-333, 2001) has indicated that evolution of dUTPase in the class of herpesviruses that infect mammals and birds involved capture of a host gene followed by a duplication event that resulted in a coding region comprising two fused dUTPase domains. Some of the conserved residues required for enzyme activity were then lost, resulting in a dUTPase containing a single active site with different elements contributed by each half of the protein. Further conserved residues were lost in one subfamily (the Betaherpesvirinae), yielding a protein that is related to herpesvirus dUTPases but has a different and as yet unrecognized function. Evidence from sequence similarities and structural predictions now indicates that several additional genes were derived from the herpesvirus dUTPase gene, probably by duplication. These are UL31, UL82, UL83, and UL84 in human cytomegalovirus (and counterparts in other members of the Betaherpesvirinae) and ORF10 and ORF11 in human herpesvirus 8 (and counterparts in other members of the Gammaherpesvirinae). The findings clarify the evolutionary history of these genes and provide novel insights for structural and functional studies.

Telomere size and telomerase activity in Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-positive and EBV-negative Burkitt’s lymphoma cell lines

The telomere repeat lengths of BL cell lines were quantified by measuring terminal restriction fragment (TRF). Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-positive Namalwa, Raji, and EB-3 cell lines have long telomeres, i.e. TRFs 10-19 kbp, whereas the Daudi cell line, producing a transformation-defective EBV mutant, has TRFs approximately 2.2 kbp. EBV-negative BJAB and DG75 cell lines have short TRFs 3.9-5.4 kbp, shorter than the approximately 12 kbp TRFs in PBLs. Telomerase activities of these BL cell lines are similar. TRFs of non-BL lymphoma cell lines are 2.3-5.5 kbp. Fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) studies of these cell lines showed remarkable heterogeneity of telomere size in chromosomes in the same BL cell. These results suggest that EBV-positive and EBV-negative BL cell lines have experienced various telomere dynamics.

Monoclonal antibodies against regions topologically surrounding the homodimeric beta-barrel interface of Epstein-Barr virus nuclear antigen-1

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) nuclear antigen-1 (EBNA-1) is essential for maintenance of EBV latency. Four mouse monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) against the part of the EBNA-1 sequence (amino acids 451-641) containing the domain that forms a homodimeric eight-stranded beta-barrel were generated and characterized, examined for immunocytochemical staining, immunoblotting and isoelectric focusing of EBNA-1 proteins, and used to examine interactions between EBNA-1 polypeptides by far-Western blot assays. Far-Western blot analyses using the mAbs suggest that both the beta-strand (aa 593-604) and alpha helix (aa 568-582) are essential for EBNA-1 dimerization, consistent with yeast two-hybrid studies of mutant EBNA-1 polypeptides. These mAbs should be useful for studies on the structure and function of EBNA-1 proteins.

Production of high-titer Epstein-Barr virus recombinants derived from Akata cells by using a bacterial artificial chromosome system

An Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) genome in Burkitt's lymphoma-derived cell line Akata was cloned into a bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) vector. The BAC clone, designated AK-BAC, was rapidly and precisely modified by means of efficient homologous recombination in Escherichia coli. This system was used to produce recombinant EBVs with transgenes. An expression cassette of green fluorescent protein (GFP) was inserted into AK-BAC, and the resultant BAC clone, AK-BAC-GFP, was transfected into Akata cells. We found that transfected BAC plasmids efficiently formed episomes in EBV-positive Akata cells. Mixtures of wild-type and AK-BAC-GFP viruses were then produced and used to infect EBV-negative Akata cells. We obtained cell clones that harbored only AK-BAC-GFP but no wild-type episome. These cell clones produced infectious viruses after stimulating virus production, and the recombinant viruses of AK-BAC-GFP efficiently immortalized primary B lymphocytes. We further revised the method so that any kind of cDNA could be rapidly inserted into the unique I-PpoI site that had been artificially introduced into AK-BAC. The AK-BAC system will have a broad range of applications, such as genetic analyses of various viral gene products and development of viral vectors for human gene therapy.

Plasticity of DNA replication initiation in Epstein-Barr virus episomes

In mammalian cells, the activity of the sites of initiation of DNA replication appears to be influenced epigenetically, but this regulation is not fully understood. Most studies of DNA replication have focused on the activity of individual initiation sites, making it difficult to evaluate the impact of changes in initiation activity on the replication of entire genomic loci. Here, we used single molecule analysis of replicated DNA (SMARD) to study the latent duplication of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) episomes in human cell lines. We found that initiation sites are present throughout the EBV genome and that their utilization is not conserved in different EBV strains. In addition, SMARD shows that modifications in the utilization of multiple initiation sites occur across large genomic regions (tens of kilobases in size). These observations indicate that individual initiation sites play a limited role in determining the replication dynamics of the EBV genome. Long-range mechanisms and the genomic context appear to play much more important roles, affecting the frequency of utilization and the order of activation of multiple initiation sites. Finally, these results confirm that initiation sites are extremely redundant elements of the EBV genome. We propose that these conclusions also apply to mammalian chromosomes.

Despite overall similarities between genomes, initiation of DNA replication and speed of duplication in different parts of the genome differs amongst EBV strains

Analysis of 4.3 kilobases of divergent locus B of macaque retroperitoneal fibromatosis-associated herpesvirus reveals a close similarity in gene sequence and genome organization to Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus

We previously identified retroperitoneal fibromatosis-associated herpesvirus (RFHV) as a simian homolog of Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) in a fibroproliferative malignancy of macaques that has similarities to Kaposi's sarcoma. In this report, we cloned 4.3 kb of divergent locus B (DL-B) flanking the DNA polymerase gene from two variants of RFHV from different species of macaque with a consensus degenerate hybrid oligonucleotide primer approach. Within the DL-B region of RFHV, viral homologs of the cellular interleukin-6, dihydrofolate reductase, and thymidylate synthase genes were identified, along with a homolog of the gammaherpesvirus open reading frame (ORF) 10. In addition, a homolog of the KSHV ORF K3, the modulator of immune recognition-1, was identified. Our data show a close similarity in sequence conservation, gene content, and genomic structure between RFHV and KSHV which strongly supports the grouping of these viral species within the same RV-1 rhadinovirus lineage and the hypothesis that RFHV is the macaque homolog of KSHV.

Genetic diversity: frameshift mechanisms alter coding of a gene (Epstein-Barr virus LF3 gene) that contains multiple 102-base-pair direct sequence repeats

Frameshift mutations provide recognized mechanisms for changing the coding potential of an organism. Here, multiple frameshifts are identified in repetitive sequences within an Epstein-Barr virus unspliced early gene, LF3, which is associated with the viral replicative cycle and also transcriptionally expressed in many virally associated tumors. On the DNA strand encoding LF3, there are three open reading frames, only one of which contains an initiation codon. Most (>95%) of the gene consists of numerous (>20, varying with cell source) GC-rich copies of a 102-bp direct repeat (called IR 4) flanked by small unique sequences. LF3 may express a protein if its initiation and termination codons reside in the same reading frame, but this is not always the case. Frameshifting events, occurring in short runs of pyrimidines (mainly C residues) in the repeats, give rise to mutations which may provide a mechanism for escape of an LF3 function from host surveillance. Sequence studies link these frameshifts to DNA replication errors. Notably, the number of sites in LF3 at which such mutations can occur permits a very large amount of diversity in this gene. Our data also suggest a second degeneracy mechanism within the protein itself, which influences its stability and may reflect a host defense mechanism. LF3 thus provides a potentially important model for studying the quest for supremacy between a virus and its host.

Complete genomic sequence of an Epstein-Barr virus-related herpesvirus naturally infecting a new world primate: a defining point in the evolution of oncogenic lymphocryptoviruses

Callitrichine herpesvirus 3 (CalHV-3) was isolated from a B-cell lymphoma arising spontaneously in the New World primate Callithrix jacchus, the common marmoset. Partial genomic sequence analysis definitively identified CalHV-3 as a member of the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-related lymphocryptovirus (LCV) genus and extended the known host range of LCVs beyond humans and Old World nonhuman primates. We have now completed the first genomic sequence of an LCV infecting a New World primate by describing the unique short region, the major internal repeat, and a portion of the unique long region. This portion of the genome contains the putative latent origin of replication and 13 additional open reading frames (ORFs), 5 of which show no homology to any viral or cell genes. One of the novel genes, C5, is a positional homologue for the transformation-essential EBV gene EBNA-2. The marmoset LCV genome is also notable for the absence of viral interleukin-10 and small nonpolyadenylated RNA homologues. Marmoset LCV transcripts encoding putative latent infection nuclear proteins have a common leader sequence that is spliced from the major internal repeat in a manner similar to that of the EBV EBNA-LP, suggesting strong conservation of a common promoter and splicing of these latent infection mRNAs. An EBV LMP2A-like spliced transcript crossing the terminal repeats encodes a unique ORF, C7, with multiple transmembrane domains and tyrosine kinase phosphorylation sites functionally reminiscent of EBV LMP2A. However, the carboxy-terminal location of the candidate phosphotyrosine residues is more reminiscent of the Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus K15 gene and provides potential evidence of an evolutionary transition from rhadinoviruses to lymphocryptoviruses. The unusual gene repertoire of the marmoset LCV differentiates ancestral viral genes likely present in an LCV progenitor from viral genes acquired later as primates and LCV coevolved, providing a defining point in the evolution of oncogenic LCVs.

Epstein-Barr virus-associated Burkitt lymphomagenesis selects for downregulation of the nuclear antigen EBNA2

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is etiologically linked to endemic Burkitt lymphoma (BL), but its contribution to lymphomagenesis, versus that of the chromosomal translocation leading to c-myc gene deregulation, remains unclear. The virus's growth-transforming (Latency III) program of gene expression is extinguished in tumor cells, and only a single viral protein, the EBV nuclear antigen (EBNA)1, is expressed via the alternative Latency I program. It is not known if BL arises from a B-cell subset in which EBV naturally adopts a Latency I infection or if a clone with limited antigen expression has been selected from an EBV-transformed Latency III progenitor pool. Here we identify a subset of BL tumors in which the Latency III-associated EBNA promoter Wp is active and most EBNAs are expressed, but where a gene deletion has specifically abrogated the expression of EBNA2. This implies that BL can be selected from a Latency III progenitor and that the principal selection pressure is for downregulation of the c-Myc antagonist EBNA2.

Complete nucleotide sequence of the rhesus lymphocryptovirus: genetic validation for an Epstein-Barr virus animal model

We sequenced the rhesus lymphocryptovirus (LCV) genome in order to determine its genetic similarity to Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). The rhesus LCV encodes a repertoire identical to that of EBV, with 80 open reading frames, including cellular interleukin-10, bcl-2, and colony-stimulating factor 1 receptor homologues and an equivalent set of viral glycoproteins. The highly conserved rhesus LCV gene repertoire provides a unique animal model for the study of EBV pathogenesis.

Epstein-Barr virus complementary strand transcripts (CSTs/BARTs) and cancer

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) encodes a family of related transcripts, the complementary strand transcripts (CSTs) or BARTs (Bam A rightward transcripts). These are present in all types of EBV infection but are expressed to particularly high levels in nasopharyngeal carcinomas. Although convincing demonstration of protein expression from these transcripts is still subject to some debate, potential proteins encoded by them have been shown to modify Notch signalling pathways.

Roles of Epstein-Barr virus glycoproteins gp350 and gp25 in the infection of human epithelial cells

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is associated with various epithelial malignancies such as nasopharyngeal carcinoma and gastric carcinoma, and causes oral hairy leukoplakia, a productive EBV infection of the differentiated epithelium of the tongue. However, it is not clear by what mechanism EBV infects epithelial cells. We generated a recombinant EBV that expresses enhanced green fluorescent protein in order to monitor EBV entrance into epithelial cells quickly and quantitatively. Using this monitoring system, we examined the roles of gp350 and gp25 in EBV infection of epithelial cells by utilizing soluble forms of the gp350 and gp25 proteins. EBV infection of three of four examined epithelial cell lines, 293, NU-GC-3 and Lovo, was almost completely blocked by pretreatment of cells with a soluble form of gp350 (designated gp350Ig), and this blockage was dependent on the CD21-binding region of gp350. On the other hand, infection of the other epithelial cell line, AGS, was not inhibited at all by pretreatment with gp350Ig. Moreover, we found that a soluble form of gp25 (designated gp25Ig) preferentially bound to epithelial cells rather than B cells, and pretreatment of cells with gp25Ig substantially blocked EBV infection of some epithelial cells. These results indicate the existence of two distinct pathways in EBV infection of epithelial cells, a gp350-dependent pathway and a gp350-independent pathway, and that gp25 can play a role in the infection of some epithelial cells.