Mesenchymal stem cell: an efficient mass producer of exosomes for drug delivery

Targeting oxidative stress in preeclampsia

Preeclampsia is a complex condition characterized by elevated blood pressure and organ damage involving kidneys or liver, resulting in significant morbidity and mortality for both the mother and the fetus. Increasing evidence suggests that oxidative stress, often caused by mitochondrial dysfunction within fetal trophoblast cells may play a major role in the development and progression of preeclampsia. Oxidative stress occurs as a result of an imbalance between the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the capacity of antioxidant defenses, which can lead to placental cellular damage and endothelial cell dysfunction. Targeting oxidative stress appears to be a promising therapeutic approach that has the potential to improve both short- and long-term maternal and fetal outcomes, thus reducing the global burden of preeclampsia. The purpose of this review is to provide a comprehensive account of the mechanisms of oxidative stress in preeclampsia. Furthermore, it also examines potential interventions for reducing oxidative stress in preeclampsia, including natural antioxidant supplements, lifestyle modifications, mitochondrial targeting antioxidants, and pharmacological agents.A better understanding of the mechanism of action of proposed therapeutic strategies targeting oxidative stress is essential for the identification of companion biomarkers and personalized medicine approaches for the development of effective treatments of preeclampsia.

Exosomes in treating Eye Diseases: Targeting strategies

Exosomes are lipid-based vesicles carrying bioactive molecules (nucleic acids, proteins, lipids) that mediate intercellular communication. Emerging research explores their potential as therapeutic delivery systems, with bioengineering approaches enhancing stability and efficacy for clinical translation. This review focuses on exosome applications in ocular diseases, particularly engineered targeting strategies, while addressing current limitations and future clinical prospects.

Milking mesenchymal stem cells: Updated protocols for cell lysate, secretome, and exosome extraction, and comparative analysis of their therapeutic potential

The potential of the cell lysate, secretome, and extracellular vesicles (EVs) of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) to modulate the immune response and promote tissue regeneration has positioned them as a promising option for cell-free therapy. Currently, many clinical trials in stem cells-derived EVs and secretome are in progress various diseases and sometimes the results are failing. The major challenge on this roadmap is the lack of a standard extraction method for exosome, secretome, and lysate. The most optimal method for obtaining the secretome of MSCs for clinical utilization involves a comprehensive approach that includes non-destructive collection methods, time optimization, multiple collection rounds, optimization of culture conditions, and quality control measures. Further research and clinical studies are warranted to validate and refine these methods for safe and effective utilization of the MSC exosome, secretome, and lysate in various clinical applications. To address these challenges, it is imperative to establish a standardized and unified methodology to ensure reliable evaluation of these extractions in clinical trials. This review seeks to outline the pros and cons of methods for the preparation of MSCs-derived exosome, and secretome/lysate, and comparative analysis of their therapeutic potential.

Exosomal delivery of rapamycin modulates blood-brain barrier penetration and VEGF axis in glioblastoma

Exosomes (Exos), nanosized membranous vesicles (30-160 nm), have been validated as an effective drug delivery system capable of traversing biological barriers. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), due to their near-limitless self-renewal capabilities, provide a plentiful source of exosomes for clinical applications. In this study, we utilized an exosome-encapsulated rapamycin (Exo-Rapa) delivery strategy, which permits the use of smaller drug dosages to achieve effects typically seen with higher dosages, thus enhancing drug efficacy. Moreover, Exos can transport pharmaceuticals across the blood-brain barrier (BBB) to the brain, and further penetrate GL261 cells to exert their effects. Within the tumor microenvironment, Exo-Rapa is released more rapidly and efficiently at the tumor site. The acidic conditions in tumors accelerate the release of Exo-Rapa, a characteristic that may make it a promising targeted therapeutic in future cancer research. Additionally, a series of in vivo experiments have further demonstrated the permeability of Exo-Rapa across the BBB, enabling it to accumulate at tumor sites; it also ameliorates inflammatory responses in Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) mouse models and enhances anti-tumor activity through the regulation of angiogenesis via the VEGF/VEGFRs axis. Our results indicate that MSC-derived exosomes are a potent therapeutic carrier for GBM, offering an effective strategy for enhancing drug delivery across the BBB and providing a scientific foundation for the use of exosomes in the treatment of GBM and other diseases.

Quantifying extracellular vesicle heterogeneity: the effect of process conditions on protein cargo for skin therapy

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) contain a variety of proteins with anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties that offer promising benefits in skin therapy applications. An influx of EV proteomic studies in recent years has created the opportunity for a detailed comparison of EV heterogeneity between studies in the context of therapeutic applications. Although several process conditions are known to cause variability in EVs, little has been done to quantify the impact of these factors on the nature of EV protein cargo. This review aims to both compile publicly available EV proteomics data and quantitatively estimate. the impact of process conditions on protein cargo-particularly in the context of skin therapy applications. Of roughly 400 articles, 52 relevant proteomic studies were identified within the last 15 years. Across studies, 40% of the 13,000 observed proteins were identified in only a single study. EVs in general were found to be highly variable, with mixed effects models only able to account for 25-60% of variance when considering factors such as EV source, medium, isolation method, LC-MS ionization, and protein search algorithm. Overall, MSC-derived EVs contained a greater fraction of proteins within pathways associated with wound healing and skin therapy (immune system, hemostasis, extracellular matrix organization, and cellular response to stress) as well as the most number of unique proteins when compared to all other analysed EVs. Although EVs are a promising tool within skin therapeutics, the overall variability in protein cargo underscores the need for standardized methodologies to fully elucidate the impact of process conditions on EV cargo.

Exosomes in infectious diseases: insights into leishmaniasis pathogenesis, immune modulation, and therapeutic potential

Leishmaniasis continues to be a critical international health issue due to the scarcity of efficient treatment and the development of drug tolerance. New developments in the research of extracellular vesicles (EVs), especially exosomes, have revealed novel disease management approaches. Exosomes are small vesicles that transport lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins in cell signalling. Its biogenesis depends on several cellular processes, and their functions in immune response, encompassing innate and adaptive immunity, underline their function in the pathogen-host interface. Exosomes play a significant role in the pathogenesis of some parasitic infections, especially Leishmaniasis, by helping parasites escape host immunity and promote disease progression. This article explains that in the framework of parasitic diseases, exosomes can act as master regulators that define the pathogenesis of the disease, as illustrated by the engagement of exosomes in the Leishmaniasis parasite and immune escape processes. Based on many published articles on Leishmaniasis, this review aims to summarize the biogenesis of exosomes, the properties of the cargo in exosomes, and the modulation of immune responses. We delve deeper into the prospect of using exosomes for the therapy of Leishmaniasis based on the possibility of using these extracellular vesicles for drug delivery and as diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers. Lastly, we focus on the recent research perspectives and future developments, underlining the necessity to continue the investigation of exosome-mediated approaches in Leishmaniasis treatment. Thus, this review intends to draw attention to exosomes as a bright new perspective in the battle against this disabling affliction.

CD9-enriched extracellular vesicles from chemically reprogrammed basal progenitors of salivary glands mitigate salivary gland fibrosis

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from stem cells offer promising potential for cell-free therapy. However, refining their cargo for precise disease targeting and delivery remains challenging. This study employed chemical reprogramming via dual inhibition of transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ) and bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) to expand salivary gland basal progenitor cells (sgBPCs). CD9-enriched (CD9+) EVs were then isolated from the sgBPC secretome concentrate using a dual microfluidic chip. Notably, CD9+ EVs demonstrated superior uptake by salivary epithelial cells compared to CD9-depleted (CD9-) EVs and total EVs. In vivo studies using a salivary gland (SG) obstruction mouse model and ex vivo studies in SG fibrosis organoids revealed that CD9+ EVs significantly enhanced anti-fibrotic effects over CD9- EVs and control treatments. The presence of miR-3162 and miR-1290 in CD9+ EVs supported their anti-fibrotic properties by downregulating ACVR1 expression. The chemical reprogramming culture method effectively expanded sgBPCs, enabling consistent and scalable EV production. Utilizing microfluidic chip-isolated CD9+ EVs and ductal delivery presents a targeted and efficient approach for anti-fibrotic SG regeneration.

FGF2 Mediated USP42-PPARγ Axis Activation Ameliorates Liver Oxidative Damage and Promotes Regeneration

Liver regeneration is critical for maintaining whole-body homeostasis, especially under exposure to deadly chemical toxins. Understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying liver repair is critical for the development of intervention strategies to treat liver diseases. In this study, ubiquitin-specific Proteases 42 (USP42) is identified as a novel deubiquitinases (DUB) of peroxisome proliferators-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) in hepatocytes. This DUB interacted, deubiquitinated, and stabilized PPARγ, and increased PPARγ targeted proliferative and antioxidative gene expressions, which protects the liver from carbon tetrachloride (CCL4) induced oxidative injury and promotes liver regeneration. In addition, fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2) initiated USP42 expression and enhanced the interaction between USP42 and PPARγ during the liver regeneration process. Moreover, the PPARγ full agonist, rosiglitazone (RSG), possesses the ability to further reinforce the USP42-PPARγ interplay, which enlightens to construct of an extracellular vesicle-based targeting strategy to activate the liver USP42-PPARγ axis and promote liver regeneration. In summary, the work uncovers the importance of USP42-PPARγ axis-mediated liver tissue homeostasis and provides a promising regimen to target this protein-protein interplay for liver regeneration.

A Mitochondria-Targeted Biomimetic Nanomedicine Capable of Reversing Drug Resistance in Colorectal Cancer Through Mitochondrial Dysfunction

Chemoresistance and metastasis are the main obstacles to the clinical success of anticancer treatment and are responsible for most cancer deaths. Developing effective approaches to reverse chemoresistance and inhibit metastasis is essential for efficient chemotherapy. Mitochondria are important sources of cellular energy and are involved in mediating chemoresistance and driving tumor metastasis. Due to the relatively weak DNA repair capacity of mitochondria, targeting mitochondria may reverse chemoresistance and provide a paradigm for metastatic cancer treatment. Herein, exosomes (Exos) modified with integrin ligands and mitochondriotropic molecules are synthesized for encapsulating oxaliplatin (OXA) to construct a sequentially targeted and mitochondrion-dysfunctional nanodrug (OXA@Exo-RD). Subsequent investigations confirm that OXA@Exo-RD targeted cancer cells and mitochondria in sequence, and OXA delivered to mitochondria lacking DNA repair mechanisms reduce the likelihood of deactivation. Furthermore, the OXA@Exo-RD promotes the overproduction of ROS, inhibited ATP generation, and induces mitochondria-mediated apoptosis and mitochondrial dysregulation. Finally, OXA@Exo-RD shows the potential to inhibit the growth and metastasis of HCT116/OXA cells in vitro, which is further validated in subcutaneous and orthotopic CRC models, as well as in CRC metastasis models. Taken together, this dual-targeting nanomedicine induces apoptosis via mitochondrial signaling pathways, providing an attractive strategy for the treatment of drug-resistant CRC.

Contribution of tumor microenvironment (TME) to tumor apoptosis, angiogenesis, metastasis, and drug resistance

The tumor microenvironment (TME) contains tumor cells, surrounding cells, and secreted factors. It provides a favorable environment for the maintenance of cancer stem cells (CSCs), the spread of cancer cells to metastatic sites, angiogenesis, and apoptosis, as well as the growth, proliferation, invasion, and drug resistance of cancer cells. Cancer cells rely on the activation of oncogenes, inactivation of tumor suppressors, and the support of a normal stroma for their growth, proliferation, and survival, all of which are provided by the TME. The TME is characterized by the presence of various cells, including cancer-associated fibroblasts (CAFs), tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), CD8 + cytotoxic T cells (CTLs), regulatory T cells (Tregs), myeloid-derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), endothelial cells, adipocytes, and neuroendocrine (NE) cells. The high expression of inflammatory cytokines, angiogenic factors, and anti-apoptotic factors, as well as drug resistance mechanisms in the TME, contributes to the poor therapeutic efficacy of anticancer drugs and tumor progression. Hence, this review describes the mechanisms through which the TME is involved in apoptosis, angiogenesis, metastasis, and drug resistance in tumor cells.

Healing the cornea: Exploring the therapeutic solutions offered by MSCs and MSC-derived EVs

Affecting a large proportion of the population worldwide, corneal disorders constitute a concerning health hazard associated to compromised eyesight or blindness for most severe cases. In the last decades, mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs) demonstrated promising abilities in improving symptoms associated to corneal diseases or alleviating these affections, especially through their anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory and pro-regenerative properties. More recently, MSC therapeutic potential was shown to be mediated by the molecules they release, and particularly by their extracellular vesicles (EVs; MSC-EVs). Consequently, using MSC-EVs emerged as a pioneering strategy to mitigate the risks related to cell therapy while providing MSC therapeutic benefits. Despite the promises given by MSC- and MSC-EV-based approaches, many improvements are considered to optimize the therapeutic significance of these therapies. This review aspires to provide a comprehensive and detailed overview of current knowledge on corneal therapies involving MSCs and MSC-EVs, the strategies currently under evaluation, and the gaps remaining to be addressed for clinical implementation. From encapsulating MSCs or their EVs into biomaterials to enhance the ocular retention time to loading MSC-EVs with therapeutic drugs, a wide range of ground-breaking strategies are currently contemplated to lead to the safest and most effective treatments. Promising research initiatives also include diverse gene therapies and the targeting of specific cell types through the modification of the EV surface, paving the way for future therapeutic innovations. As one of the most important challenges, MSC-EV large-scale production strategies are extensively investigated and offer a wide array of possibilities to meet the needs of clinical applications.

Effects of Hydrogels on Mesenchymal Stem/Stromal Cells Paracrine Activity and Extracellular Vesicles Production

Mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs) are a valuable source of paracrine factors, as they have a remarkable secretory capacity, and there is a sizeable knowledge base to develop industrial and clinical production protocols. Promising cell-free approaches for tissue regeneration and immunomodulation are driving research towards secretome applications, among which extracellular vesicles (EVs) are steadily gaining attention. However, the manufacturing and application of EVs is limited by insufficient yields, knowledge gaps, and low standardization. Facing these limitations, hydrogels represent a versatile three-dimensional (3D) culture platform that can incorporate extracellular matrix (ECM) components to mimic the natural stem cell environment in vitro; via these niche-mimicking properties, hydrogels can regulate MSCs' morphology, adhesion, proliferation, differentiation and secretion capacities. However, the impact of the hydrogel's architectural, biochemical and biomechanical properties on the production of EVs remains poorly understood, as the field is still in its infancy and the interdependency of culture parameters compromises the comparability of the studies. Therefore, this review summarizes and discusses the reported effects of hydrogel encapsulation and culture on the secretion of MSC-EVs. Considering the effects of cell-material interactions on the overall paracrine activity of MSCs, we identify persistent challenges from low standardization and process control, and outline future paths of research, such as the synergic use of hydrogels and bioreactors to enhance MSC-EV generation.

Comparative effects of various extracellular vesicle subpopulations derived from clonal mesenchymal stromal cells on cultured fibroblasts in wound healing-related process

INTRODUCTION

Non-healing wounds pose significant challenges and require effective therapeutic interventions. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as promising cell-free therapeutic agents in tissue regeneration. However, the functional differences between different subpopulations of EVs in wound healing remain understudied. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of two distinct subpopulations of clonal mesenchymal stromal cells (cMSC)-derived EVs (cMSC-EVs), namely 20 K and 110K-cMSC-EVs, primarily on in vitro wound healing process, providing fast and cost-effective alternatives to animal models.

METHODS

In vitro assays were conducted to compare the effects of 20 K and 110K-cMSC-EVs, isolated through high-speed centrifugation and differential ultracentrifugation, respectively. For evaluation the main mechanisms of wound healing, including cell proliferation, cell migration, angiogenesis, and contraction. Human dermal fibroblasts (HDF) were considered as the main cells for analysis of these procedures. Moreover, gene expression analysis was performed to assess the impact of these EV subpopulations on the related process of wound healing on HDF.

RESULTS

The results demonstrated that both 20 K and 110K-cMSC-EVs exhibited beneficial effects on cell proliferation, cell migration, angiogenesis, and gel contraction. RT-qPCR revealed that both EV types downregulated interleukin 6 (IL6), induced proliferation by upregulating proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), and regulated remodeling by upregulating matrix metallopeptidase 1 (MMP1) and downregulating collagen type 1 (COL1).

DISCUSSION

This study highlights the effects of both 20 K and 110K-cMSC-EVs on the potency of HDFs in wound healing-related process. As the notable finding, 20K-cMSC-EVs offer a more feasible and cost-effective subpopulation for isolation and follow the GMP standard, recommended to utilize this fraction for therapeutic application.

Exosomes carrying adipose mesenchymal stem cells function alleviate scleroderma skin fibrosis by inhibiting the TGF-β1/Smad3 axis

Systemic sclerosis (SSc) is a connective tissue disease characterized by progressive fibrosis of the skin and visceral organs, to date, skin fibrosis remains a clinical therapeutic challenge. Adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells (AMSCs) have been considered extremely promising for the treatment of SSc, and the biological effects of MSCs are partly attributed to the secretion of exosomes (exos). Our aim was to determine whether exosomes derived from AMSCs have parental biological effects to AMSCs in the therapy of SSc skin fibrosis. In vitro cellular experiments, AMSCs and SSc skin fibroblasts were cocultured in direct contact and transwell indirect contact at a ratio of 1:5 and 1:10, respectively, then exosomes were extracted from the cell culture supernatant of AMSCs and identified, and the exosomes were cocultured with fibroblasts to investigate the effects of AMSCs and exosomes on fibroblast collagen synthesis. Repeated subcutaneous injections of bleomycin (BLM) to construct a model of SSc skin fibrosis in vivo experiments, then AMSCs and exosomes were injected subcutaneously to investigate their effects on skin fibrosis in the BLM mice. The results revealed that exosomes had similar biological functions to AMSCs, by inhibiting the TGF-β1/Smad3 axis, which alleviated collagen synthesis in skin fibroblasts from SSc patients and skin fibrosis in BLM models. In conclusion, AMSCs-derived exosomes may be "rising star candidates" for the treatment of SSc skin fibrosis.

Age-Related Oral and Para-Oral Tissue Disorders: The Evolving Therapeutic and Diagnostic Potential of Exosomes

This review highlights the key molecular and cellular mechanisms contributing to aging, such as DNA damage, mitochondrial dysfunction, telomere shortening, protein dysfunction, and defective autophagy. These biological mechanisms are involved in various oral health conditions prevalent in the elderly, including periodontal disease, oral cancer, xerostomia, dental caries, and temporomandibular joint disorders. Exosomes generated by mesenchymal stem cells possess substantial therapeutic potential. These exosomes are nanosized extracellular vesicles derived from cells and are involved in essential intercellular communication and tissue homeostasis. The exosome-based therapies proved superior to traditional cell-based approaches, due to lower immunogenicity, ease of storage, and avoidance of complications associated with cell transplantation. Furthermore, the diagnostic potential of exosomes as non-invasive biomarkers for aging processes and age-related oral diseases offers insights into disease diagnosis, staging, and monitoring. Among the challenges and future perspectives of translating exosome research from preclinical studies to clinical applications is the need for standardized procedures to fully harness the therapeutic and diagnostic capabilities of exosomes.

Recent advances in the application of engineered exosomes from mesenchymal stem cells for regenerative medicine

Exosomes, cell-derived vesicles produced by cells, are fascinating and drawing growing interest in biomedical exploration due to their exceptional properties. There is intriguing evidence that exosomes are involved in major biological processes, including diseases and regeneration. Exosomes from mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have shown promising outcomes in regenerative medicine. Numerous studies suggest that exosomes have several advantages over conventional synthetic nanocarriers, opening novel frontiers for innovative drug delivery. Regenerative medicine has demonstrated the profound therapeutic outcomes of engineered or loaded exosomes from MSCs. Different methods are being used to modify or/load exosomes. These exosomes can improve cell signaling pathways for bone and cartilage diseases, liver diseases, nerve tissues, kidney diseases, skin tissue, and cardiovascular diseases. Despite extensive research, clinical translation of these exosomes remains a challenge. The optimization of cargo loading methods, efficiency, physiological stability, and the isolation and characterization of exosomes present some challenges. The upcoming examination should include the development of large-scale, quality-controllable production approaches, the modification of drug loading approaches, and numerous in vivo investigations and clinical trials. Here, we provided an informative overview of the extracellular vesicles and modification/loading methods of exosomes. We discuss the last exosome research on regeneration disorders, highlighting the therapeutic applications of MSCs-derived exosomes. We also highlight future directions and challenges, underscoring the significance of addressing the main questions in the field.

Pyroptosis: candidate key targets for mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes for the treatment of bone-related diseases

Bone-related diseases impact a large portion of the global population and, due to their high disability rates and limited treatment options, pose significant medical and economic challenges. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) can differentiate into multiple cell types and offer strong regenerative potential, making them promising for treating various diseases. However, issues with the immune response and cell survival limit the effectiveness of cell transplantation. This has led to increased interest in cell-free stem cell therapy, particularly the use of exosomes, which is the most studied form of this approach. Exosomes are extracellular vesicles that contain proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids and play a key role in cell communication and material exchange. Pyroptosis, a form of cell death involved in innate immunity, is also associated with many diseases. Studies have shown that MSC-derived exosomes have therapeutic potential for treating a range of conditions by regulating inflammation and pyroptosis. This study explored the role of MSC-derived exosomes in modulating pyroptosis to improve the treatment of bone-related diseases.

Mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles in periodontal bone repair

Periodontitis is a chronic inflammatory disease that destroys tooth-supporting structures and poses significant public health challenges due to its high prevalence and links to systemic health conditions. Traditional treatments are effective in reducing the inflammatory response and improving the clinical symptoms of periodontitis. However, these methods are challenging to achieve an ideal treatment effect in alveolar bone repair. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) represent a potential alternative for the treatment of periodontal bone defects due to their self-renewal and differentiation capabilities. Recent research indicates that MSCs exert their effects primarily through paracrine mechanisms. Mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles (MSC-EVs) serve as pivotal mediators in intercellular communication, transferring microRNAs (miRNAs), messenger RNAs (mRNAs), proteins, and cytokines to recipient cells, thereby emulating the therapeutic effects of MSCs. In periodontitis, MSC-EVs play a pivotal role in immunomodulation and bone remodeling, thereby facilitating periodontal bone repair. As a cell-free therapy, MSC-EVs demonstrate considerable clinical potential due to their specialized membrane structure, minimal immunogenicity, low toxicity, high biocompatibility, and nanoscale size. This review indicates that MSC-EVs represent a promising approach for periodontitis treatment, with the potential to overcome the limitations of traditional therapies and offer a more effective solution for bone repair in periodontal disease. In this review, we introduce MSC-EVs, emphasizing their mechanisms and clinical applications in periodontal bone repair. It synthesizes recent advances, existing challenges, and future prospects to present up-to-date information and novel techniques for periodontal regeneration and to guide the improvement of MSC-EV therapy in clinical practice.

A study on the production of extracellular vesicles derived from novel immortalized human placental mesenchymal stromal cells

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are not only involved in cell-to-cell communications but have other functions as "garbage bags", as bringing nutrients to cells, and as inducing mineral during bone formation and ectopic calcification. These minuscule entities significantly contribute to the regulation of bodily functions. However, the clinical application of EVs faces challenges due to limited production yield and targeting efficiency. In our study, we propose a method for efficiently harvesting EVs utilizing simian virus 40 large T antigen (SV40LT) immortalized human placental chorionic mesenchymal stromal cells (CMSCs). We investigated immortalized placental chorionic mesenchymal stromal cells (imCMSCs), a stromal cell line that surpasses the growth limitations of primary passage cells while retaining phenotypic characteristics and differentiation potential. This development offers the prospect of a consistent, uniform source of EVs, which is essential for regenerative medicine. Our findings indicate that the immortalization process preserves the particle size, quantity and surface marker profiles of EVs, providing a possible approach to produce high-yield EVs suitable for disease diagnosis and treatment.

Exosomal ncRNAs in liquid biopsies for lung cancer

Exosomal non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) have become essential contributors to advancing and treating lung cancers (LCs). The development of liquid biopsies that utilize exosomal ncRNAs (exo-ncRNAs) offers an encouraging method for diagnosing, predicting, and treating LC. This thorough overview examines the dual function of exo-ncRNAs as both indicators for early diagnosis and avenues for LC treatment. Exosomes are tiny vesicles secreted by various cells, including cancerous cells, enabling connection between cells by delivering ncRNAs. These ncRNAs, which encompass circular RNAs, long ncRNAs, and microRNAs, participate in the modulation of gene expression and cellular functions. In LC, certain exo-ncRNAs are linked to tumour advancement, spread, and treatment resistance, positioning them as promising non-invasive indicators in liquid biopsies. Additionally, targeting these ncRNAs offers potential for innovative treatment approaches, whether by suppressing harmful ncRNAs or reinstating the activity of tumour-suppressing ones. This review emphasizes recent developments in the extraction and analysis of exo-ncRNAs, their practical applications in LC treatment, and the challenges and prospects for translating these discoveries into clinical usage. Through this detailed examination of the current state of the art, we aim to highlight the significant potential of exo-ncRNAs for LC diagnostics and treatments.

Incorporation of recombinant proteins into extracellular vesicles by Lactococcus cremoris

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanosized lipid bilayer particles released by various cellular organisms that carry an array of bioactive molecules. EVs have diagnostic potential, as they play a role in intercellular interspecies communication, and could be applied in drug delivery. In contrast to mammalian cell-derived EVs, the study of EVs from bacteria, particularly Gram-positive bacteria, received less research attention. This study aimed to investigate the production of EVs by lactic acid bacterium Lactococcus cremoris NZ9000 and to examine the impact of recombinant protein expression on their formation and protein content. Four different recombinant proteins were expressed in L. cremoris NZ9000, in different forms of expression and combinations, and the produced EVs were isolated using the standard ultracentrifugation method. The presence of vesicular structures (50-200 nm) in the samples was confirmed by transmission electron microscopy and by flow cytometry using membrane-specific stain. Mass spectrometry analyses confirmed the presence of recombinant proteins in the EVs fraction, with amounts ranging from 13.17 to 100%, highlighting their significant incorporation into the vesicles, together with intrinsic L. cremoris NZ9000 proteins that were either more abundant in the cytoplasm (ribosomal proteins, metabolic enzymes) or present in the membrane. The presence of the most abundant lactococcal proteins in EVs fraction suggests that protein cargo-loading of EVs in L. cremoris NZ9000 is not regulated. However, our data suggests that L. cremoris NZ9000 genetically engineered to express recombinant proteins can produce EVs containing these proteins in scalable manner. As L. cremoris NZ9000 is considered safe bacterium, EVs from L. cremoris NZ9000 could have several advantages over EVs from other bacteria, implying possible biotechnological applications, e.g. in therapeutic protein delivery.

Emerging role of exosomes in cancer therapy: progress and challenges

This review highlights recent progress in exosome-based drug delivery for cancer therapy, covering exosome biogenesis, cargo selection mechanisms, and their application across multiple cancer types. As small extracellular vesicles, exosomes exhibit high biocompatibility and low immunogenicity, making them ideal drug delivery vehicles capable of efficiently targeting cancer cells, minimizing off-target damage and side effects. This review aims to explore the potential of exosomes in cancer therapy, with a focus on applications in chemotherapy, gene therapy, and immunomodulation. Additionally, challenges related to exosome production and standardization are analyzed, highlighting the importance of addressing these issues for their clinical application. In conclusion, exosome-based drug delivery systems offer promising potential for future cancer therapies. Further research should aim to enhance production efficiency and facilitate clinical translation, paving the way for innovative cancer treatment strategies.

Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosome and liposome hybrids as transfection nanocarriers of Cas9-GFP plasmid to HEK293T cells

Exosomes are natural membrane-enclosed nanovesicles (30-150 nm) involved in cell-cell communication. Recently, they have garnered considerable interest as nanocarriers for the controlled transfer of therapeutic agents to cells. Here, exosomes were derived from bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells using three different isolation methods. Relative to filtration and spin column condensation, the size exclusion chromatography led to the isolation of exosomes with the highest purity. These exosomes were then hybridized with liposomes using freeze-thaw cycles and direct mixing techniques to evaluate whether this combination enhances the transfection efficiency of large plasmids. The efficiency of these hybrids in transferring the Cas9-green fluorescent protein plasmid (pCas9-GFP) into the human embryonic kidney 293T (HEK293T) cells was evaluated compared to the pure exosomes. Both Cas9-GFP-loaded exosomes and exosome-liposome hybrids were taken up well by the HEK293T cells and were able to transfect them with their plasmid loads. Meanwhile, the treatment of the cells with plasmids alone, without any vesicles, resulted in no transfection, indicating that the exosome and exosome-liposome hybrids are essential for the transfer of the plasmids across the cell membrane. The pure exosomes and the hybrids incorporating liposomes obtained by the heating method transfected the cells more efficiently than those containing liposomes obtained by the thin film hydration technique. Interestingly, the method of combining exosomes with liposomes (freeze-thaw vs. direct mixing) proved to be more decisive in determining the size of the vesicular hybrid than their composition. In contrast, the liposome component in the hybrids proved to be decisive for determining the transfection efficiency.

Artificial Nanovesicles Derived from Cells: A Promising Alternative to Extracellular Vesicles

As naturally secreted vesicles by cells, extracellular vesicles (EVs) play essential roles in modulating cell-cell communication and have significant potential in tissue regeneration, immune regulation, and drug delivery. However, the low yield and uncontrollable heterogeneity of EVs have been obstacles to their widespread translation into clinical practice. Recently, it has been discovered that artificial nanovesicles (NVs) produced by cell processing can inherit the components and functions of the parent cells and possess similar structures and functions to EVs, with significantly higher yields and more flexible functionalization, making them a powerful complement to natural EVs. This review focuses on recent advances in the research of artificial NVs as replacements for natural EVs. We provide an overview comparing natural EVs and artificial NVs and summarize the top-down preparation strategies of NVs. The applications of NVs prepared from stem cells, differentiated cells, and engineered cells are presented, as well as the latest advances in NV engineering. Finally, the main challenges of artificial NVs are discussed.

Therapeutic Potential of Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Exosomes in Spinal Cord Injury

Spinal cord injury (SCI) can lead to severe motor and sensory dysfunction, with a high rate of disability and mortality. Due to the complicated pathological process of SCI, there is no effective clinical treatment strategy at present. Although mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are effective in the treatment of SCI, their application is limited by factors such as low survival rate, cell dedifferentiation, tumorigenesis, blood-brain barrier, and immune rejection. Fortunately, there is growing evidence that most of the biological and therapeutic effects of MSCs may be mediated by the release of paracrine factors, which are extracellular vesicles called exosomes. Exosomes are small endosomal vesicles with bilaminar membranes that have recently been recognized as key mediators for communication between cells and tissues through the transfer of proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, cytokines, and growth factors. Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes (MSC-exos) play a critical role in SCI repair by promoting angiogenesis and axonal growth, regulating inflammation and immune response, inhibiting apoptosis, and maintaining the integrity of the blood-spinal cord barrier. Furthermore, they can be used to transport genetic material or drugs to target cells, and their relatively small size allows them to permeate the blood-brain barrier. Studies have demonstrated that some exosomal miRNAs derived from MSCs play a significant role in the treatment of SCI. In this review, we summarize recent research advances in MSC-exos and exosomal miRNAs in SCI therapy to better understand this emerging cell-free therapeutic strategy and discuss the advantages and challenges of MSC-exos in future clinical applications.

HucMSCs-derived Exosomes Protect Against 6-hydroxydopamineinduced Parkinson's Disease in Rats by Inhibiting Caspase-3 Expression and Suppressing Apoptosis

OBJECTIVE

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder with symptoms including tremor and bradykinesia, while traditional dopamine replacement therapy and hypothalamic deep brain stimulation can temporarily relieve patients' symptoms, they cannot cure the disease. Hence, discovering new methods is crucial to designing more effective therapeutic approaches to address the condition. In our previous study, we found that exosomes (Exos) derived from human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (hucMSCs) repaired a PD model by inducing dopaminergic neuron autophagy and inhibiting microglia. However, it is not clear whether its therapeutic effect is related to inhibiting apoptosis by inhibiting caspase-3 expression.

METHODS

Three intervention schemes were used concerning previous literature, and the dosage of each scheme is the same, with different dosing intervals and treatment courses and to compare the aspects of behavior, histomorphology, and biochemical indexes. To predict and determine target gene enrichment, high-throughput sequencing and miRNA expression profiling of exosomes, GO and KEGG analysis, and Western blot were used.

RESULTS

Exos labeled with PKH67 were found to reach the substantia nigra through the bloodbrain barrier and existed in the liver and spleen. 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) induced PD rats were treated with Exos every two days for one month, which alleviated the asymmetric rotation induced by morphine, reduced the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra, and increased dopamine levels in the striatum. The effect became more significant as the treatment time was extended to two months. These results suggest that hucMSCs-Exos can inhibit the 6-OHDA- induced neuron damage in PD rats, and its neuroprotective effects may be mediated by inhibiting cell apoptosis. Through high-throughput sequencing of miRNA, potential targets for Exos to inhibit apoptosis may be BAD, IKBKB, TRAF2, BCL2, and CYCS.

CONCLUSION

The above results indicate that hucMSCs-Exos can inhibit 6-OHDA-induced damage in PD rats, and its neuroprotective effect may be mediated by inhibiting cell apoptosis.

Mesenchymal Stem Cells in Cancer Therapy

The mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs) are multipotent cells that were initially discovered in the bone marrow in the late 1960s but have so far been discovered in almost all tissues of the body. The multipotent property of MSCs enables them to differentiate into various cell types and lineages, such as adipocytes, chondrocytes, and osteocytes. The immunomodulation capacity and tumor-targeting features of MSCs made their use crucial for cell-based therapies in cancer treatment, yet limited advancement could be observed in translational medicine prospects due to the need for more information regarding the controversial roles of MSCs in crosstalk tumors. In this review, we discuss the therapeutic potential of MSCs, the controversial roles played by MSCs in cancer progression, and the anticancer therapeutic strategies that are in association with MSCs. Finally, the clinical trials designed for the direct use of MSCs for cancer therapy or for their use in decreasing the side effects of other cancer therapies are also mentioned in this review to evaluate the current status of MSC-based cancer therapies.

Advances in the treatment of liver injury based on mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have shown a great potential role in treating liver injury. MSCs can promote liver regeneration by differentiating into hepatocytes, and can also secrete exosomes to participate in the repair of liver injury. Increasing evidence has shown that mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes (MSC-EXOs) play an important role in treating liver injury. In this review, the biogenesis and function of exosomes and the characteristics of MSC-EXOs were analyzed based on recent research results. MSC-EXOs are significant in liver injuries such as liver fibrosis, liver failure, hepatocellular carcinoma, oxidative stress, and lipid steatosis, and participate in the process of liver regeneration.

Mesenchymal Stem Cells and Their Extracellular Vesicles: Therapeutic Mechanisms for Blood-Spinal Cord Barrier Repair Following Spinal Cord Injury

Spinal cord injury (SCI) disrupts the blood-spinal cord barrier (BSCB) exacerbating damage by allowing harmful substances and immune cells to infiltrate spinal neural tissues from the vasculature. This leads to inflammation, oxidative stress, and impaired axonal regeneration. The BSCB, essential for maintaining spinal cord homeostasis, is structurally similar to the blood-brain barrier. Its restoration is a key therapeutic target for improving outcomes in SCI. Mesenchymal stromal/stem cells (MSCs) and their secreted extracellular vesicles (MSC-EVs) have gained attention for their regenerative, immunomodulatory, and anti-inflammatory properties in promoting BSCB repair. MSCs enhance BSCB integrity by improving endothelial-pericyte association, restoring tight junction proteins, and reducing inflammation. MSC-EVs, which deliver bioactive molecules, replicate many of MSCs' therapeutic effects, and offer a promising cell-free alternative. Preclinical studies have shown that both MSCs and MSC-EVs can reduce BSCB permeability, promote vascular stability, and support functional recovery. While MSC therapy is advancing in clinical trials, MSC-EV therapies require further optimization in terms of production, dosing, and delivery protocols. Despite these challenges, both therapeutic approaches represent significant potential for treating SCI by targeting BSCB repair and improving patient outcomes.

Extracellular Vesicles from Mesenchymal Stem Cells: Potential as Therapeutics in Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Steatotic Liver Disease (MASLD)

Background/Objectives: Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) is characterized by the accumulation of triglycerides within hepatocytes, which can progress to more severe conditions, such as metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis (MASH), which may include progressive fibrosis, leading to cirrhosis, cancer, and death. This goal of this review is to highlight recent research showing the potential of mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles (MSC-EVs) in reducing the key pathogenic pathways of MASLD or MASH. Methods: Relevant published studies were identified using PubMed with one or more of the following search terms: MASLD, MASH, NAFLD, NASH, exosome, extracellular vesicle (EV), therapy, and/or mesenchymal stem cells (MSC). The primary literature were subsequently downloaded and summarized. Results: Using in vitro or in vivo models, MSC-EVs have been found to counteract oxidative stress, a significant contributor to liver injury in MASH, and to suppress disease progression, including steatosis, inflammation, and, in a few instances, fibrosis. Some of these outcomes have been attributed to specific EV cargo components including microRNAs and proteins. Thus, MSC-EVs enriched with these types of molecules may have improved the therapeutic efficacy for MASLD/MASH and represent a novel approach to potentially halt or reverse the disease process. Conclusions: MSC-EVs are attractive therapeutic agents for treating MASLD/MASH. Further studies are necessary to validate the clinical applicability and efficacy of MSC-EVs in human MASH patients, focusing on optimizing delivery strategies and identifying the pathogenic pathways that are targeted by specific EV components.

Potential therapeutic effects and nano-based delivery systems of mesenchymal stem cells and their isolated exosomes to alleviate acute respiratory distress syndrome caused by COVID-19

The severe respiratory effects of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic have necessitated the immediate development of novel treatments. The majority of COVID-19-related fatalities are due to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS). Consequently, this virus causes massive and aberrant inflammatory conditions, which must be promptly managed. Severe respiratory disorders, notably ARDS and acute lung injury (ALI), may be treated safely and effectively using cell-based treatments, mostly employing mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). Since the high potential of these cells was identified, a great deal of research has been conducted on their use in regenerative medicine and complementary medicine. Multiple investigations have demonstrated that MSCs and their products, especially exosomes, inhibit inflammation. Exosomes serve a critical function in intercellular communication by transporting molecular cargo from donor cells to receiver cells. MSCs and their derived exosomes (MSCs/MSC-exosomes) may improve lung permeability, microbial and alveolar fluid clearance, and epithelial and endothelial repair, according to recent studies. This review focuses on COVID-19-related ARDS clinical studies involving MSCs/MSC-exosomes. We also investigated the utilization of Nano-delivery strategies for MSCs/MSC-exosomes and anti-inflammatory agents to enhance COVID-19 treatment.

Systemic administration of blood-derived exosomes induced by remote ischemic post-conditioning, by delivering a specific cluster of miRNAs, ameliorates ischemic damage and neurological function

MicroRNAs, contained in exosomes or freely circulating in the plasma, might play a pivotal role in the infarct-sparing effect exerted by remote limb ischemic postconditioning (RLIP). The aims of the present study were: (1) To evaluate the effect of pure exosomes isolated from plasma of animals subjected to RLIP systemically administered to ischemic rats; (2) To finely dissect exosomes content in terms of miRNAs; (3) To select those regulatory miRNAs specifically expressed in protective exosomes and to identify molecular pathways involved in their neurobeneficial effects. Circulating exosomes were isolated from blood of animals exposed to RLIP and administered to animals exposed to tMCAO by intracerebroventricular, intraperitoneal or intranasal routes. Exosomal miRNA signature was evaluated by microarray and FISH analysis. Plasmatic exosomes isolated from plasma of RLIP rats attenuated cerebral ischemia reperfusion injury and improved neurological functions until 3 days after ischemia induction. Interestingly, miR-702-3p and miR-423-5p seem to be mainly involved in exosome protective action by modulating NOD1 and NLRP3, two key triggers of neuroinflammation and neuronal death. Collectively, the results of the present work demonstrated that plasma-released exosomes after RLIP may transfer a neuroprotective signal to the brain of ischemic animals, thus representing a potentially translatable therapeutic strategy in stroke.

Exploring the multiple therapeutic mechanisms and challenges of mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes in Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a severe neurodegenerative disorder, and the current treatment options are limited. Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes (MSC-Exos) have garnered significant attention due to their unique biological properties, showcasing tremendous potential as an acellular alternative therapy for AD. MSC-Exos exhibit excellent biocompatibility and low immunogenicity, enabling them to effectively cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and deliver therapeutic molecules directly to target cells. They are highly efficacious in delivering nucleic acid-based drugs. Moreover, the production process of MSC-Exos benefits from a high proliferation capacity and multilineage differentiation potential, allowing for production while maintaining a stable composition. Despite the significant theoretical advantages of MSC-Exos, their clinical use still faces multiple challenges, including cross-contamination during isolation and purification processes, the complexity of their components, and the presence of potential adverse paracrine factors. Future research needs to focus on optimizing separation and purification techniques, enhancing delivery methods to improve therapeutic efficacy, and performing detailed analyses of the components of MSC-Exos. In summary, MSC-Exos hold promise as an effective option for the treatment of AD and other neurodegenerative diseases, driving their clinical research and use in related fields.

The potential therapeutic effect of human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes in bronchopulmonary dysplasia

Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) is a chronic lung disease of preterm infants, with its incidence rising due to improved survival rates of these infants. BPD results from a combination of prenatal and postnatal factors, such as mechanical ventilation, oxygen toxicity, and infections, all of which significantly impact the prognosis and growth of affected infants. Current treatment options for BPD are largely supportive and do not address the underlying pathology. Exosomes are cell-derived bilayer-enclosed membrane structures enclosing proteins, lipids, RNAs, growth factors, cytokines and metabolites. They have become recognized as crucial regulators of intercellular communication in various physiological and pathological processes. Previous studies have revealed the therapeutic potential of human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells-derived exosomes (HUCMSCs-Exos) in promoting tissue repair and regeneration. Therefore, HUCMSCs-Exos maybe a promising and effective therapeutic modality for BPD. In this review, we firstly provide a comprehensive overview of BPD, including its etiology and the mechanisms of lung injury. Then we detail the isolation, characterization, and contents of HUCMSCs-Exos, and discuss their potential mechanisms of HUCMSCs-Exos in BPD treatment. Additionally, we summarize current clinical trials and discuss the challenges in translating these findings from bench to bedside. This review aims to lay the groundwork for future clinical applications of HUCMSCs-Exos in treating BPD.

Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes improve cancer drug delivery in human cell lines and a mouse osteosarcoma model

Introduction

Osteosarcoma is the most common primary bone tumor. Patients require chemotherapy drugs with high-targeting ability and low off-target toxicity to improve their survival. Exosomes are biological vesicles that mediate long-distance communication between cells and naturally target their source sites. Exosomes derived from bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) naturally target bone tumor sites, suggesting their potential as effective anti-tumor therapy vectors. In this study, we evaluated the potential of BMSC-derived exosomes in targeting osteosarcoma and serving as a carrier for doxorubicin (DOX).

Methods

We isolated exosomes from human BMSCs and synthesized hybrid exosomes (HEs) by fusing these exosomes with liposomes. These HEs were loaded with DOX to produce a novel drug, HE/DOX.

Results

We confirmed the successful synthesis of HE/DOX using fluorescence spectroscopy and estimated its size to be 151.1 ± 10.2 nm. HEs expressed the known exosomal proteins ALIX, CD63, and TSG101. Under acidic conditions similar to those observed in the tumor microenvironment, the drug release from HE/DOX was enhanced. In osteosarcoma cell lines and in a mouse osteosarcoma model, HE/DOX exhibited stronger tumor-inhibitory effects than free DOX.

Conclusions

Our study demonstrates that BMSC-derived exosomes could effectively target osteosarcoma. Furthermore, HEs can serve as effective carriers of DOX, enabling the treatment of osteosarcoma. These findings highlight a promising direction for tumor-targeted therapy.

Advantages and disadvantages of targeting senescent endothelial cells in cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases based on small extracellular vesicles

INTRODUCTION

With the growth of the aging population, age-related diseases have become a heavy global burden, particularly cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases (CVDs). Endothelial cell (EC) senescence constitutes an essential factor in the development of CVDs, prompting increased focus on strategies to alleviate or reverse EC senescence.

AREAS COVERED

Small extracellular vesicles (sEVs) are cell-derived membrane structures, that contain proteins, lipids, RNAs, metabolites, growth factors and cytokines. They are widely used in treating CVDs, and show remarkable therapeutic potential in alleviating age-related CVDs by inhibiting or reversing EC senescence. However, unclear anti-senescence mechanism poses challenges for clinical application of sEVs, and a systematic review is lacking.

EXPERT OPINION

Targeting senescent ECs with sEVs in age-related CVDs treatment represents a promising therapeutic strategy, with modifying sEVs and their contents emerging as a prevalent approach. Nevertheless, challenges remain, such as identifying and selectively targeting senescent cells, understanding the consequences of removing senescent ECs and senescence-associated secretory phenotype (SASP), and assessing the side effects of therapeutic sEVs on CVDs. More substantial experimental and clinical data are needed to advance clinical practice.

Therapeutic Potential of Stem Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in Liver Injury

Liver injury caused by various factors significantly impacts human health. Stem cell transplantation has potential for enhancing liver functionality, but safety concerns such as immune rejection, tumorigenesis, and the formation of emboli in the lungs remain. Recent studies have shown that stem cells primarily exert their effects through the secretion of extracellular vesicles (EVs). EVs have been shown to play crucial roles in reducing inflammation, preventing cell death, and promoting liver cell proliferation. Additionally, they can function as carriers to deliver targeted drugs to the liver, thereby exerting specific physiological effects. EVs possess several advantages, including structural stability, low immunogenicity, minimal tumorigenicity targeting capabilities, and convenient collection. Consequently, EVs have garnered significant attention from researchers and are expected to become alternative therapeutic agents to stem cell therapy. This article provides a comprehensive review of the current research progress in the use of stem cell-derived EVs in the treatment of liver injury.

A comprehensive review of challenges and advances in exosome-based drug delivery systems

Exosomes or so-called natural nanoparticles have recently shown enormous potential for targeted drug delivery systems. Several studies have reported that exosomes as advanced drug delivery platforms offer efficient targeting of chemotherapeutics compared to individual polymeric nanoparticles or liposomes. Taking structural constituents of exosomes, viz., proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids, into consideration, exosomes are the most promising carriers as genetic messengers and for treating genetic deficiencies or tumor progression. Unfortunately, very little attention has been paid to the factors like source, scalability, stability, and validation that contribute to the quality attributes of exosome-based drug products. Some studies suggested that exosomes were stable at around -80 °C, which is impractical for storing pharmaceutical products. Currently, no reports on the shelf-life and in vivo stability of exosome formulations are available. Exosomes are quickly cleared from blood circulation, and their in vivo distribution depends on the source. Considering these challenges, further studies are necessary to address major limitations such as poor drug loading, reduced in vivo stability, a need for robust, economical, and scalable production methods, etc., which may unlock the potential of exosomes in clinical applications. A few reports based on hybrid exosomes involving hybridization between different cell/tumor/macrophage-derived exosomes with synthetic liposomes through membrane fusion have shown to overcome some limitations associated with natural or synthetic exosomes. Yet, sufficient evidence is indispensable to prove their stability and clinical efficacy.

IGF2 contributes to the immunomodulatory effects of exosomes from endometrial regenerative cells on experimental colitis

BACKGROUND

Exosomes derived from endometrial regenerative cells (ERC-Exos) can inherit the immunomodulatory function from ERCs, however, whether ERC-Exos exhibit such effect on inflammatory bowel diseases with mucosal immune dysregulation has not been explored. Insulin-like growth factor-Ⅱ (IGF2) is considered to possess the potential to induce an anti-inflammatory phenotype in immune cells. In this study, the contribution of IGF2 in mediating the protective efficacy of ERC-Exos on colitis was investigated.

METHODS

Lentiviral transfection was employed to obtain IGF2-specific knockout ERC-Exos (IGF2-/--ERC-Exos). Experimental colitis mice induced by dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) were divided into the phosphate-buffered saline (untreated), ERC-Exos-treated and IGF2-/--ERC-Exos-treated groups. Colonic histopathological analysis and intestinal barrier function were explored. The infiltration of CD4+ T cells and dendritic cells (DCs) were analyzed by immunofluorescence staining and flow cytometry. The maturation and function of bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs) in different exosome administrations were evaluated by flow cytometry, ELISA and the coculture system, respectively.

RESULTS

Compared with the untreated group, ERC-Exos treatment significantly attenuated DSS-induced weight loss, bloody stools, shortened colon length, pathological damage, as well as repaired the weakened intestinal mucosal barrier, including promoting the goblet cells retention, restoring the intestinal barrier integrity and enhancing the expression of tight junction proteins, while the protective effect of exosomes was impaired with the knockout of IGF2 in ERC-Exos. Additionally, IGF2-expressing ERC-Exos decreased the proportions of Th1 and Th17, increased the proportions of Treg, as well as attenuated DC infiltration and maturation in mesenteric lymph nodes and lamina propria of the colitis mice. ERC-Exos were also observed to be phagocytosed by BMDCs and IGF2 is responsible for the modulating effect of ERC-Exos on BMDCs in vitro.

CONCLUSIONS

Exosomes derived from ERCs can exert a therapeutic effect on experimental colitis with remarkable alleviation of the intestinal barrier damage and the abnormal mucosal immune responses. We emphasized that IGF2 plays a critical role for ERC-Exos mediated immunomodulatory function and protection against colitis.

Interactions between cancer and stroma mediated by extracellular vesicles

Extracellular vehicles (EVs) are small membrane-bound particles that are released by both cancer and stromal cells. These vesicles have emerged as key mediators of intercellular communication within the tumor microenvironment. In particular, EVs have been shown to play a critical role in facilitating the interactions between cancer cells and the surrounding stroma. Through the transfer of various bioactive molecules, including proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, EVs are able to modulate the behavior of recipient cells and promote tumorigenesis. Additionally, EVs can also contribute to the development of drug resistance and immune evasion, further highlighting their importance in cancer progression. This review will summarize the current knowledge regarding EV-mediated interactions between cancer and stromal cells, and discuss their implications for cancer diagnosis and therapy.

Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes: a potential cell-free therapy for orthodontic tooth stability management

Orthodontic relapse (OR) occurs at a rate of over 70%. Retention is the current attempt at prevention, but it requires a considerable amount of time and cannot fully block OR. It's imperative to find a safe and effective method for managing post-orthodontic tooth stability. Periodontal bone remodeling is one crucial biological foundation of OR. Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes (MSC-Exo) show promise in relapse management by regulating periodontal bone remodeling. MSC-Exo can prevent relapse by regulating periodontal ligament function, osteoclast activity, osteoblast differentiation, macrophage polarization, and periodontal microcirculation. In recent years, exosome-loaded hydrogels, which achieve controlled exosome release, have demonstrated efficacy in promoting bone regeneration and remodeling, offering promising prospects for OR management. This review aims to highlight the use of MSC-Exo-based therapy for preventing OR, offering new insights for future research focused on improving tooth stability and enhancing orthodontic anchorage.

Drug delivery based exosomes uptake pathways

Most cells secrete a material called extracellular vesicles (EVs), which play a crucial role in cellular communication. Exosomes are one of the most studied types of EVs. Recent research has shown the many functions and substrates of cellular exosomes. Multiple studies have shown the efficacy of exosomes in transporting a wide variety of cargo to their respective target cells. As a result, they are often utilized to transport medicaments to patients. Natural exosomes as well as exosomes modified with other compounds to enhance transport capabilities have been employed. In this article, we take a look at how different types of exosomes and modified exosomes may transport different types of cargo to their respective targets. Exosomes have a lot of potential as drug delivery vehicles for many synthetic compounds, proteins, nucleic acids, and gene repair specialists because they can stay in the body for a long time, are biocompatible, and can carry natural materials. A good way to put specific protein particles into exosomes is still not clear, though, and the exosomes can't be used in many situations yet. The determinants for exosome production, as well as ways for loading certain therapeutic molecules (proteins, nucleic acids, and small compounds), were covered in this paper. Further study and the development of therapeutic exosomes may both benefit from the information collected in this review.

Possible Combinatorial Utilization of Phytochemicals and Extracellular Vesicles for Wound Healing and Regeneration

Organ and tissue damage can result from injury and disease. How to facilitate regeneration from damage has been a topic for centuries, and still, we are trying to find agents to use for treatments. Two groups of biological substances are known to facilitate wound healing. Phytochemicals with bioactive properties form one group. Many phytochemicals have anti-inflammatory effects and enhance wound healing. Recent studies have described their effects at the gene and protein expression levels, highlighting the receptors and signaling pathways involved. The extremely large number of phytochemicals and the multiple types of receptors they activate suggest a broad range of applicability for their clinical use. The hydrophobic nature of many phytochemicals and the difficulty with chemical stabilization have been a problem. Recent developments in biotechnology and nanotechnology methods are enabling researchers to overcome these problems. The other group of biological substances is extracellular vesicles (EVs), which are now known to have important biological functions, including the improvement of wound healing. The proteins and nanoparticles contained in mammalian EVs as well as the specificity of the targets of microRNAs included in the EVs are becoming clear. Plant-derived EVs have been found to contain phytochemicals. The overlap in the wound-healing capabilities of both phytochemicals and EVs and the differences in their nature suggest the possibility of a combinatorial use of the two groups, which may enhance their effects.

Human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes loaded with gemcitabine inhibit pancreatic cancer cell proliferation by enhancing apoptosis

BACKGROUND

Pancreatic cancer remains one of the most lethal malignancies, and has limited effective treatment. Gemcitabine (GEM), a chemotherapeutic agent, is commonly used for clinical treatment of pancreatic cancer, but it has characteristics of low drug delivery efficiency and significant side effects. The study tested the hypothesis that human bone marrow mesenchymal stem cell (MSC)-derived exosomes loaded with GEM (Exo-GEM) would have a higher cytotoxicity against human pancreatic cancer cells by enhancing their apoptosis.

AIM

To investigate the cytotoxicity of MSC-derived Exo-GEM against pancreatic cancer cells in vitro.

METHODS

Exosomes were isolated from MSCs and characterized by transmission electron microscopy and nanoparticle tracking analysis. Exo-GEM through electroporation, sonication, or incubation, and the loading efficiency was evaluated. The cytotoxicity of Exo-GEM or GEM alone against human pancreatic cancer Panc-1 and MiaPaca-2 cells was assessed by MTT and flow cytometry assays.

RESULTS

The isolated exosomes had an average size of 76.7 nm. The encapsulation efficacy and loading efficiency of GEM by electroporation and sonication were similar and significantly better than incubation. The cytotoxicity of Exo-GEM against pancreatic cancer cells was stronger than free GEM and treatment with 0.02 μM Exo-GEM significantly reduced the viability of both Panc-1 and MiaPaca-2 cells. Moreover, Exo-GEM enhanced the frequency of GEM-induced apoptosis in both cell lines.

CONCLUSION

Human bone marrow MSC-derived Exo-GEM have a potent cytotoxicity against human pancreatic cancer cells by enhancing their apoptosis, offering a promising drug delivery system for improving therapeutic outcomes.

Advancements in Engineering Planar Model Cell Membranes: Current Techniques, Applications, and Future Perspectives

Cell membranes are crucial elements in living organisms, serving as protective barriers and providing structural support for cells. They regulate numerous exchange and communication processes between cells and their environment, including interactions with other cells, tissues, ions, xenobiotics, and drugs. However, the complexity and heterogeneity of cell membranes-comprising two asymmetric layers with varying compositions across different cell types and states (e.g., healthy vs. diseased)-along with the challenges of manipulating real cell membranes represent significant obstacles for in vivo studies. To address these challenges, researchers have developed various methodologies to create model cell membranes or membrane fragments, including mono- or bilayers organized in planar systems. These models facilitate fundamental studies on membrane component interactions as well as the interactions of membrane components with external agents, such as drugs, nanoparticles (NPs), or biomarkers. The applications of model cell membranes have extended beyond basic research, encompassing areas such as biosensing and nanoparticle camouflage to evade immune detection. In this review, we highlight advancements in the engineering of planar model cell membranes, focusing on the nanoarchitectonic tools used for their fabrication. We also discuss approaches for incorporating challenging materials, such as proteins and enzymes, into these models. Finally, we present our view on future perspectives in the field of planar model cell membranes.

Infertility: Focus on the therapeutic potential of extracellular vesicles

Infertility is a well-known problem that arises from a variety of reproductive diseases. Until now, researchers have tried various methods to restore fertility, including medication specific to the cause, hormone treatments, surgical removals, and assisted reproductive technologies. While these methods do produce results, they do not consistently lead to fertility restoration in every instance. The use of exosome therapy has significant potential in treating infertility in patients. This is because exosomes, microvesicles, and apoptotic bodies, which are different types of vesicles, play a crucial role in transferring bioactive molecules that aid in cell-to-cell communication. Reproductive fluids can transport a variety of molecular cargos, such as miRNAs, mRNAs, proteins, lipids, and DNA molecules. The percentage of these cargos in the fluids can be linked to their physiological and pathological status. EVs are involved in several physiological and pathological processes and offer interesting non-cellular therapeutic possibilities to treat infertility. EVs (extracellular vesicles) transplantation has been shown in many studies to be a key part of regenerating different parts of the reproductive system, including the production of oocytes and the start of sperm production. Nevertheless, the existing evidence necessitates testifying to the effectiveness of injecting EVs in resolving reproductive problems among humans. This review focuses on the current literature about infertility issues in both females and males, specifically examining the potential treatments involving extracellular vesicles (EVs).

Effects of ADSC-Derived Exosome LRRC75A-AS1 on Anti-inflammatory Function After SCI

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a highly debilitating disorder of the central nervous system that can severely impact an affected patient's quality of life. This study aimed to examine how adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cell exosomes (ADSC-exos) can be used to treat spinal cord injury. We analysed differentially expressed mRNAs in SCI using bioinformatics data, gene expression profiles in inflammatory cell models, RT-qPCR and WB. Apoptosis was detected with flow cytometry. Starbase provides the control mechanism for FDFT1. Target interactions were detected with dual-luciferase reporter and RIP assays. Exosomes were isolated from adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells and subsequently characterized with western blot analysis, transmission electron microscopy and nanoparticle tracking analysis. By analysing the GSE102964 database, we found that FDFT1 was significantly downregulated as SCI progressed. Overexpression of FDFT1 can significantly reverse the inflammatory response and apoptosis of BV2 cells induced by hemin. Mechanically, ADSC-exos can affect the expression of FDFT1 through the ceRNA mechanism mediated by LRRC75A-AS1 and in an RBP-dependent manner mediated by IGF2BP2. The overexpression of LRRC75A-AS1 significantly enhances BV2 apoptosis and can be reversed by FDFT1 knockdown. ADSC-exos LRRC75A-AS1 inhibits inflammation and reduces SCI by increasing the expression and stability of FDFT1 mRNA in a ceRNA and RBP-dependent manner.

Lyophilizable Stem Cell-Hybrid Liposome with Long-Term Stability and High Targeting Capacity

The hybridization of liposome with stem cell membranes is an emerging technology to prepare the nanovehicle with the capacity of disease-responsive targeting. However, the long-term storage of this hybrid liposome has received limited attention in the literature, which is essential for its potential applicability in the clinic. Therefore, the preservation of long-term activity of stem cell-hybrid liposome using freeze-drying is investigated in the present study. Mesenchymal stem cell-hybrid liposome is synthesized and its feasibility for freeze-drying under different conditions is examined. Results reveal that pre-freezing the hybrid liposome at -20 °C in Tris buffer solution (pH 7.4) containing 10% trehalose can well preserve the liposomal structure for at least three months. Notably, major membrane proteins on the hybrid liposome are protected in this formulation and CXCR4-associated targeting capacity is maintained both in vitro and in vivo. Consequently, the hybrid liposome stored for three months demonstrates a comparable tumor inhibition as the fresh-prepared one. The present study provides the first insights into the long-term storage of stem cell hybrid liposome using lyophilization, which may make an important step forward in enhancing the long-term stability of these promising biomimetic nanovehicle and ease the logistics and the freeze-storage in the potential clinical applications.

Scalable production of siRNA-encapsulated extracellular vesicles for the inhibition of KRAS-mutant cancer using acoustic shock waves

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as a potential delivery vehicle for nucleic-acid-based therapeutics, but challenges related to their large-scale production and cargo-loading efficiency have limited their therapeutic potential. To address these issues, we developed a novel "shock wave extracellular vesicles engineering technology" (SWEET) as a non-genetic, scalable manufacturing strategy that uses shock waves (SWs) to encapsulate siRNAs in EVs. Here, we describe the use of the SWEET platform to load large quantities of KRASG12C-targeting siRNA into small bovine-milk-derived EVs (sBMEVs), with high efficiency. The siRNA-loaded sBMEVs effectively silenced oncogenic KRASG12C expression in cancer cells; they inhibited tumour growth when administered intravenously in a non-small cell lung cancer xenograft mouse model. Our study demonstrates the potential for the SWEET platform to serve as a novel method that allows large-scale production of cargo-loaded EVs for use in a wide range of therapeutic applications.