Structural elucidation of a pectic polysaccharide from Fructus Mori and its bioactivity on intestinal bacteria strains

Purification, structural characterization, and in vitro immunomodulatory activity of a low-molecular-weight polysaccharide from cultivated Chinese cordyceps

Cultivated Chinese cordyceps, an optimal substitute for the endangered wild resource, has recently been produced on a large scale. This work sought to explore the structural features and immunomodulatory activity of a novel low-molecular-weight polysaccharide (CSP1a, 15.7 kDa) isolated from cultivated Chinese cordyceps. CSP1a was prepared with a multi-step process that encompassed hot water extraction, alcohol precipitation, and column chromatographic purification. The monosaccharide composition, infrared spectroscopy, methylation, and nuclear magnetic resonance results revealed that CSP1a was highly branched (with a branching degree of 49.21 %) and primarily constituted of galactose (30.60 %), glucose (12.87 %) and mannose (56.53 %), comprising 13 distinct types of glycosidic linkage fragments. The main chain of CSP1a consisted of different mannose residues, with several exposed β-d-Galf-(1→ residues in various side chains. The results from scanning electron microscopy and Congo red analyses revealed that CSP1a possessed a reticulated porous chain conformation, which enhanced its bioavailability and demonstrated its potential as a carrier. In vitro immunological investigations demonstrated that CSP1a significantly promoted splenic lymphocyte proliferation. Additionally, CSP1a increased RAW264.7 cell proliferation, improved phagocytic capacity, and stimulated the secretion of nitric oxide (NO), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) in a dose-dependent manner. Collectively, CSP1a, a novel low-molecular-weight polysaccharide galactoglucomannan with a high branching degree and reticulated porous chain conformation, was isolated for the first time from cultivated Chinese cordyceps and showed promise as a potential immunomodulator or drug carrier. These findings contribute to elucidating the polysaccharide material basis for the immune activity of Chinese cordyceps and promote its industrial development as a functional food product.

A review of pharmacological mechanisms, challenges and prospects of macromolecular glycopeptides

Macromolecular glycopeptides are natural products derived from various sources, distinguished by their structural diversity, multifaceted biological activities, and low toxicity. These compounds exhibit a wide range of biological functions, such as immunomodulation, antitumor effects, anti-inflammatory properties, antioxidant activity, and more. However, limited understanding of natural glycopeptides has hindered their development and practical application. To promote their advancement and utilization, it is crucial to thoroughly investigate the pharmacological mechanisms of glycopeptides and address the challenges in natural glycopeptide research. This review uniquely focuses on the primary biological activities and potential molecular mechanisms of glycopeptides as reported in recent literature. Moreover, we emphasize the current challenges in glycopeptide research, including extraction and isolation difficulties, purification challenges, structural analysis complexities, elucidation of structure-activity relationships, characterization of biosynthetic pathways, and ensuring bioavailability and stability. The future prospects for glycopeptide research are also explored. We argue that ongoing research into glycopeptides will significantly contribute to drug development and provide more effective therapeutic options and disease treatment alternatives for human health.

Differences in utilization and metabolism of Ulva lactuca polysaccharide by human gut Bacteroides species in the in vitro fermentation

Ulva lactuca polysaccharide (ULP), a sulfated polysaccharide, has been widely used in Asia. However, its digestion process and utilization by gut microbiota remain poorly understood. In this study, the in vitro simulated digestion and fermentation were used to analyze the digestibility of ULP. The results showed that ULP was not degraded during simulated digestion, but was utilized by human fecal microbiota. 16S rRNA sequencing revealed that ULP significantly increased the abundance of Bacteroides. Further evaluation of seven Bacteroides species showed that only B. thetaiotaomicron and B. vulgatus could utilize ULP. Interestingly, these two species exhibited different utilization patterns. B. vulgatus preferentially utilized rhamnose of ULP over glucuronic acid to promote growth. Metabolite profiles of B. thetaiotaomicron and B. vulgatus during in vitro fermentation with ULP as the sole carbon source were different. Although both B. thetaiotaomicron and B. vulgatus utilized ULP to produce various metabolites such as acetic acid, propionic acid, cysteic acid and riboflavin, B. thetaiotaomicron accumulated metabolites, such as linoleic acid, that were not accumulated by B. vulgatus. The effects of ULP on the metabolic pathways of B. thetaiotaomicron and B. vulgatus differed. These findings provide a new perspective on the utilization of ULP by human gut microbiota.

The structure-function relationships and interaction between polysaccharides and intestinal microbiota: A review

The gut microbiota, as a complex ecosystem, can affect many physiological aspects of the host's diet, disease development, drug metabolism, and immune system regulation. Polysaccharides have various biological activities including antioxidant, anti-tumor, and regulating gut microbiota, etc. Polysaccharides cannot be degraded by human digestive enzymes. However, the interaction between gut microbiota and polysaccharides can lead to the degradation and utilization of polysaccharides. Disordered intestinal flora leads to diseases such as diabetes, hyperlipidemia, tumors, and diarrhea. Notably, polysaccharides can regulate the gut microbiota, promote the proliferation of probiotics and the SCFAs production, and thus improve the related-diseases and maintain body health. The relationship between polysaccharides and gut microbiota is gradually becoming clear. Nevertheless, the structure-function relationships between polysaccharides and gut microbiota still need further exploration. Hence, this paper systematically reviews the structure-function relationships between polysaccharides and gut microbiota from four aspects including molecular weight, glycosidic bonds, monosaccharide composition, and advanced structure. Moreover, this review outlines the effect of polysaccharides on gut microbiota metabolism and improves diseases by regulating gut microbiota. Furthermore, this article introduces the impact of gut microbiota on polysaccharide metabolism. The findings can provide the scientific basis for in-depth research on body health and reasonable diet.

Influence of in vitro pectin fermentation on the human fecal microbiome and O-glycosylation of HT29-MTX cells

Pectin is a structurally complex heteropolysaccharide that affects intestinal microorganisms and mucin O-glycans. The present study employed an in vitro model to investigate dynamic changes in microbiota during pectin fermentation. Residual pectin fragments arising from its fermentation were applied to HT29-MTX cells to study the effect of pectin structure on mucin O-glycosylation. Prevotella, Bacteroides, and Parabacteroides were found to preferentially degrade galactose, arabinose, and on the rhamnogalacturonan RG-I side chain region and methyl esterification groups of pectin. Bifidobacterium, Enterococcus, Megamonas, and Dorea metabolized the galacturonic HG region on pectin to produce butyrate. All pectin fragments were found to up-regulate total O-glycans (1.55-2.73 fold) and neutral O-glycans (1.11-1.49 fold) on HT29-MTX mucins. The large HG fragment (81.04 kDa) increased significantly the amount of non-fucosylated glycans (by 2.46-fold); whereas the small HG fragment (16.02 kDa) promoted fucosylated (by 9.25 fold), and especially di-fucosylated O-glycans. Collectively, these results demonstrate that gut microorganisms degrade pectin fragments in the following order of utilization: RG-I, RG-II, and HG. The small fragment of HG improves the expression of fucosylated O-glycans in HT29-MTX cells, mainly owing to an increase in di-fucosylated O-glycans.

Fructus mori: An Updated Review on Botany, Phytonutrient, Detection, Bioactivity, Quality Marker, and Application

BACKGROUND

Fructus mori (mulberry) is not only a delicious fruit with rich phytonutrients and health functions but also a medicinal plant with many clinical therapeutic values for tonifying kidneys and consolidating essence, making hair black and eyes bright.

METHODS

The related references about F. mori in this review from 1996 to 2022 had been collected from both online and offline databases, including PubMed, Elsevier, SciFinder, Willy, SciHub, Scopus, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, SpringerLink, Google Scholar, Baidu Scholar, ACS publications, and CNKI. The other information was acquired from ancient books and classical works about F. mori.

RESULTS

An updated summary of phytonutrients from F. mori was listed as fellows: flavonoids (1-20) (23.5%), phenolic acids (21-34) 16.5%), alkaloids (35-75) (48.2%), polysaccharides (76- 78) (3.5%), other compounds (79-85) (8.3%). The above chemical components were detected by TLC, UV-Vis, HPLC, GC-MS, and AAS methods for their quality standards. The various bioactivities (hepatoprotective, immunomodulatory, anti-oxidant, hypoglycemic, anti-cancer, and other activities) of mulberry are summarized and discussed in this review, which laid an important basis for analyzing their mechanisms and quality markers. This review summarized its applications for vinegar, wine, yogurt, drink, jelly, and sweetmeat in food fields, and the existing problems and future development directions are also discussed in this review.

CONCLUSIONS

This review made a comprehensive description of F. mori, including botany, phytonutrient, detection, bioactivity, quality marker, and application. It will not only provide some important clues for further studying F. mori, but also provide some valuable suggestions for in-depth research and development of F. mori.

In vitro digestion and fecal fermentation behaviors of exopolysaccharide from Morchella esculenta and its impacts on hypoglycemic activity via PI3K/Akt signaling and gut microbiota modulation

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of gastrointestinal digestion on the physicochemical properties and hypoglycemic activity of extracellular polysaccharides from Morchella esculenta (MEPS). The results showed that the MEPS digestibility was 22.57 % after saliva-gastrointestinal digestion and only partial degradation had occurred. Contrarily, after 48 h of fecal fermentation, its molecular weight and molar ratios of the monosaccharide composition varied significantly due to being utilized by human gut microbiota, and the final fermentation rate was 76.89 %. Furthermore, the MEPS-I, the final product of saliva-gastrointestinal digestion still retained significant hypoglycemic activity, it alleviated insulin resistance and increased the IR cells glucose consumption by activating PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. MEPS-I treatment reduced the proportion of Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes, and the relative abundance of beneficial bacteria that enhanced insulin sensitivity and glucose uptake was promoted. This research can provide a theoretical basis for the further development of Morchella esculenta as a health functional food.

A novel antidepressant homogeneous polysaccharide YLP-1 from Millettia pulchra ameliorates tryptophan metabolism and SCFAs through modulating gut microbiota

The root of Millettia pulchra (YLS) has been traditionally used as a folk medicine for the treatment of depression and insomnia in the Zhuang nationality of China, and its polysaccharides have potential antidepressant effect. In this study, a novel homogeneous polysaccharide (YLP-1) was purified from the crude polysaccharides of YLS, and it is mainly composed of glucose, arabinose and mannose with molar ratio of 87.25%, 10.77%, and 1.98%, respectively. YLP-1 is a novel α-glucan with the backbone of 1,4-Glcp and branched at C6 of 1,4,6-Glcp to combine 1,4-Manp and 1,5-Araf. The microstructure of YLP-1 displayed a uniform ellipsoidal-like chain morphology and dispersed uniformly in solution. YLP-1 effectively ameliorated depression-like ethological behaviors and restored the decreased catecholamine levels in chronic variable stress (CVS)-induced depression rats. Additionally, it significantly improved the disturbance of gut microbiota induced by CVS stimuli, particularly affecting bacteria that produce short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), such as bacteria species Lactobacillus spp.. In vitro fermentation study further confirmed that YLP-1 intake could promote SCFAs production by Lactobacillus spp. YLP-1 also mitigated the disruption of tryptophan metabolites in urine and serum. These findings provide evidences for the further development of YLP-1 as a macromolecular antidepressant drug.

An in-depth review: Unraveling the extraction, structure, bio-functionalities, target molecules, and applications of pectic polysaccharides

Pectic polysaccharides have long been a challenging subject of research in the field of macromolecular science, given their complex structures and wide range of biological effects. However, the extensive exploration of pectic polysaccharides has been limited due to the intricacy of their structures. In this comprehensive review, we aim to provide a thorough summary of the existing knowledge on pectic polysaccharides, with a particular focus on aspects such as classification, extraction methodologies, structural analysis, elucidation of biological activities, and exploration of target molecules and signaling pathways. By conducting a comprehensive analysis of existing literature and research achievements, we strive to establish a comprehensive and systematic framework that can serve as a reference and guide for further investigations into pectic polysaccharides. Furthermore, this review delves into the applications of pectic polysaccharides beyond their fundamental attributes and characteristics, exploring their potential in fields such as materials, food, and pharmaceuticals. We pay special attention to the promising opportunities for pectic polysaccharides in the pharmaceutical domain and provide an overview of related drug development research. The aim of this review is to facilitate a holistic understanding of pectic polysaccharides by incorporating multifaceted research, providing valuable insights for further in-depth investigations into this significant polymer.

Functions and mechanisms of nonstarch polysaccharides in monogastric animal production

As natural active ingredients, polysaccharides are a class of biological macromolecules that are ubiquitous in living organisms and have antibacterial, antioxidant, antitumor and intestinal flora-regulating functions. Nonstarch polysaccharides (NSPs) are an important class of polysaccharides that include both soluble and insoluble nonstarch polysaccharides. As green feed additives, NSPs play important roles in promoting immunity and disease resistance in the body, regulating the intestinal microbial balance and improving the quality of animal products. NSPs regulate cell signal transduction mainly via interactions between short-chain fatty acids and G protein-coupled receptors and inhibiting the histone deacetylation pathway to protect the intestinal barrier in animals. In this paper, the composition, physiological functions, and molecular mechanisms of the gut protective effects of NSPs are reviewed to provide a reference for the application of NSPs in monogastric animal production.

Polysaccharides in fruits: Biological activities, structures, and structure-activity relationships and influencing factors-A review

Fruits are a rich source of polysaccharides, and an increasing number of studies have shown that polysaccharides from fruits have a wide range of biological functions. Here, we thoroughly review recent advances in the study of the bioactivities, structures, and structure-activity relationships of fruit polysaccharides, especially highlighting the structure-activity influencing factors such as extraction methods and chemical modifications. Different extraction methods cause differences in the primary structures of polysaccharides, which in turn lead to different polysaccharide biological activities. Differences in the degree of modification, molecular weight, substitution position, and chain conformation caused by chemical modification can all affect the biological activities of fruit polysaccharides. Furthermore, we summarize the applications of fruit polysaccharides in the fields of pharmacy and medicine, foods, cosmetics, and materials. The challenges and perspectives for fruit polysaccharide research are also discussed.

Structural analysis and in vitro fermentation characteristics of an Avicennia marina fruit RG-I pectin as a potential prebiotic

Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. is a highly salt-tolerant mangrove, and its fruit has been traditionally used for treating constipation and dysentery. In this study, a pectin (AMFPs-0-1) was extracted and isolated from this fruit for the first time, its structure was analyzed, and the effects on the human gut microbiota were investigated. The results indicated that AMFPs-0-1 with a molecular weight of 798 kDa had a backbone consisting of alternating →2)-α-L-Rhap-(1→ and →4)-α-D-GalpA-(1→ residues and side chains composed of →3-α-L-Araf-(1→-linked arabinan with a terminal β-L-Araf, →5-α-L-Araf-(1→-linked arabinan, and →4)-β-D-Galp-(1→-linked galactan that linked to the C-4 positions of all α-L-Rhap residues in the backbone. It belongs to a type I rhamnogalacturonan (RG-I) pectin but has no arabinogalactosyl chains. AMFPs-0-1 could be consumed by human gut microbiota and increase the abundance of some beneficial bacteria, such as Bifidobacterium, Mitsuokella, and Megasphaera, which could help fight digestive disorders. These findings provide a structural basis for the potential application of A. marina fruit RG-I pectic polysaccharides in improving human intestinal health.

Extraction, purification, structural modification, activities and application of polysaccharides from different parts of mulberry

The mulberry plant is a member of the Moraceae family and belongs to the Morus genus. Its entire body is a treasure, with mulberries, mulberry leaves, and mulberry branches all suitable for medicinal use. The main active ingredient in mulberries is mulberry polysaccharide. Studies have shown that polysaccharides from different parts of mulberry exhibit antioxidant, antidiabetic, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and blood pressure-lowering properties. There are more studies on the biological activities, extraction methods, and structural characterization of polysaccharides from different parts of mulberry. However, the structural characterization of mulberry polysaccharides is mostly confined to the types and proportions of monosaccharides and the molecular weights of polysaccharides, and there are fewer systematic studies on polysaccharides from different parts of mulberry. In order to better understand the bioactive structure of mulberry polysaccharides, this article discusses the recent research progress in the extraction, separation, purification, bioactivity, structural modification, and application of polysaccharides from different parts of mulberry (mulberry leaves, mulberry fruits, and mulberry branches). It also delves into the pharmacological mechanisms of action of mulberry polysaccharides to provide a theoretical basis for further research on mulberry polysaccharides with a view to their deeper application in the fields of feed and nutraceuticals.

Regulation of the intestinal flora using polysaccharides from Callicarpa nudiflora Hook to alleviate ulcerative colitis and the molecular mechanisms involved

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a type of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) that cannot be completely cured by current treatments. C. nudiflora Hook has antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and hemostatic biological functions; however, the therapeutic role of C. nudiflora Hook or its extracts in IBD remains poorly understood. In this study, we extracted and purified three fractions of C. nudiflora Hook polysaccharides by hydroalcohol precipitation method, which were named as CNLP-1, CNLP-2 and CNLP-3, respectively. CNLP-2, the main component of the polysaccharides of C. nudiflora Hook is an pyranose type acidic polysaccharide composed of Fuc, Rha, Ara, Gal, Glc, Xyl, Man, Gal-UA and Glc-UA, with an Mn of 15.624 kDa; Mw of 31.375 kDa. CNLP-2 was found to have a smooth lamellar structure as observed by scanning electron microscopy. To investigate the effect of CNLP-2 (abbreviated to CNLP) on dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced UC mice and its mechanism of action, we treated DSS-induced UC mice by administering CNLP at a dose of 100 mg/kg every other day. The results of the study showed that CNLP alleviated the clinical symptoms such as body weight (BW) loss, pathological damage, and systemic inflammation. The mechanism may be through the regulation of intestinal flora and its metabolism, which in turn affects the expression of NF-κB/MAPK pathway-related proteins through the metabolites of intestinal flora to further alleviate inflammation and ultimately improve the intestinal barrier function in UC mice. In conclusion, CNLP has great potential for the treatment of IBD.

Polysaccharide from walnut green husk alleviates liver inflammation and gluconeogenesis dysfunction by altering gut microbiota in ochratoxin A-induced mice

Walnut green husk polysaccharides (WGP) are isolated from the walnut green husk with a mean molecular weight of 12.77 kDa. The structural characterization revealed by methylation and NMR analysis indicated that WGP might consist of →4-α-D-Galp-(1→, α-D-Galp (1→, and →2)-α-L-Rhap-(1→. Previous studies have been demonstrated that WGP effectively prevented liver injury and modulated gut microbiota in high fructose-treated mice and high fat diet-treated rats. In this study, we found for the first time that WGP presenting outstanding protective effects on liver inflammation and gluconeogenesis dysfunction induced by ochratoxin A (OTA) in mice. Firstly, WGP decreased oxidative stress, down-regulated the expression of inflammatory factors and inhibited the TLR4/p65/IκBα pathway in the liver. Then, WGP reversed OTA-induced lower phosphoenolpyruvate carboxyl kinase (PEPCK), and glucose 6-phosphatase (G6PC) activities in the liver. Furthermore, WGP increased the diversity of gut microbiota and the abundance of beneficial bacteria, especially Lactobacillus and Akkermansia. Importantly, the results of fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) experiment further confirmed that gut microbiota involved in the protective effects of WGP on liver damage induced by OTA. Our results indicated that the protective effect of WGP on liver inflammation and gluconeogenesis dysfunction caused by OTA may be due to the regulation of gut microbiota.

Structural Characterization and Anticomplement Activity of an Acidic Heteropolysaccharide from Lysimachia christinae Hance

A novel acidic heteropolysaccharide (LCP-90-1) was isolated and purified from a traditional "heat-clearing" Chinese medicine, Lysimachia christinae Hance. LCP-90-1 (Mw, 20.65 kDa) was composed of Man, Rha, GlcA, Glc, Gal, and Ara, with relative molar ratios of 1.00: 3.00: 11.62: 1.31: 1.64: 5.24. The backbone consisted of 1,4-α-D-GlcpA, 1,4-α-D-Glcp, 1,4-β-L-Rhap, and 1,3,5-α-L-Araf, with three branches of β-D-Galp-(1 → 4)-β-L-Rhap-(1→, α-L-Araf-(1→ and α-D-Manp-(1→ attached to the C-5 position of 1,3,5-α-L-Araf. LCP-90-1 exhibited potent anticomplement activity (CH50: 135.01 ± 0.68 µg/mL) in vitro, which was significantly enhanced with increased glucuronic acid (GlcA) content in its degradation production (LCP-90-1-A, CH50: 28.26 ± 0.39 µg/mL). However, both LCP-90-1 and LCP90-1-A were inactivated after reduction or complete acid hydrolysis. These observations indicated the important role of GlcA in LCP-90-1 and associated derivatives with respect to anticomplement activity. Similarly, compared with LCP-90-1, the antioxidant activity of LCP-90-1-A was also enhanced. Thus, polysaccharides with a high content of GlcA might be important and effective substances of L. christinae.

The digestive behavior of pectin in human gastrointestinal tract: a review on fermentation characteristics and degradation mechanism

Pectin is widely spread in nature and it develops an extremely complex structure in terms of monosaccharide composition, glycosidic linkage types, and non-glycosidic substituents. As a non-digestible polysaccharide, pectin exhibits resistance to human digestive enzymes, however, it is easily utilized by gut microbiota in the large intestine. Currently, pectin has been exploited as a novel functional component with numerous physiological benefits, and it shows a promising prospect in promoting human health. In this review, we introduce the regulatory effects of pectin on intestinal inflammation and metabolic syndromes. Subsequently, the digestive behavior of pectin in the upper gastrointestinal tract is summarized, and then it will be focused on pectin's fermentation characteristics in the large intestine. The fermentation selectivity of pectin by gut bacteria and the effects of pectin structure on intestinal microecology were discussed to highlight the interaction between pectin and bacterial community. Meanwhile, we also offer information on how gut bacteria orchestrate enzymes to degrade pectin. All of these findings provide insights into pectin digestion and advance the application of pectin in human health.

A pectic polysaccharide isolated from Achyranthes bidentata is metabolized by human gut Bacteroides spp

Achyranthes bidentata (A. bidentata) is a famous traditional Chinese medicine (TGM) for treatment osteoporosis. Polysaccharides, a major factor for shaping the gut microbiota, are the primary ingredients of A. bidentata. However, bioactivity of A. bidentata polysaccharide on human gut microbiota (HGM) remains unknown. Here, a homogeneous pectic polysaccharide A23-1 with average molecular weight of 93.085 kDa was extracted and purified from A. bidentata. And A23-1 was compsed of rhamnose, glucuronic acid, galacturonic acid, glucose, galactose and arabinose in a molar ratio of 7.26: 0.76: 5.12: 2.54: 23.51: 60.81. GC-MS, partial acid hydrolysis and NMR results indicated the backbone of A23-1 was composed of 1, 2, 4-Rhap and 1, 4-GlapA, while the branches were composed of galactose, arabinose, glucose and glucuronic acid. Further, A23-1 was found to be degraded into monosaccharides and fragments. Taking Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron (BT) as a model, we suggested three polysaccharide utilization loci (PULs) might be involved in the A23-1 degradation. Degraded products generated by BO might not support the growth of probiotics. Besides, acetate and propionate as the main end products were generated by Bacteroides spp. and probiotics utilizing A23-1. These findings suggested A23-1 was possible one of food sources of human gut Bacteroides spp.

Regulation strategy, bioactivity, and physical property of plant and microbial polysaccharides based on molecular weight

Structural features affect the bioactivity, physical property, and application of plant and microbial polysaccharides. However, an indistinct structure-function relationship limits the production, preparation, and utilization of plant and microbial polysaccharides. Molecular weight is an easily regulated structural feature that affects the bioactivity and physical property of plant and microbial polysaccharides, and plant and microbial polysaccharides with a specific molecular weight are important for exerting their bioactivity and physical property. Therefore, this review summarized the regulation strategies of molecular weight via metabolic regulation; physical, chemical, and enzymic degradations; and the influence of molecular weight on the bioactivity and physical property of plant and microbial polysaccharides. Moreover, further problems and suggestions must be paid attention to during regulation, and the molecular weight of plant and microbial polysaccharides must be analyzed. The present work will promote the production, preparation, utilization, and investigation of the structure-function relationship of plant and microbial polysaccharides based on their molecular weight.

A structure defined pectin SA02B from Semiaquilegia adoxoides is metabolized by human gut microbes

Polysaccharide is one of the major factors for shaping the gut microbiota. However, bioactivity of polysaccharide isolated from Semiaquilegia adoxoides on human gut microbiota remains unclear. Thus, we hypothesize gut microbes may act on it. Herein, pectin SA02B from the roots of Semiaquilegia adoxoides with molecular weight 69.26 kDa was elucidated. The backbone of SA02B was composed of alternate 1, 2-linked α-Rhap and 1, 4-linked α-GalpA, with branches of terminal (T) -, 1, 4-, 1, 3- and 1, 3, 6-linked β-Galp, T-, 1, 5- and 1, 3, 5-linked α-Araf and T-, 1, 4-linked-β-Xylp substituted at C-4 of 1, 2, 4-linked α-Rhap. Bioactivity screening showed SA02B promoted the growth of Bacteroides spp. which deconstructed it into monosaccharide. Simultaneously, we observed competition might exist between Bacteroides spp. and probiotics. Besides, we found that both Bacteroides spp. and probiotics could generate SCFAs grown on SA02B. Our findings highlight SA02B may deserve as a prebiotic to be explored to benefit the health gut microbiota.

Structural characterization and anti-osteoporosis effects of polysaccharide purified from Eucommia ulmoides Oliver cortex based on its modulation on bone metabolism

EuOCP3, with a molecular weight of 38.1 kDa, is an acidic polysaccharide purified from Eucommia ulmoides Oliver cortex. Herein, we determined that the main backbone of EuOCP3 was predominantly composed of →4)-α-GalpA-(1 → 4)-α-GalpA-(1→, →4)-α-GalpA-(1 → 5)-α-Araf-(1→, →4)-α-GalpA-(1 → 2)-α-Rhap-(1→, and →4)-α-GalpA-(1 → 5)-α-Araf-(1 → 2)-α-Rhap-(1 → repeating blocks, which were connected by →2,3,5)-α-Araf-(1→. The side chains, substituted at C-2 and C-5 of →2,3,5)-α-Araf-(1→, contained T-β-Araf→ and T-β-Araf → 4)-α-GalpA-(1 → residues. In dexamethasone (Dex)-induced osteoporosis (OP) mice, EuOCP3 treatment restored cortical bone thickness, increased mineralized bone area, enhanced the number of osteoblasts, and decreased the number of osteoclasts on the surface of cortical bone. Combining analysis of gut microflora, serum metabolite profiles, and biological detection results, we demonstrated that EuOCP3 regulated the abundance of specific species within the gut microflora, such as g_Dorea and g_Prevotella, and ameliorated oxidative stress. In turn, enhancement of osteogenic function and restoration of bone metabolism via the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK)/c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK)/nuclear factor erythroid-2 related factor 2 (Nrf2) signaling pathway was indicated. The current findings contribute to understanding the potential of EuOCP3 in anti-OP treatment.

Microanalysis Characterization and Immunomodulatory Effect for Selenium-Enriched Polysaccharide from Morchella esculenta (L.) Pers

Morchella esculenta (L.) Pers., referred to as Morel, is a medicinal and edible homologous fungus, which contains many bioactive substances. In Morel, polysaccharides are the most abundant and have various bioactivities. In the present work, two novel polysaccharides, Se-MPS and MPS, were prepared and purified from selenium-enriched (Se-enriched) and common Morel mycelia, respectively, and their structural and immunomodulatory properties were evaluated. The results show that Se-enriched treatment significantly changed the polysaccharides' chemical composition, molecular weight, and sugar chain configuration. In addition, the Se-enriched treatment also improved the polysaccharides' fragmentation and thermal stability. Importantly, Se-enriched Morel polysaccharide (Se-MPS) could significantly enhance phagocytosis of RAW 264.7 macrophage cells and, remarkably, activate their immune response via activating the TLR4-TRAF6-MAPKs-NF-κB cascade signaling pathway, finally exerting an immunomodulatory function. Based on these findings, selenium-enriched Morel polysaccharide appears to have more potential for development and utilization in functional foods or medicines than ordinary Morel polysaccharide.

Effects of in vitro simulated digestion and fecal fermentation of polysaccharides from straw mushroom (Volvariella volvacea) on its physicochemical properties and human gut microbiota

Herein, the fermentation and digestion behavior of Volvariella volvacea polysaccharide (VVP) were examined through the in vitro simulation experiment. The results revealed that succeeding the simulated salivary gastrointestinal digestion, the molecular weight of VVP was reduced by only 8.9 %. In addition, the reducing sugar, uronic acid, monosaccharide composition and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy characteristics of VVP did not change significantly, which indicate that saliva-gastrointestinal could not digest VVP. However, 48 h of fecal fermentation of VVP dramatically reduced its molecular weight by 40.4 %. Furthermore, the molar ratios of the monosaccharide composition altered considerably due to the degradation of VVP by microorganisms and the metabolysis into different short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). Meanwhile, the VVP also raised the proportion of Bacteroidetes to Firmicutes and promoted the proliferation of some beneficial bacteria including Bacteroides and Phascolarctobacterium, whereas it inhibited the growth of unfavorable bacteria such as Escherichia-shigella. Therefore, VVP has the potential to have a positive influence on health and hinder diseases by improving the intestinal microbial environment. These findings provide a theoretical foundation to further develop Volvariella volvacea as a healthy functional food.

Sodium hyaluronates applied in the face affects the diversity of skin microbiota in healthy people

OBJECTIVE

A healthy and stable microbiome has many beneficial effects on the host, while an unbalanced or disordered microbiome can lead to various skin diseases. Hyaluronic acid is widely used in the cosmetics and pharmaceutical industries; however, specific reports on its effect on the skin microflora of healthy people have not been published. This study aimed to determine the effect of sodium hyaluronate on the facial microflora of healthy individuals.

METHODS

Face of 20 healthy female volunteers between 18 and 24 years was smeared with sodium hyaluronate solution once per day. Cotton swabs were used to retrieve samples on days 0, 14, and 28, and high-throughput sequencing of 16 S rRNA was used to determine the changes in bacterial community composition.

RESULTS

Facial application of HA can reduce the abundance of pathogenic bacteria, such as Cutibacterium and S. aureus, and increase the colonization of beneficial bacteria.

CONCLUSION

This is the first intuitive report to demonstrate the effect of hyaluronic acid on facial microflora in healthy people. Accordingly, sodium hyaluronate was found to have a positive effect on facial skin health.

In Vitro Digestion and Fecal Fermentation of Peach Gum Polysaccharides with Different Molecular Weights and Their Impacts on Gut Microbiota

In the present study, we investigated the in vitro digestion and fermentation characteristics of three peach gum polysaccharides (PGPs) of different molecular weights; i.e., AEPG2 (1.64 × 107 g/mol), DPG2 (5.21 × 105 g/mol), and LP100R (8.50 × 104 g/mol). We observed that PGPs were indigestible during the oral, gastrointestinal, and intestinal stages. However, they were utilized by the gut microbiota with utilization rates in the order of DPG2 > AEPG2 > LP100R. Furthermore, arabinose in PGPs was preferentially utilized by the gut microbiota followed by galactose and xylose. Fermentation of peach gum polysaccharides could significantly increase the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), especially n-butyric acid. In addition, PGPs with different molecular weights values were predominantly fermented by different bacterial species. AEPG2 and DPG2 were fermented by the Bacteroidetes bacteria Bacteroides, while the dominant n-butyrate-producing bacteria was Faecalibacterium. While the LP100R was fermented by Bacteroides, Parabacteroides, Phascolarctobacterium, Dialister, Lachnospiraceae, and Blautia, the dominant n-butyrate-producing bacteria was Megamonas. These results indicated that PGPs are potential prebiotics for the food industry.

Mechanistic Understanding of the Effects of Pectin on In Vivo Starch Digestion: A Review

Obesity and type II diabetes are closely related to the rapid digestion of starch. Starch is the major food-energy source for most humans, and thus knowledge about the regulation of starch digestion can contribute to prevention and improved treatment of carbohydrate metabolic disorders such as diabetes. Pectins are plant polysaccharides with complex molecular structures and ubiquitous presence in food, and have diverse effects on starch digestion. Pectins can favorably regulate in vivo starch digestion and blood glucose level responses, and these effects are attributed to several reasons: increasing the viscosity of digesta, inhibiting amylase activity, and regulating some in vivo physiological responses. Pectins can influence starch digestion via multiple mechanisms simultaneously, in ways that are highly structure-dependent. Utilizing the multi-functionalities of pectin could provide more ways to design low glycemic-response food and while avoiding the unpalatable high viscosity in food by which is commonly caused by many other dietary fibers.

Extraction and immunomodulatory activity of the polysaccharide obtained from Craterellus cornucopioides

In this study, we investigated the structural features of the polysaccharide obtained from Craterellus cornucopioides (CCP2) by high-performance liquid chromatography, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and ion chromatography. The results showed that CCP2 was a catenarian pyranose that principally comprised of mannose, galactose, glucose, and xylose in the ratio of 1.86: 1.57: 1.00: 1.14, with a molecular weight of 8.28 × 10⁴ Da. Moreover, the immunoregulation effect of CCP2 was evaluated both in vitro and in vivo. It displayed a remarkable immunological activity and activation in RAW264.7 cells by enhancing the phagocytosis of macrophages in a dose-dependent manner without showing cytotoxicity at the concentrations of 10–200 μg/mL in vitro. Additionally, Histopathological analysis indicated the protective function of CCP2 against immunosuppression induced by cyclophosphamide (Cy). Meanwhile, the intake of CCP2 had better immunoregulatory activity for immunosuppression BALB/c mice model. After prevention by CCP2, the spleen and thymus weight indexes of BALB/c mice model were significantly increased. The RT-qPCR and Western Blot results provided comprehensive evidence that the CCP2 could activate macrophages by enhancing the production of cytokines (IL-2, IL-6, and IL-8) and upregulating the protein expression of cell membrane receptor TLR4 and its downstream protein kinase (TRAF6, TRIF, and NF-κB p65) production of immunosuppressive mice through TLR4-NFκB p65 pathway. The results demonstrated that CCP2 could be a potential prebiotic and might provide meaningful information for further research on the immune mechanism.

Simulated digestion, dynamic changes during fecal fermentation and effects on gut microbiota of Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. fruit non-starch polysaccharides

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Avicennia marina fruit non-starch polysaccharides (AMFPs) were obtained and analyzed.

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Dynamic changes of AMFPs during simulated digestion and fermentation were revealed.

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AMFPs were not digested by the digestive juice but were utilized by gut microbiota.

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Beneficial microbiota, such as Mistuokella, and Prevotella were obviously increased.

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Harmful bacteria were obviously inhibited and SCFA levels were obviously promoted.

Grey mangrove (Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh.) fruit is a traditional folk medicine and health food consumed in many countries. In this study, its polysaccharides (AMFPs) were obtained and analyzed by chemical and instrumental methods, with the results indicating that AMFPs consisted of galactose, galacturonic acid, arabinose, and rhamnose in a molar ratio of 4.99:3.15:5.38:1.15. The dynamic changes in AMFPs during the digestion and fecal fermentation processes were then investigated. The results confirmed that AMFPs were not depolymerized by gastric acid and various digestive enzymes. During fermentation, 56.05 % of the AMFPs were utilized by gut microbiota. Galacturonic acid, galactose, and arabinose from AMFPs, were mostly consumed by gut microbiota. AMFPs obviously decreased harmful bacteria and increased some beneficial microbiota, including Megasphaera, Mistuokella, Prevotella, and Megamonas. Furthermore, AMFPs obviously increased the levels of various short-chain fatty acids. These findings suggest that AMFPs have potential prebiotic applications for improving gut health.

Effects of Two Kinds of Extracts of Cistanche deserticola on Intestinal Microbiota and Its Metabolism

Cistanche deserticola belongs to the Liedang family. Known as "desert ginseng", it has high medicinal value and plays important roles in endocrine regulation, neuroprotection, immune regulation, and other processes. Some studies have shown that single substances such as polysaccharides and phenylethanolside can affect intestinal microbiota, but few studies have studied the synergistic effect of various components in Cistanche deserticola extracts on intestinal microbiota. Therefore, in this study, through an in vitro digestion model (Changdao Moni, CDMN) combined with 16S rRNA gene amplification sequencing technology and untargeted metabolomics technology, it was found that the two extracts all had significant effects on the enteric cavity and mucosal flora. Both extracts inhibited Bacteroides in the intestinal cavity and Parabacteroides and Ruminococcus 2 in the intestinal mucosa and promoted Bifidobacterium and Prevotella in the intestinal cavity and Megasphaera in the intestinal mucosa. The aqueous extract also inhibited Phascolarctobacterium. Both extracts also significantly increased the production of short-chain fatty acids, especially butyrate. The intake of extract had significant effects on the metabolic pathways related to amino acids and lipids. Indoles were upregulated by the aqueous extract but downregulated by the alcohol extract. In addition, the extract also had a significant effect on the hemolytic phosphorus esters. In conclusion, the two kinds of extracts have different effects on intestinal microbiota and its metabolism. This study provides guiding significance for the edibility and food development of Cistanche deserticola.

Intestinal microbiota metabolizing Houttuynia cordata polysaccharides in H1N1 induced pneumonia mice contributed to Th17/Treg rebalance in gut-lung axis

Influenza A virus is intricately linked to dysregulation of gut microbiota and host immunity. Previous study revealed that Houttuynia cordata polysaccharides (HCP) exert the therapeutic effect on influenza A virus inducing lung and intestine damage via regulating pulmonary and intestinal mucosal immunity. However, whether this result was due to the regulation of gut microbiota in the gut-lung axis remains unclear. Here, we firstly found that the elimination of gut microbiota using antibiotic cocktails led to both loss of the protective effect of HCP on intestine and lung injury, and reduction of the efficacy on regulating Th17/Treg balance in gut-lung axis. Fecal microbiota transplantation study confirmed that the gut microbiota fermented with HCP under pathological conditions (H1N1 infection) was responsible for reducing pulmonary and intestinal injury. Moreover, the interaction of HCP and gut microbiota under pathological conditions exhibited not only much more abundant gut microbial diversity, but also higher content of the acetate. Our results demonstrated that the underlying mechanism to ameliorate viral pneumonia in mice involving Th17/Treg rebalance via the gut microbiota and HCP metabolite (acetate) metabolized in pneumonia mice. Our results provided a new insight for macromolecular polysaccharides through targeting intestinal microenvironment reducing distant pulmonary infection.

Structural Characterization and In Vitro Fermentation Characteristics of Enzymatically Extracted Black Mulberry Polysaccharides

In this study, we systematically investigated the structural characterization and in vitro fermentation patterns of crude black mulberry fruit polysaccharides (BMPs), either extracted by water (BMP) or by enzymatic treatment. Different enzymatic treatments were pectinase-extracted (PE)-BMP, pectin lyase-extracted (PL)-BMP, cellulase-extracted (CE)-BMP, and compound enzymes-extracted (M)-BMP (pectinase:pectin lyase:cellulase = 1:1:1). Our results show that enzymatic treatment improved the polysaccharide yield and led to a different chemical composition and structure for the polysaccharides. Change dynamics during the in vitro fermentation indicated that BMPs could indeed be degraded and consumed by human fecal microbiota and that different BMPs showed different degrees of fermentability. In addition, BMPs stimulated the growth of Bacteroidetes and Firmicutes, inhibited the growth of Fusobacteria and Proteobacteria (except for CE-BMP), and induced the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). Furthermore, we found that BMP and PL-BMP exhibited better fermentability and prebiotic potential than the other polysaccharides.

Structure features, selenylation modification, and improved anti-tumor activity of a polysaccharide from Eriobotrya japonica

A homogeneous polysaccharide, EJP90-1, was isolated from the leaves of E. japonica by hot water extraction in this study. EJP90-1 (7702 Da) was a heteropolysaccharide mainly consisting of →5)-linked-α-L-Araf-(1→, →4)-linked-β-D-Manp-(1→, →2,4)-linked-α-L-Rhap-(1→, →4)-linked-α-D-Xylp-(1→, →4)-linked-β-D-Galp-(1→, →2)-linked-β-D-Galp-(1→, →6)-linked-β-D-Glcp-(1→, α-D-Glcp-(4→, and t-linked-α-L-Araf. EJP90-1 was found to show moderate anti-tumor activity at the cellular level. In order to improve the anti-tumor activity and the potential applications of EJP90-1, a typical sodium selenite-nitric acid (Na₂SeO₃-HNO₃) modification on EJP90-1 was carried out. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and energy dispersive spectrometer (EDS) analysis confirmed that Se was successfully introduced into the polymer chain of EJP90-1. The subsequent in vitro cytotoxicity evaluation showed the selenylation modification derivative (EJP90-1-Se) possessed significant antiproliferative activity against cancer cells (HepG2 and A549 cells) through inducing cell apoptosis. The anti-tumor activity of EJP90-1-Se was further confirmed by zebrafish models, which inhibited the proliferation and migration of HepG2 cells and the angiogenesis.

Structural characterization of polysaccharide from yellow sweet potato and ameliorates DSS-induced mice colitis by active GPR41/MEK/ERK 1/2 signaling pathway

A polysaccharide isolated from yellow sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.) consisted of Rha, Ara, Gal, Glc, GalA, GlcA with the ratio of 1.00, 2.00, 3.63, 1.21, 1.17, 1.14, respectively. The molecular weight (Mw) of RSPP-A was determinted to be 2.51×10⁶ kDa. Methylation, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) (1D & 2D) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) analysis indicated that RSPP-A possessed six glycosidic bonds including α-L-Araf-(1→, →5)-α-L-Araf-(1→, →6)-β-D-Galp-(1→, β-D-Glcp-(1→, →3)-α-L-Araf-(1→, →3)-α-L-Rhap-(1→. In dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) induced mouse-acute-colitis model, the results indicated that RSPP-A could down- regulate the secretion of IL-6 and IL-1β, and promote the secretion of IL-10 in serum and colon, which also suggested that RSPP-A could enhance the contents of short chain fatty acids(SCFAs) and up-regulate the expression of G protein-coupled receptor (GPR41) in colon. Moreover, the expression of Mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MEK), extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) were up-regulated in colon after intervention with RSPP-A, result from above suggested that the anti-inflammatory activity might be related to the production of SCFA, activating GPR41/MEK/ERK1/2 signaling pathway.

Discrete genetic loci in human gut Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron confer pectin metabolism

Although the polysaccharide utilization loci (PULs) activated by pectin have been defined, due to the complex of side-chain structure, the degradative mechanisms still remain vague. Thus, we hypothesize that there may have other specific PULs to target pectin. Here, we characterize loci-encoded proteins expressed by Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron (BT) that are involved in the pectin capturing, importation, de-branching and degradation into monosaccharides. Totally, four PULs contain ten enzymes and four glycan binding proteins which including a novel surface enzyme and a surface glycan binding protein are identified. Notably, PUL2 and PUL3 have not been reported so far. Further, we show that the degradation products support the growth of other Bacteroides spp. and probiotics. In addition, genes involved in this process are conservative in other Bacteroides spp. Our results further highlight the contribution of Bacteroides spp. to metabolism the pectic network.

A homogeneous polysaccharide from Lycium barbarum: Structural characterizations, anti-obesity effects and impacts on gut microbiota

Lycium barbarum polysaccharides (LBPs) are known for their beneficial effects on diabetes, NAFLD and related chronic metabolic diseases induced by high-fat diet (HFD). However, the relevant researches are mainly about the whole crude polysaccharides, the specific active ingredient of LBPs and its bioactivity have been rarely explored. Herein, a homogeneous polysaccharide (LBP-W) was isolated and purified from crude LBPs. Structure characterizations indicated that LBP-W contained a main chain consisting of a repeated unit of →6)-β-Galp(1 → residues with branches composed of α-Araf, β-Galp and α-Rhap residues at position C-3. The objective of this study was to evaluate the anti-obesogenic effect of LBP-W and figure out the underlying mechanisms. In vivo efficacy trial illustrated that LBP-W supplements can alleviate HFD-induced mice obesity significantly. Gut microbiota analysis showed that LBP-W not only improved community diversity of intestinal flora, but also regulated their specific genera. Moreover, LBP-W can increase the content of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), a metabolite of the intestinal flora. In summary, all these results demonstrated that the homogeneous polysaccharide purified from L. barbarum could be used as a prebiotic agent to improve obesity by modulating the composition of intestinal flora and the metabolism of SCFAs.

Challenges of pectic polysaccharides as a prebiotic from the perspective of fermentation characteristics and anti-colitis activity

Several studies are described that contribute to the systematic exploration of new aspects of digestion, fermentation, and biological activities of pectic polysaccharides (PPS) leading to a better understanding of prebiotics. Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is thought to be associated with the dysbacteriosis induced by different environmental agents in genetically susceptible persons. PPS are considered as an indispensable gut-microbiota-accessible carbohydrate that play a dominant role in maintaining gut microbiota balance and show a better effect in ameliorating IBD than some traditional prebiotics. The aim of this review is to summarize the fermentation characteristics of PPS, highlight its role in improving IBD, and propose a view that PPS may be a new and effective prebiotic.

Recent advances on bioactive polysaccharides from mulberry

Mulberry (Moraceae family), commonly considered as a folk remedy, has a long history of usage in many regions of the world. Polysaccharides regarded as one of the major components in mulberry plants, and they possess antioxidant, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, prebiotic, immunomodulatory and antitumor properties, among others. In recent decades, mulberry polysaccharides have been widely studied for their multiple health benefits and potential economic value. However, there are few reviews providing updated information on polysaccharides from mulberry. In this review, recent advances in the study of isolation, purification, structural characterization, biological activity and the structure-activity relationship of mulberry polysaccharides are summarized and discussed. Furthermore, a thorough analysis of the current trends and perspectives on mulberry polysaccharides is also proposed. Hopefully, these findings can provide a useful reference value for the development and application of natural polysaccharides in the field of functional food and medicine in the future.

Structural characterization and in vitro osteogenic activity of ABPB-4, a heteropolysaccharide from the rhizome of Achyranthes bidentata

Achyranthes bidentata is a species of flowering plant that is mainly distributed in China. The A. bidentata rhizome is a famous traditional Chinese medicine that has been widely used to treat lumbago, arthritis, and bone hyperplasia. In this work, A. bidentata rhizome was isolated and purified to obtain a pectic polysaccharide (ABPB-4). Chemical and spectral analyses showed that ABPB-4 had a main chain of →4)-α-d-GalpA-(1→ and →2,4)-α-l-Rhap-(1→, and the branch chains included →4)-β-d-Galp-(1→, →6)-β-d-Galp-(1→, →3,6)-β-d-Galp-(1→, →5)-α-l-Araf-(1→ and →3,5)-α-l-Araf-(1→, and it was terminated with α-l-Araf-(1→ and β-d-Galp-(1→. At concentrations of 0.01, 0.02, and 0.04 μmol/L, ABPB-4 significantly promotes the proliferation, differentiation, and mineralization of MC3T3-E1 cells in vitro, and it appreciably enhances the mRNA expression levels of osteogenic-related genes in these cells. Overall, the results reported herein indicate that ABPB-4 has outstanding osteogenic activity, and that it may be used as an anti-osteoporosis agent in the future.

Dynamic changes of structural characteristics of snow chrysanthemum polysaccharides during in vitro digestion and fecal fermentation and related impacts on gut microbiota

The in vitro simulated saliva-gastrointestinal digestion and human fecal fermentation of snow chrysanthemum polysaccharides (JHP) were investigated. Results showed that reducing sugar contents of JHP increased during the gastrointestinal digestion, and glucose released with the decrease of its molecular weight, suggesting that JHP could be partially degraded under the gastrointestinal digestion. Furthermore, after in vitro fecal fermentation, the molecular weight and molar ratio of constituent monosaccharides (galactose and galacturonic acid) of the indigestible JHP (JHP-I) significantly decreased, and both monosaccharides and oligosaccharides released, suggesting that JHP-I could be further degraded and consumed by gut microbiota. Some beneficial bacteria, such as genera Bifidobacterium, Lactobacillus, Megamonas, and Megasphaera, significantly increased, suggesting that JHP-I could change the composition and abundance of gut microbiota. These results suggest that JHP is a potential source of prebiotics, and can be helpful for better understanding of the potential digestion and fermentation mechanism of JHP.