Estrogen Deficiency Promotes Hepatic Steatosis via a Glucocorticoid Receptor-Dependent Mechanism in Mice

Sexual dimorphisms in endocrinopathies: Their impact on the evolution of metabolic diseases

Sexual dimorphisms, the biological differences between males and females, are well-documented across various endocrine disorders. These dimorphisms not only influence the presentation and progression of endocrinopathies but also play a critical role in the development and evolution of metabolic diseases. This review explores the intricate relationship between sexual dimorphisms and endocrinopathies such as Diabetes Mellitus, Thyroid disorder, Cushing's syndrome, Addison's disease, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), Hypogonadism in males and acromegaly, and their subsequent effects on metabolic dysfunctions like insulin resistance, obesity, and cardiovascular diseases. By examining the hormonal, genetic, and environmental factors underlying these gender-specific differences, we aim to elucidate how sexual dimorphisms contribute to the disparate prevalence, clinical outcomes, and treatment responses observed in metabolic disorders. This review highlights the significance of considering sexual dimorphisms in advancing the understanding of metabolic diseases.

The role of hepatic sinusoidal microenvironment in NASH: pathogenesis, animal models, and therapeutic prospects

The incidence of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is increasing annually, posing a significant threat to human health. NASH is typified by hepatic steatosis, inflammation, and hepatocellular injury, frequently culminating in fibrosis and cirrhosis. Yet, the precise pathogenesis of NASH remains to be fully elucidated. The hepatic sinusoid, which serves as the fundamental structural and functional unit of the liver, is intricately composed of endothelial cells, Kupffer cells, and hepatic stellate cells. Consequently, the homeostasis of the hepatic sinusoidal microenvironment may exert a pivotal influence on the progression and prognosis of NASH. However, the limitations of current NASH animal models have significantly impeded advancements in understanding the disease's pathogenesis and the development of effective therapeutic interventions. In light of these challenges, this review endeavors to delve deeper into the critical role of hepatic sinusoidal microenvironment homeostasis in the pathogenesis of NASH, critically analyze the commonly employed animal models, and comprehensively summarize the most recent and promising developments in drug research and development. It is anticipated that these efforts will collectively expedite the advancement of the field of NASH research and therapeutic innovation.

HFD feeding for seven months abolishes STING disruption-driven but not female sex-based protection against hepatic steatosis and inflammation in mice

Stimulator of interferon genes (STING) is positively correlated with the degrees of liver inflammation in human metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD). In addition, STING disruption alleviates MASLD in mice fed a high-fat diet (HFD) for 3 months (3-m-HFD). Here we investigated the role of the duration of dietary feeding in regulating MASLD in mice and explored the involvement of STING in sex differences in MASLD. Both male and female STING-disrupted (STINGgt) and wild-type C57BL/6J mice were fed an HFD for 3 or 7 months (7-m-HFD). Additionally, female STINGgt mice upon ovariectomy (OVX) and 3-m-HFD were analyzed for MASLD. Upon 3-m-HFD, STINGgt mice exhibited decreased severity of MASLD compared to control. However, upon 7-m-HFD, STINGgt mice were comparable with wild-type mice in body weight, fat mass, and MASLD. Regarding regulating the liver RNA transcriptome, 7-m-HFD increased the expression of genes indicating proinflammatory activation of various liver cells. Interestingly, the severity of MASLD in female mice was much lighter than in male mice, regardless of STING disruption. Upon OVX, female STINGgt mice showed significantly increased severity of MASLD relative to sham control but were comparable with male STINGgt mice. Upon treatment with 17-beta estradiol (E2), hepatocytes revealed decreased fat deposition while macrophages displayed decreases in lipopolysaccharide-induced phosphorylation of Nfkb p65 and Jnk p46 independent of STING. These results suggest that 7-m-HFD, without altering female sex-based protection, abolishes STING disruption-driven protection of MASLD, likely through causing proinflammatory activation of multiple types of liver cells to offset the effect of STING disruption.

A consortium of Hordeum vulgare and gut microbiota against non-alcoholic fatty liver disease via data-driven analysis

Despite many recent studies on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) therapeutics, the optimal treatment has yet to be determined. In this unfinished project, we combined secondary metabolites (SMs) from the gut microbiota (GM) and Hordeum vulgare (HV) to investigate their combinatorial effects via network pharmacology (NP). Additionally, we analyzed GM or barley - signalling pathways - targets - metabolites (GBSTMs) in combinatorial perspectives (HV, and GM). A total of 31 key targets were analysed via a protein-protein interaction (PPI) network, and JUN was identified as the uppermost target in NAFLD. On a bubble plot, we revealed that apelin signalling pathway, which had the lowest enrichment factor antagonize NAFLD. Holistically, we scrutinized GBSTM to identify key components (GM, signalling pathways, targets, and metabolites) associated with the Apelin signalling pathway. Consequently, we found that the primary GMs (Eubacterium limosum, Eggerthella sp. SDG-2, Alistipes indistinctus YIT 12060, Odoribacter laneus YIT 12061, Paraprevotella clara YIT 11840, Paraprevotella xylaniphila YIT 11841) to ameliorate NAFLD. The molecular docking test (MDT) suggested that tryptanthrin-JUN is an agonist, conversely, dihydroglycitein-HDAC5, 1,3-diphenylpropan-2-ol-NOS1, and (10[(Acetyloxy)methyl]-9-anthryl)methyl acetate-NOS2, which are antagonistic conformers in the apelin signalling pathway. Overall, these results suggest that combination therapy could be an effective strategy for treating NAFLD.

Menopausal characteristics and hormone replacement therapy in relation to long-term risk of cholecystectomy in women

Background

Women are known to be at higher risk for gallbladder disease than men, suggesting a role of female hormones in the pathogenesis of gallbladder disease. This study aimed to assess menopausal characteristics, hormone replacement therapy (HRT) and their joint effect on long-term risk of cholecystectomy in women.

Methods

A total of 184,677 women were included from the UK Biobank. Multivariable Cox regression models were used to estimate the associations of menopausal characteristics and HRT with risk of cholecystectomy. The joint influence of HRT use and the status and type of menopause on incident cholecystectomy were further evaluated.

Results

During a median of 12.7 years of follow-up, 4,991 incident cases of cholecystectomy were identified. Natural menopause, regardless of menopausal age, was not associated with risk of cholecystectomy, while surgical menopause at a young age was associated with a higher risk of cholecystectomy. Ever use of HRT was associated with a higher risk of cholecystectomy. In particular, women who were surgically-menopausal and started HRT before menopause had the highest risk for cholecystectomy (hazard ratio = 2.28; 95% confidence interval: 1.70-3.04), when compared with women who were naturally-menopausal and never used HRT.

Conclusions

Early surgical menopause and ever use of HRT was independently associated with the risk of cholecystectomy.

Amplifying hepatic L-aspartate levels suppresses CCl4-induced liver fibrosis by reversing glucocorticoid receptor β-mediated mitochondrial malfunction

Liver fibrosis is a determinant-stage process of many chronic liver diseases and affected over 7.9 billion populations worldwide with increasing demands of ideal therapeutic agents. Discovery of active molecules with anti-hepatic fibrosis efficacies presents the most attacking filed. Here, we revealed that hepatic L-aspartate levels were decreased in CCl4-induced fibrotic mice. Instead, supplementation of L-aspartate orally alleviated typical manifestations of liver injury and fibrosis. These therapeutic efficacies were alongside improvements of mitochondrial adaptive oxidation. Notably, treatment with L-aspartate rebalanced hepatic cholesterol-steroid metabolism and reduced the levels of liver-impairing metabolites, including corticosterone (CORT). Mechanistically, L-aspartate treatment efficiently reversed CORT-mediated glucocorticoid receptor β (GRβ) signaling activation and subsequent transcriptional suppression of the mitochondrial genome by directly binding to the mitochondrial genome. Knockout of GRβ ameliorated corticosterone-mediated mitochondrial dysfunction and hepatocyte damage which also weakened the improvements of L-aspartate in suppressing GRβ signaling. These data suggest that L-aspartate ameliorates hepatic fibrosis by suppressing GRβ signaling via rebalancing cholesterol-steroid metabolism, would be an ideal candidate for clinical liver fibrosis treatment.

Prospective associations of leucocyte subtypes and obesity with the risk of developing cutaneous malignant melanoma in the UK Biobank cohort

BACKGROUND

Obesity is associated with chronic low-grade inflammation, which is linked to cancer development. Abdominal obesity (a body mass index, ABSI), however, has unusually been associated inversely with cutaneous malignant melanoma (CMM), while general obesity (body mass index, BMI) is associated positively. Leucocytes participate in inflammation and are higher in obesity, but prospective associations of leucocytes with cutaneous malignant melanoma are unclear.

METHODS

We examined the prospective associations of neutrophil, lymphocyte, and monocyte counts (each individually), as well as the prospective associations of ABSI and BMI, with cutaneous malignant melanoma in UK Biobank. We used multivariable Cox proportional hazards models and explored heterogeneity according to sex, menopausal status, age (≥ 50 years at recruitment), smoking status, ABSI (dichotomised at the median: ≥73.5 women; ≥79.8 men), BMI (normal weight, overweight, obese), and time to diagnosis.

RESULTS

During a mean follow-up of 10.2 years, 2174 CMM cases were ascertained in 398,450 participants. There was little evidence for associations with neutrophil or lymphocyte counts. Monocyte count, however, was associated inversely in participants overall (HR = 0.928; 95%CI: 0.888-0.971; per one standard deviation increase; SD = 0.144*109/L women; SD = 0.169*109/L men), specifically in older participants (HR = 0.906; 95%CI: 0.862-0.951), and more clearly in participants with low ABSI (HR = 0.880; 95%CI: 0.824-0.939), or with BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2 (HR = 0.895; 95%CI: 0.837-0.958 for overweight; HR = 0.923; 95%CI: 0.848-1.005 for obese). ABSI was associated inversely in pre-menopausal women (HR = 0.810; 95%CI: 0.702-0.935; SD = 4.95) and men (HR = 0.925; 95%CI: 0.867-0.986; SD = 4.11). BMI was associated positively in men (HR = 1.148; 95%CI: 1.078-1.222; SD = 4.04 kg/m2). There was little evidence for heterogeneity according to smoking status. The associations with monocyte count and BMI were retained to at least 8 years prior to diagnosis, but the association with ABSI was observed up to 4 years prior to diagnosis and not for longer follow-up time.

CONCLUSIONS

Monocyte count is associated prospectively inversely with the risk of developing CMM in older individuals, while BMI is associated positively in men, suggesting a mechanistic involvement of factors related to monocytes and subcutaneous adipose tissue in melanoma development. An inverse association with ABSI closer to diagnosis may reflect reverse causality or glucocorticoid resistance.

Effects of follicle-stimulating hormone on energy balance and tissue metabolic health after loss of ovarian function

Loss of ovarian function imparts increased susceptibility to obesity and metabolic disease. These effects are largely attributed to decreased estradiol (E2), but the role of increased follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) in modulating energy balance has not been fully investigated. Previous work that blocked FSH binding to its receptor in mice suggested this hormone may play a part in modulating body weight and energy expenditure after ovariectomy (OVX). We used an alternate approach to isolate the individual and combined contributions of FSH and E2 in mediating energy imbalance and changes in tissue-level metabolic health. Female Wistar rats were ovariectomized and given the gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) antagonist degarelix to suppress FSH production. E2 and FSH were then added back individually and in combination for a period of 3 wk. Energy balance, body mass composition, and transcriptomic profiles of individual tissues were obtained. In contrast to previous studies, suppression and replacement of FSH in our paradigm had no effect on body weight, body composition, food intake, or energy expenditure. We did, however, observe organ-specific effects of FSH that produced unique transcriptomic signatures of FSH in retroperitoneal white adipose tissue. These included reductions in biological processes related to lipogenesis and carbohydrate transport. In addition, rats administered FSH had reduced liver triglyceride concentration (P < 0.001), which correlated with FSH-induced changes at the transcriptomic level. Although not appearing to modulate energy balance after loss of ovarian function in rats, FSH may still impart tissue-specific effects in the liver and white adipose tissue that might affect the metabolic health of those organs.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We find no effect of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) on energy balance using a novel model in which rats are ovariectomized, subjected to gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonism, and systematically given back FSH by osmotic pump. However, tissue-specific effects of FSH on adipose tissue and liver were observed in this study. These include unique transcriptomic signatures induced by the hormone and a stark reduction in hepatic triglyceride accumulation.

VCD-induced menopause mouse model reveals reprogramming of hepatic metabolism

OBJECTIVE

Menopause adversely impacts systemic energy metabolism and increases the risk of metabolic disease(s) including hepatic steatosis, but the mechanisms are largely unknown. Dosing female mice with vinyl cyclohexene dioxide (VCD) selectively causes follicular atresia in ovaries, leading to a murine menopause-like phenotype.

METHODS

In this study, we treated female C57BL6/J mice with VCD (160 mg/kg i.p. for 20 consecutive days followed by verification of the lack of estrous cycling) to investigate changes in body composition, energy expenditure (EE), hepatic mitochondrial function, and hepatic steatosis across different dietary conditions.

RESULTS

VCD treatment induced ovarian follicular loss and increased follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) levels in female mice, mimicking a menopause-like phenotype. VCD treatment did not affect body composition, or EE in mice on a low-fat diet (LFD) or in response to a short-term (1-week) high-fat, high sucrose diet (HFHS). However, the transition to a HFHS lowered cage activity in VCD mice. A chronic HFHS diet (16 weeks) significantly increased weight gain, fat mass, and hepatic steatosis in VCD-treated mice compared to HFHS-fed controls. In the liver, VCD mice showed suppressed hepatic mitochondrial respiration on LFD, while chronic HFHS resulted in compensatory increases in hepatic mitochondrial respiration. Also, liver RNA sequencing revealed that VCD promoted global upregulation of hepatic lipid/cholesterol synthesis pathways.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that the VCD-induced menopause model compromises hepatic mitochondrial function and lipid/cholesterol homeostasis that sets the stage for HFHS diet-induced steatosis while also increasing susceptibility to obesity.

Navigating nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD): Exploring the roles of estrogens, pharmacological and medical interventions, and life style

The pursuit of studying this subject is driven by the urgency to address the increasing global prevalence of Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD) and its profound health implications. NAFLD represents a significant public health concern due to its association with metabolic disorders, cardiovascular complications, and the potential progression to more severe conditions like non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), fibrosis, and cirrhosis. Liver estrogen signaling is important for maintaining liver function, and loss of estrogens increases the likelihood of NAFLD in postmenopausal women. Understanding the multifaceted mechanisms underlying NAFLD pathogenesis, its varied treatment strategies, and their effectiveness is crucial for devising comprehensive and targeted interventions. By unraveling the intricate interplay between genetics, lifestyle, hormonal regulation, and gut microbiota, we can unlock insights into risk stratification, early detection, and personalized therapeutic approaches. Furthermore, investigating the emerging pharmaceutical interventions and dietary modifications offers the potential to revolutionize disease management. This review reinforces the role of collaboration in refining NAFLD comprehension, unveiling novel therapeutic pathways, and ultimately improving patient outcomes for this intricate hepatic condition.

Impact of ovary-intact menopause in a mouse model of heart failure with preserved ejection fraction

Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF) afflicts over half of all patients with heart failure and is a debilitating and fatal syndrome affecting postmenopausal women more than any other demographic. This bias toward older females calls into question the significance of menopause in the development of HFpEF, but this question has not been probed in detail. In this study, we report the first investigation into the impact of ovary-intact menopause in the context of HFpEF. To replicate the human condition as faithfully as possible, vinylcyclohexene dioxide (VCD) was used to accelerate ovarian failure (AOF) in female mice while leaving the ovaries intact. HFpEF was established with a mouse model that involves two stressors typical in humans: a high-fat diet and hypertension induced from the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor NG-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester (l-NAME). In young female mice, AOF or HFpEF-associated stressors independently induced abnormal myocardial strain indicative of early subclinical systolic and diastolic cardiac dysfunction. HFpEF but not AOF was associated with elevations in systolic blood pressure. Increased myocyte size and reduced myocardial microvascular density were not observed in any group. Also, a broad panel of measurements that included echocardiography, invasive pressure measurements, histology, and serum hormones revealed no interaction between AOF and HFpEF. Interestingly, AOF did evoke a higher density of infiltrating cardiac immune cells in both healthy and HFpEF mice, suggestive of proinflammatory effects. In contrast to young mice, middle-aged "old" mice did not exhibit cardiac dysfunction from estrogen deprivation alone or from HFpEF-related stressors.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This is the first preclinical study to examine the impact of ovary-intact menopause [accelerated ovarian failure (AOF)] on HFpEF. Echocardiography of young female mice revealed early evidence of diastolic and systolic cardiac dysfunction apparent only on strain imaging in HFpEF only, AOF only, or the combination. Surprisingly, AOF did not exacerbate the HFpEF phenotype. Results in middle-aged "old" females also showed no interaction between HFpEF and AOF and, importantly, no cardiovascular impact from HFpEF or AOF.

Links between the genetic determinants of morning plasma cortisol and body shape: a two-sample Mendelian randomisation study

High cortisol production in Cushing's syndrome leads to fat centralisation. The influence of modest cortisol variations on body shape, however, is less clear. We examined potentially causal associations between morning plasma cortisol and body shape and obesity with inverse-variance weighted random-effects models in a two-sample Mendelian randomisation analysis. We used publicly available summary statistics from the CORtisol NETwork (CORNET) consortium, UK Biobank, and the Genetic Investigation of Anthropometric Traits (GIANT) consortium. Only in women, morning plasma cortisol (proxied by ten genetic polymorphisms) was associated positively with waist size reflected in waist-to-hip index (WHI, 0.035 standard deviation (SD) units change per one SD cortisol increase; 95% confidence interval (0.002-0.067); p = 0.036) and "a body shape index" (ABSI; 0.039 (0.006-0.071); p = 0.021). There was no evidence for associations with hip index (HI) or body mass index (BMI). Among individual polymorphisms, rs7450600 stood out (chromosome 6; Long Intergenic Non-Protein-Coding RNA 473 gene, LINC00473). Morning plasma cortisol proxied by rs7450600 was associated positively with WHI and inversely with HI and BMI in women and men. Our findings support a causal association of higher morning plasma cortisol with larger waist size in women and highlight LINC00473 as a genetic link between morning plasma cortisol and body shape.

Maternal exposure to 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide during pregnancy leads to disorder of gut microbiota and bile acid metabolism in offspring

Our previous study reveals that maternal exposure to 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide (VCD) during pregnancy causes insufficient ovarian follicle reserve and decreased fertility in offspring. The present study aims to further explore the reasons for the significant decline of fecundity in mice caused by VCD, and to clarify the changes of gut microbiota and microbial metabolites in F1 mice. The ovarian metabolomics, gut microbiota and microbial metabolites were analyzed. The results of ovarian metabolomics analysis showed that maternal VCD exposure during pregnancy significantly reduced the concentration of carnitine in the ovaries of F1 mice, while supplementation with carnitine (isovalerylcarnitine and valerylcarnitine) significantly increased the number of ovulation. The results of 16 S rDNA-seq and microbial metabolites analysis showed that maternal VCD exposure during pregnancy caused disordered gut microbiota, increased abundance of Parabacteroides and Flexispira bacteria that are involved in secondary bile acid synthesis. The concentrations of NorDCA, LCA-3S, DCA and other secondary bile acids increased significantly. Our results indicate that maternal exposure to VCD during pregnancy leads to disorder in gut microbiota and bile acid metabolism in F1 mice, accompanying with decreased ovarian function, providing further evidence that maternal exposure to VCD during pregnancy has intergenerational deleterious effects on offspring.

Glucocorticoids, their uses, sexual dimorphisms, and diseases: new concepts, mechanisms, and discoveries

The normal stress response in humans is governed by the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis through heightened mechanisms during stress, raising blood levels of the glucocorticoid hormone cortisol. Glucocorticoids are quintessential compounds that balance the proper functioning of numerous systems in the mammalian body. They are also generated synthetically and are the preeminent therapy for inflammatory diseases. They act by binding to the nuclear receptor transcription factor glucocorticoid receptor (GR), which has two main isoforms (GRα and GRβ). Our classical understanding of glucocorticoid signaling is from the GRα isoform, which binds the hormone, whereas GRβ has no known ligands. With glucocorticoids being involved in many physiological and cellular processes, even small disruptions in their release via the HPA axis, or changes in GR isoform expression, can have dire ramifications on health. Long-term chronic glucocorticoid therapy can lead to a glucocorticoid-resistant state, and we deliberate how this impacts disease treatment. Chronic glucocorticoid treatment can lead to noticeable side effects such as weight gain, adiposity, diabetes, and others that we discuss in detail. There are sexually dimorphic responses to glucocorticoids, and women tend to have a more hyperresponsive HPA axis than men. This review summarizes our understanding of glucocorticoids and critically analyzes the GR isoforms and their beneficial and deleterious mechanisms and the sexual differences that cause a dichotomy in responses. We also discuss the future of glucocorticoid therapy and propose a new concept of dual GR isoform agonist and postulate why activating both isoforms may prevent glucocorticoid resistance.

VCD-induced menopause mouse model reveals reprogramming of hepatic metabolism

Menopause adversely impacts systemic energy metabolism and increases the risk of metabolic disease(s) including hepatic steatosis, but the mechanisms are largely unknown. Dosing female mice with vinyl cyclohexene dioxide (VCD) selectively causes follicular atresia in ovaries, leading to a murine menopause-like phenotype. In this study, we treated female C57BL6/J mice with VCD (160mg/kg i.p. for 20 consecutive days followed by verification of the lack of estrous cycling) to investigate changes in body composition, energy expenditure (EE), hepatic mitochondrial function, and hepatic steatosis across different dietary conditions. VCD treatment induced ovarian follicular loss and increased follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) levels in female mice, mimicking a menopause-like phenotype. VCD treatment did not affect body composition, or EE in mice on a low-fat diet or in response to a short-term (1-week) high-fat, high sucrose diet (HFHS). However, the transition to a HFHS lowered cage activity in VCD mice. A chronic HFHS diet (16 weeks) significantly increased weight gain, fat mass, and hepatic steatosis in VCD-treated mice compared to HFHS-fed controls. In the liver, VCD mice showed suppressed hepatic mitochondrial respiration on LFD, while chronic HFHS diet resulted in compensatory increases in hepatic mitochondrial respiration. Also, liver RNA sequencing revealed that VCD promoted global upregulation of hepatic lipid/cholesterol synthesis pathways. Our findings suggest that the VCD- induced menopause model compromises hepatic mitochondrial function and lipid/cholesterol homeostasis that sets the stage for HFHS diet-induced steatosis while also increasing susceptibility to obesity.

Hepatic-Specific FGF21 Knockout Abrogates Ovariectomy-Induced Obesity by Reversing Corticosterone Production

Increased glucocorticoid (GC) levels act as a master contributor to central obesity in estrogen-depleted females; however, what factors cause their increased GC production is unclear. Given (1) liver fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) and GCs regulate each other's production in a feed-forward loop, and (2) circulating FGF21 and GCs are parallelly increased in menopausal women and ovariectomized mice, we thus hypothesized that elevation of hepatic FGF21 secretion causes increased GGs production in estrogen-depleted females. Using the ovariectomized mice as a model for menopausal women, we found that ovariectomy (OVX) increased circulating corticosterone levels, which in turn increased visceral adipose Hsd11b1 expression, thus causing visceral obesity in females. In contrast, liver-specific FGF21 knockout (FGF21 LKO) completely reversed OVX-induced high GCs and high visceral adipose Hsd11b1 expression, thus abrogating OVX-induced obesity in females. Even though FGF21 LKO failed to rescue OVX-induced dyslipidemia, hepatic steatosis, and insulin resistance. What's worse, FGF21 LKO even further exacerbated whole-body glucose metabolic dysfunction as evidenced by more impaired glucose and pyruvate tolerance and worsened insulin resistance. Mechanically, we found that FGF21 LKO reduced circulating insulin levels, thus causing the dissociation between decreased central obesity and the improvement of obesity-related metabolic syndromes in OVX mice. Collectively, our results suggest that liver FGF21 plays an essential role in mediating OVX-induced central obesity by promoting GC production. However, lack of liver FGF21 signaling reduces insulin production and in turn causes the dissociation between decreased central obesity and the improvement of obesity-related metabolic syndromes, highlighting a detrimental role for hepatic FGF21 signals in mediating the development of central obesity but a beneficial role in preventing metabolic abnormality from further exacerbation in estrogen-depleted females.

Gut Microbiota and Acylcarnitine Metabolites Connect the Beneficial Association between Estrogen and Lipid Metabolism Disorders in Ovariectomized Mice

Decreased estrogen level is one of the main causes of lipid metabolism disorders and coronary heart disease in women after menopause. Exogenous estradiol benzoate is effective to some extent in alleviating lipid metabolism disorders caused by estrogen deficiency. However, the role of gut microbes in the regulation process is not yet appreciated. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of estradiol benzoate supplementation on lipid metabolism, gut microbiota, and metabolites in ovariectomized (OVX) mice and to reveal the importance of gut microbes and metabolites in the regulation of lipid metabolism disorders. This study found that high doses of estradiol benzoate supplementation effectively attenuated fat accumulation in OVX mice. There was a significant increase in the expression of genes enriched in hepatic cholesterol metabolism and a concomitant decrease in the expression of genes enriched in unsaturated fatty acid metabolism pathways. Further screening of the gut for characteristic metabolites associated with improved lipid metabolism revealed that estradiol benzoate supplementation influenced major subsets of acylcarnitine metabolites. Ovariectomy significantly increased the abundance of characteristic microbes that are significantly negatively associated with acylcarnitine synthesis, such as Lactobacillus and Eubacterium ruminantium group bacteria, while estradiol benzoate supplementation significantly increased the abundance of characteristic microbes that are significantly positively associated with acylcarnitine synthesis, such as Ileibacterium and Bifidobacterium spp. The use of pseudosterile mice with gut microbial deficiency greatly facilitated the synthesis of acylcarnitine due to estradiol benzoate supplementation and also alleviated lipid metabolism disorders to a greater extent in OVX mice. IMPORTANCE Our findings establish a role for gut microbes in the progression of estrogen deficiency-induced lipid metabolism disorders and reveal key target bacteria that may have the potential to regulate acylcarnitine synthesis. These findings suggest a possible route for the use of microbes or acylcarnitine to regulate disorders of lipid metabolism induced by estrogen deficiency.

α1 Adrenoreceptor antagonism mitigates extracellular mitochondrial DNA accumulation in lung fibrosis models and in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis is increasingly associated with nerve-driven processes and endogenous innate immune ligands such as mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). Interestingly, a connection between these entities has not been explored. Here, we report that noradrenaline (NA) derived from the lung's adrenergic nerve supply drives α-smooth muscle actin (αSMA)-expressing fibroblast accumulation via mechanisms involving α1 adrenoreceptors and mtDNA. Using the bleomycin model, we compared ablation of the lung's adrenergic nerve supply with surgical adrenal resection and found that NA derived from local but not adrenal sources contributes to experimentally induced lung fibrosis and the emergence of an αSMA+ve fibroblast population expressing adrenoreceptor α-1D (ADRA1D). Therapeutic delivery of the α1 adrenoreceptor antagonist terazosin reversed these changes and suppressed extracellular mtDNA accumulation. Cultured normal human lung fibroblasts displayed α1 adrenoreceptors and in response to costimulation with TGFβ1 and NA adopted ACTA2 expression and extracellular mtDNA release. These findings were opposed by terazosin. Evaluation of a previously studied IPF cohort revealed that patients prescribed α1 adrenoreceptor antagonists for nonpulmonary indications demonstrated improved survival and reduced concentrations of plasma mtDNA. Our observations link nerve-derived NA, α1 adrenoreceptors, extracellular mtDNA, and lung fibrogenesis in mouse models, cultured cells, and humans with IPF. Further study of this neuroinnate connection may yield new avenues for investigation in the clinical and basic science realms.

High-fat/high-sucrose diet worsens metabolic outcomes and widespread hypersensitivity following early-life stress exposure in female mice

Exposure to stress early in life has been associated with adult-onset comorbidities such as chronic pain, metabolic dysregulation, obesity, and inactivity. We have established an early-life stress model using neonatal maternal separation (NMS) in mice, which displays evidence of increased body weight and adiposity, widespread mechanical allodynia, and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis dysregulation in male mice. Early-life stress and consumption of a Western-style diet contribute to the development of obesity; however, relatively few preclinical studies have been performed in female rodents, which are known to be protected against diet-induced obesity and metabolic dysfunction. In this study, we gave naïve and NMS female mice access to a high-fat/high-sucrose (HFS) diet beginning at 4 wk of age. Robust increases in body weight and fat were observed in HFS-fed NMS mice during the first 10 wk on the diet, driven partly by increased food intake. Female NMS mice on an HFS diet showed widespread mechanical hypersensitivity compared with either naïve mice on an HFS diet or NMS mice on a control diet. HFS diet-fed NMS mice also had impaired glucose tolerance and fasting hyperinsulinemia. Strikingly, female NMS mice on an HFS diet showed evidence of hepatic steatosis with increased triglyceride levels and altered glucocorticoid receptor levels and phosphorylation state. They also exhibited increased energy expenditure as observed via indirect calorimetry and expression of proinflammatory markers in perigonadal adipose. Altogether, our data suggest that early-life stress exposure increased the susceptibility of female mice to develop diet-induced metabolic dysfunction and pain-like behaviors.

Intra-pituitary follicle-stimulating hormone signaling regulates hepatic lipid metabolism in mice

Inter-organ communication is a major hallmark of health and is often orchestrated by hormones released by the anterior pituitary gland. Pituitary gonadotropes secrete follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) to regulate gonadal function and control fertility. Whether FSH and LH also act on organs other than the gonads is debated. Here, we find that gonadotrope depletion in adult female mice triggers profound hypogonadism, obesity, glucose intolerance, fatty liver, and bone loss. The absence of sex steroids precipitates these phenotypes, with the notable exception of fatty liver, which results from ovary-independent actions of FSH. We uncover paracrine FSH action on pituitary corticotropes as a mechanism to restrain the production of corticosterone and prevent hepatic steatosis. Our data demonstrate that functional communication of two distinct hormone-secreting cell populations in the pituitary regulates hepatic lipid metabolism.

Mechanic Insight into the Distinct and Common Roles of Ovariectomy Versus Adrenalectomy on Adipose Tissue Remodeling in Female Mice

Dysfunctions of the ovaries and adrenal glands are both evidenced to cause aberrant adipose tissue (AT) remodeling and resultant metabolic disorders, but their distinct and common roles are poorly understood. In this study, through biochemical, histological and RNA-seq analyses, we comprehensively explored the mechanisms underpinning subcutaneous (SAT) and visceral adipose tissue (VAT) remodeling, in response to ovariectomy (OVX) versus adrenalectomy (ADX) in female mice. OVX promoted adipocyte differentiation and fat accumulation in both SAT and VAT, by potentiating the Pparg signaling, while ADX universally prevented the cell proliferation and extracellular matrix organization in both SAT and VAT, likely by inactivating the Nr3c1 signaling, thus causing lipoatrophy in females. ADX, but not OVX, exerted great effects on the intrinsic difference between SAT and VAT. Specifically, ADX reversed a large cluster of genes differentially expressed between SAT and VAT, by activating 12 key transcription factors, and thereby caused senescent cell accumulation, massive B cell infiltration and the development of selective inflammatory response in SAT. Commonly, both OVX and ADX enhance circadian rhythmicity in VAT, and impair cell proliferation, neurogenesis, tissue morphogenesis, as well as extracellular matrix organization in SAT, thus causing dysfunction of adipose tissues and concomitant metabolic disorders.

The importance of estradiol for body weight regulation in women

Obesity in women of reproductive age has a number of adverse metabolic effects, including Type II Diabetes (T2D), dyslipidemia, and cardiovascular disease. It is associated with increased menstrual irregularity, ovulatory dysfunction, development of insulin resistance and infertility. In women, estradiol is not only critical for reproductive function, but they also control food intake and energy expenditure. Food intake is known to change during the menstrual cycle in humans. This change in food intake is largely mediated by estradiol, which acts directly upon anorexigenic and orexigenic neurons, largely in the hypothalamus. Estradiol also acts indirectly with peripheral mediators such as glucagon like peptide-1 (GLP-1). Like estradiol, GLP-1 acts on receptors at the hypothalamus. This review describes the physiological and pathophysiological mechanisms governing the actions of estradiol during the menstrual cycle on food intake and energy expenditure and how estradiol acts with other weight-controlling molecules such as GLP-1. GLP-1 analogs have proven to be effective both to manage obesity and T2D in women. This review also highlights the relationship between steroid hormones and women's mental health. It explains how a decline or imbalance in estradiol levels affects insulin sensitivity in the brain. This can cause cerebral insulin resistance, which contributes to the development of conditions such as Parkinson's or Alzheimer's disease. The proper use of both estradiol and GLP-1 analogs can help to manage obesity and preserve an optimal mental health in women by reducing the mechanisms that trigger neurodegenerative disorders.

Deep multilayer brain omics identifies the potential involvement of menopause molecular networks in Gliomas' disease progression

The risk of high-grade gliomas is lower in young females, however, its incidence enhances after menopause, suggesting potential protective roles of female sex hormones. Hormone oscillations after menopause have received attention as a possible risk factor. Little is known about risk factors for adult gliomas. We examined the association of the aging brain after menopause, determining the risk of gliomas with proteomics and the MALDI-MSI experiment. Menopause caused low neurotransmitter levels such as GABA and ACH, high inflammatory factor levels like il-1β, and increased lipid metabolism-related levels like triglycerides in the brain. Upregulated and downregulated proteins after menopause were correlated with differentially expressed glioma genes, such as ACTA2, CAMK2D, FNBPIL, ARL1, HEBP1, CAST, CLIC1, LPCAT4, MAST3, and DOCK9. Furthermore, differential gene expression analysis of monocytes showed that the downregulated gene LPCAT4 could be used as a marker to prevent menopausal gliomas in women. Our findings regarding the association of menopause with the risk of gliomas are consistent with several extensive cohort studies. In view of the available evidence, postmenopausal status is likely to represent a significant risk factor for gliomas.

Insight into Potential Interactions of Thyroid Hormones, Sex Hormones and Their Stimulating Hormones in the Development of Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease

Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD) is a common manifestation of metabolic syndrome. In addition to lifestyle, endocrine hormones play a role in the dysregulation of hepatic metabolism. The most common endocrine hormones contributing to metabolic syndrome are alterations in the levels of thyroid hormones (THs, predominantly in subclinical hypothyroidism) and of sex hormones (in menopause). These hormonal changes influence hepatic lipid and glucose metabolism and may increase hepatic fat accumulation. This review compares the effects of sex hormones, THs and the respective stimulating hormones, Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone (TSH) and Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH), on the development of hepatosteatosis. TSH and FSH may be more relevant to the dysregulation of hepatic metabolism than the peripheral hormones because metabolic changes were identified when only levels of the stimulating hormones were abnormal and the peripheral hormones were still in the reference range. Increased TSH and FSH levels appear to have additive effects on the development of NAFLD and to act independently from each other.

Gender Differences in Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) has currently emerged as the most common liver disorder in both developed and developing countries. It has been observed that NAFLD exhibits sexual dimorphism, and there is limited understanding on the sex differences in adults with NAFLD. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease shows marked differences in prevalence and severity with regards to gender. There are considerable biological disparities between males and females attributed to differences in the chromosomal makeup and sex hormone levels, distinct from the gender differences resulting from the sociocultural influences that lead to differences in lifestyle, which have a significant impact on the pathogenesis of this complex disorder. A multitude of factors contributes to the gender disparities seen and need to be researched in-depth to better understand the mechanisms behind them and the therapeutic measures that can be taken. In this article, we will review the gender disparities seen in NAFLD, as well as recent studies highlighting certain gender-specific factors contributing to its varying prevalence and severity.

HOW TO CITE THIS ARTICLE

Nagral A, Bangar M, Menezes S, et al. Gender Differences in Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease. Euroasian J Hepato-Gastroenterol 2022;12(Suppl 1):S19-S25.

RNA-seq coupling two different methods of castration reveals new insights into androgen deficiency-caused degeneration of submaxillary gland in male Sprague Dawley rats

Background

Salivary gland (SMG) degeneration and dysfunction are common symptoms that occur after sex hormone deprivation, but the underlying mechanisms remain largely unknown. Additionally, immunocastration, which causes drop of sex hormones, has been developed as an alternative to surgical castration, however whether it exerts similar effects as surgical castration on the salivary glands is unknown. Through histological and RNA-seq analysis, we assessed changes in morphology and transcriptome of SMG in response to immunocastration (IM) versus surgical castration (bilateral orchiectomy, ORC).

Results

Compared to entire males (EM), ORC caused severe degeneration of SMG in rats, as evidenced by both decreased (P < 0.01) SMG weight and organ index, and by decreased (P < 0.01) quantity of SMG acini and ducts. IM had minimal effects (P > 0.05) on SMG weight and organ index, but it still caused degeneration (P < 0.05) of the acini and ducts. Even though, the quantity of both SMG acini and ducts was much higher (P < 0.001) in IM than in ORC. Functional enrichment analysis of the common regulated genes by ORC/IM revealed disrupted epithelial cell development, angiogenesis, anatomical structure morphogenesis and enhanced cell death are associated with SMG degeneration in deprivation of androgens. Integrated data analysis shown that there existed a selective hyperfunction of SMG ribosome and mitochondrion in ORC but not in IM, which might be associated with more severe degeneration of SMG in ORC than in IM.

Conclusions

Our findings suggested that both surgical castration and immunocastration caused SMG degeneration by disrupting epithelial cell development, angiogenesis, anatomical structure morphogenesis and enhancing cell death. But, surgical castration selectively induced hyperfunction of SMG ribosome and mitochondrion, thus causing more severe degeneration of SMG than immunocastration.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12864-022-08521-9.

Integrative study of diet-induced mouse models of NAFLD identifies PPARα as a sexually dimorphic drug target

OBJECTIVE

We evaluated the influence of sex on the pathophysiology of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). We investigated diet-induced phenotypic responses to define sex-specific regulation between healthy liver and NAFLD to identify influential pathways in different preclinical murine models and their relevance in humans.

DESIGN

Different models of diet-induced NAFLD (high-fat diet, choline-deficient high-fat diet, Western diet or Western diet supplemented with fructose and glucose in drinking water) were compared with a control diet in male and female mice. We performed metabolic phenotyping, including plasma biochemistry and liver histology, untargeted large-scale approaches (liver metabolome, lipidome and transcriptome), gene expression profiling and network analysis to identify sex-specific pathways in the mouse liver.

RESULTS

The different diets induced sex-specific responses that illustrated an increased susceptibility to NAFLD in male mice. The most severe lipid accumulation and inflammation/fibrosis occurred in males receiving the high-fat diet and Western diet, respectively. Sex-biased hepatic gene signatures were identified for these different dietary challenges. The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPARα) co-expression network was identified as sexually dimorphic, and in vivo experiments in mice demonstrated that hepatocyte PPARα determines a sex-specific response to fasting and treatment with pemafibrate, a selective PPARα agonist. Liver molecular signatures in humans also provided evidence of sexually dimorphic gene expression profiles and the sex-specific co-expression network for PPARα.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings underscore the sex specificity of NAFLD pathophysiology in preclinical studies and identify PPARα as a pivotal, sexually dimorphic, pharmacological target.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT02390232.

Hepatic glucocorticoid-induced transcriptional regulation is androgen-dependent after chronic but not acute glucocorticoid exposure

Glucocorticoids exert their pleiotropic effects by activating the glucocorticoid receptor (GR), which is expressed throughout the body. GR-mediated transcription is regulated by a multitude of tissue- and cell type-specific mechanisms, including interactions with other transcription factors such as the androgen receptor (AR). We previously showed that the transcription of canonical glucocorticoid-responsive genes is dependent on active androgen signaling, but the extent of this glucocorticoid-androgen crosstalk warrants further investigation. In this study, we investigated the overall glucocorticoid-androgen crosstalk in the hepatic transcriptome. Male mice were exposed to GR agonist corticosterone and AR antagonist enzalutamide in order to determine the extent of androgen-dependency after acute and chronic exposure. We found that a substantial proportion of the hepatic transcriptome is androgen-dependent after chronic exposure, while after acute exposure the transcriptomic effects of glucocorticoids are largely androgen-independent. We propose that prolonged glucocorticoid exposure triggers a gradual upregulation of AR expression, instating a situation of androgen dependence which is likely not driven by direct AR-GR interactions. This indirect mode of glucocorticoid-androgen interaction is in accordance with the absence of enriched AR DNA-binding near AR-dependent corticosterone-regulated genes after chronic exposure. In conclusion, we demonstrate that glucocorticoid effects and their interaction with androgen signaling are dependent on the duration of exposure and believe that our findings contribute to a better understanding of hepatic glucocorticoid biology in health and disease.

Change in metabolic parameters and reproductive hormones from baseline to 6-month hormone therapy

Adequate evidence showed hormone therapy (HT) reduces the risk of new-onset diabetes in midlife women by decreasing fasting glucose and insulin. However, the improvement of these diabetic biomarkers varied with each individual in clinical observations. The objective of our study was to investigate potential baseline factors associated with the change of fasting glucose and insulin during HT.A retrospective cohort study was performed among 263 midlife participants aged 40 to 60 years with menopausal symptoms who have received 6-month individualized HT. Demographic information and laboratory indicators including reproductive hormone, lipid profiles, diabetic indicators were collected and measured at baseline and were followed-up. A series of statistical analyses were performed to confirm the effectiveness of HT and compare the baseline factors between participants with different glycemic or insulinemic response. Multivariable linear regression model with stepwise variable selection was further used to identify the associated factor with the change of fasting glucose and insulin.Of all participants, fasting glucose (P = .001) and fasting insulin (P < .001) were significantly decreased after individualized HT. Significant differences in baseline reproductive hormones were observed in participants with different glycemic response to HT (P < .001 for both follicle stimulating hormone [FSH] and estradiol). Stepwise linear regression model showed that in addition to baseline fasting glucose levels, baseline FSH was also independently associated with the change of fasting glucose (β = -0.145, P = .019 for baseline FSH) but not fasting insulin. Greater reduction in fasting glucose in women with higher FSH levels was observed even though they have already been in better metabolic conditions (P = .037).Midlife women with higher baseline FSH levels have greater reduction in fasting glucose but not fasting insulin. FSH could be an independent predictor of glycemic response to HT in peri- and postmenopausal women.

Dihydroartemisinin improves hypercholesterolemia in ovariectomized mice via enhancing vectorial transport of cholesterol and bile acids from blood to bile

The increase of concentrations of total cholesterol (TC) and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) in the serum of postmenopausal women is the important risk factor of the high morbidity of cardiovascular diseases of old women worldwide. To test the anti-hypercholesterolemia function of dihydroartemisinin (DHA) in postmenopausal women, ovariectomized (OVX) mice were generated, and DHA were administrated to OVX mice for 4 weeks. The blood and liver tissues were collected for biochemical and histological tests respectively. The mRNA and protein expression levels of genes related to metabolism and transport of cholesterol, bile acid and fatty acid in the liver or ileum were checked through qPCR and western blot. DHA could significantly reduce the high concentrations of TC and LDL-C in the serum and the lipid accumulation in the liver of ovariectomized mice. The expression of ABCG5/8 was reduced in liver of OVX mice, and DHA could up-regulate the expression of them. Genes of transport proteins for bile salt transport from blood to bile, including Slc10a1, Slco1b2 and Abcb11, were also significantly up-regulated by DHA. DHA also down-regulated the expression of Slc10a2 in the ileum of OVX mice to reduce the absorption of bile salts. Genes required for fatty acid synthesis and uptake, such as Fasn and CD36, were reduced in the liver of OVX mice, and DHA administration could significantly up-regulate the expression of them. These results demonstrated that DHA could improve hypercholesterolemia in OVX mice through enhancing the vectorial transport of cholesterol and bile acid from blood to bile.

The sex steroid precursor dehydroepiandrosterone prevents nonalcoholic steatohepatitis by activating the AMPK pathway mediated by GPR30

The prevalence of nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) caused by estrogen deficiency increased sharply in recent decades and has become a major threat to liver health in postmenopausal women. There is no effective strategy to control the incidence and development of NASH. Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) is the most abundant circulating steroid with immune and metabolic regulatory properties, and its level markedly declines with increasing age in humans. Importantly, DHEA can convert into active sex hormones depending on the local needs of target tissues with little diffusion, which serves to avoid systemic side-effects from other tissues' exposure to estrogen. Here, we found that DHEA prevented the incidence and development of NASH, which is characterized by the reduction of hepatic steatosis, fibrosis, and inflammation in female mice fed with high-fat/high-cholesterol diets and effectively attenuated lipid accumulation, inflammatory response, and oxidative stress in palmitic acid-challenged hepatocytes. Mechanistically, in vitro and in vivo studies showed that the anti-NASH function of DHEA depended on its biotransformation into estrogen rather than androgen, and which up-regulates the expression of G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPR30), a non-classical estrogen receptor. The activation of GPR30-mediated AMP-activated protein kinase signaling is a necessary prerequisite for the alleviative effects of DHEA on NASH. Collectively, our data show the mechanisms of DHEA treatment and its effects on NASH that were previously overlooked; the data also show that GPR30 can be used as a target for treating lipid metabolism disorders and related diseases, such as NASH. Furthermore, these findings have the potential to help researchers develop new strategies for preventing NASH in postmenopausal women.

Effects of Radix Polygalae on Cognitive Decline and Depression in Estradiol Depletion Mouse Model of Menopause

Postmenopausal syndrome refers to symptoms caused by the gradual decrease in female hormones after mid-40 years. As a target organ of estrogen, decrease in estrogen causes various changes in brain function such as a decrease in choline acetyltransferase and brain-derived neurotrophic factor; thus, postmenopausal women experience cognitive decline and more depressive symptoms than age-matched men. Radix Polygalae has been used for memory boosting and as a mood stabilizer and its components have shown neuroprotective, antidepressant, and stress relief properties. In a mouse model of estrogen depletion induced by 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide, Radix Polygalae was orally administered for 3 weeks. In these animals, cognitive and depression-related behaviors and molecular changes related to these behaviors were measured in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus. Radix Polygalae improved working memory and contextual memory and despair-related behaviors in 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide-treated mice without increasing serum estradiol levels in this model. In relation to these behaviors, choline acetyltransferase and brain-derived neurotrophic factor in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus and bcl-2-associated athanogene expression increased in the hippocampus. These results implicate the possible benefit of Radix Polygalae in use as a supplement of estrogen to prevent conditions such as postmenopausal depression and cognitive decline.

Association of body-shape phenotypes with imaging measures of body composition in the UK Biobank cohort: relevance to colon cancer risk

Background

Body mass index (BMI), waist and hip circumference are strongly correlated and do not reflect body composition. A Body Shape Index (ABSI) and Hip Index (HI) define waist and hip size among individuals with the same weight and height and would thus reflect body density. We examined differences in body composition between body-shape phenotypes defined with ABSI and HI and used this information to propose explanations for associations between body-shape phenotypes and colon cancer risk.

Methods

We used data from the UK Biobank Resource for 15,520 men, 16,548 women with dual-emission X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) measurements; 3997 men, 4402 women with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) measurements; 200,289 men, 230,326 women followed-up for colon cancer. We defined body-shape phenotypes as: large-ABSI-small-HI (“apple”), small-ABSI-large-HI (“pear”), small-ABSI-small-HI (“slim”), large-ABSI-large-HI (“wide”). We evaluated differences in body composition in linear models and associations with colon cancer risk in Cox proportional hazards models adjusted for confounders and explored heterogeneity by BMI.

Results

Among individuals with the same height and weight, visceral adipose tissue (VAT) was lowest for “pear” and highest for “apple”, while abdominal subcutaneous adipose tissue (ASAT) was lowest for “slim” and highest for “wide” phenotype. In the gynoid region, differences between “apple” and “pear” phenotypes were accounted for mainly by fat mass in women but by lean mass in men. In men, lean mass was inversely associated with waist size, while the pattern of gynoid fat resembled ASAT in women. Lean and fat mass were higher for higher BMI, but not hand grip strength. Compared to normal weight “pear”, the risk of colon cancer in men (1029 cases) was higher for “apple” phenotype for normal weight (hazard ratio HR = 1.77; 95% confidence interval: 1.16–2.69) and comparably for overweight and obese, higher for “wide” phenotype for overweight (HR = 1.60; 1.14–2.24) and comparably for obese, but higher for “slim” phenotype only for obese (HR = 1.98; 1.35–2.88). Associations with colon cancer risk in women (889 cases) were weaker.

Conclusions

ABSI-by-HI body-shape phenotypes provide information for body composition. Colon cancer risk in men appears related to ASAT quantity for “slim” and “wide” but to factors determining VAT accumulation for “apple” phenotype.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12885-021-08820-6.

Glucocorticoids and Androgens Protect From Gastric Metaplasia by Suppressing Group 2 Innate Lymphoid Cell Activation

BACKGROUND & AIMS

The immune compartment is critical for maintaining tissue homeostasis. A weak immune response increases susceptibility to infection, but immune hyperactivation causes tissue damage, and chronic inflammation may lead to cancer development. In the stomach, inflammation damages the gastric glands and drives the development of potentially preneoplastic metaplasia. Glucocorticoids are potent anti-inflammatory steroid hormones that are required to suppress gastric inflammation and metaplasia. However, these hormones function differently in males and females. Here, we investigate the impact of sex on the regulation of gastric inflammation.

METHODS

Endogenous glucocorticoids and male sex hormones were removed from mice using adrenalectomy and castration, respectively. Mice were treated with 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT) to test the effects of androgens on regulating gastric inflammation. Single-cell RNA sequencing of gastric leukocytes was used to identify the leukocyte populations that were the direct targets of androgen signaling. Type 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) were depleted by treatment with CD90.2 antibodies.

RESULTS

We show that adrenalectomized female mice develop spontaneous gastric inflammation and spasmolytic polypeptide-expressing metaplasia (SPEM) but that the stomachs of adrenalectomized male mice remain quantitatively normal. Simultaneous depletion of glucocorticoids and sex hormones abolished the male-protective effects and triggered spontaneous pathogenic gastric inflammation and SPEM. Treatment of female mice with DHT prevented gastric inflammation and SPEM development when administered concurrent with adrenalectomy and also reversed the pathology when administered after disease onset. Single-cell RNAseq of gastric leukocytes revealed that ILC2s expressed abundant levels of both the glucocorticoid receptor (Gr) and androgen receptor (Ar). We demonstrated that DHT treatment potently suppressed the expression of the proinflammatory cytokines Il13 and Csf2 by ILC2s. Moreover, ILC2 depletion protected the stomach from SPEM development.

CONCLUSIONS

Here, we report a novel mechanism by which glucocorticoids and androgens exert overlapping effects to regulate gastric inflammation. Androgen signaling within ILC2s prevents their pathogenic activation by suppressing the transcription of proinflammatory cytokines. This work revealed a critical role for sex hormones in regulating gastric inflammation and metaplasia.

A Body Shape Index (ABSI), hip index, and risk of cancer in the UK Biobank cohort

Abdominal size is associated positively with the risk of some cancers but the influence of body mass index (BMI) and gluteofemoral size is unclear because waist and hip circumference are strongly correlated with BMI. We examined associations of 33 cancers with A Body Shape Index (ABSI) and hip index (HI), which are independent of BMI by design, and compared these with waist and hip circumference, using multivariable Cox proportional hazards models in UK Biobank. During a mean follow-up of 7 years, 14,682 incident cancers were ascertained in 200,289 men and 12,965 cancers in 230,326 women. In men, ABSI was associated positively with cancers of the head and neck (hazard ratio HR = 1.14; 95% confidence interval 1.03-1.26 per one standard deviation increment), esophagus (adenocarcinoma, HR = 1.27; 1.12-1.44), gastric cardia (HR = 1.31; 1.07-1.61), colon (HR = 1.18; 1.10-1.26), rectum (HR = 1.13; 1.04-1.22), lung (adenocarcinoma, HR = 1.16; 1.03-1.30; squamous cell carcinoma [SCC], HR = 1.33; 1.17-1.52), and bladder (HR = 1.15; 1.04-1.27), while HI was associated inversely with cancers of the esophagus (adenocarcinoma, HR = 0.89; 0.79-1.00), gastric cardia (HR = 0.79; 0.65-0.96), colon (HR = 0.92; 0.86-0.98), liver (HR = 0.86; 0.75-0.98), and multiple myeloma (HR = 0.86; 0.75-1.00). In women, ABSI was associated positively with cancers of the head and neck (HR = 1.27; 1.10-1.48), esophagus (SCC, HR = 1.37; 1.07-1.76), colon (HR = 1.08; 1.01-1.16), lung (adenocarcinoma, HR = 1.17; 1.06-1.29; SCC, HR = 1.40; 1.20-1.63; small cell, HR = 1.39; 1.14-1.69), kidney (clear-cell, HR = 1.25; 1.03-1.50), and post-menopausal endometrium (HR = 1.11; 1.02-1.20), while HI was associated inversely with skin SCC (HR = 0.91; 0.83-0.99), post-menopausal kidney cancer (HR = 0.77; 0.67-0.88), and post-menopausal melanoma (HR = 0.90; 0.83-0.98). Unusually, ABSI was associated inversely with melanoma in men (HR = 0.89; 0.82-0.96) and pre-menopausal women (HR = 0.77; 0.65-0.91). Waist and hip circumference reflected associations with BMI, when examined individually, and provided biased risk estimates, when combined with BMI. In conclusion, preferential positive associations of ABSI or inverse of HI with several major cancers indicate an important role of factors determining body shape in cancer development.

The Influence of Glucocorticoid Receptor on Sex Differences of Gene Expression Profile in Skeletal Muscle

Skeletal muscle functions as a locomotory system and maintains whole-body metabolism. Sex differences in such skeletal muscle morphology and function have been documented; however, their underlying mechanisms remain elusive. Glucocorticoids are adrenocortical hormones maintaining homeostasis, including regulating whole-body energy metabolism in addition to stress response. In skeletal muscle, glucocorticoids can reduce the synthesis of muscle proteins and simultaneously accelerate the breakdown of proteins to regulate skeletal muscle mass and energy metabolism via a transcription factor glucocorticoid receptor (GR). We herein evaluated the related contributions of the GR to sex differences of gene expression profiles in skeletal muscle using GR-floxed (GRf/f) and skeletal muscle-specific GR knockout (GRmKO) mice. There were no differences in GR mRNA and protein expression levels in gastrocnemius muscle between males and females. A DNA microarray analysis using gastrocnemius muscle from GRf/f and GRmKO mice revealed that, although most gene expression levels were identical in both sexes, genes related to cholesterol and apolipoprotein synthesis and fatty acid biosynthesis and the immunological system were predominantly expressed in males and females, respectively, in GRf/f but not in GRmKO mice. Moreover, many genes were up-regulated in response to starvation in GRf/f but not in GRmKO mice, many of which were sex-independent and functioned to maintain homeostasis, while genes that showed sex dominance related to a variety of functions. Although the genes expressed in skeletal muscle may be predominantly sex-independent, sex-dominant genes may relate to sex differences in energy metabolism and the immune system and could be controlled by the GR.

PTPN5 promotes follicle-stimulating hormone secretion through regulating intracellular calcium homeostasis

Protein tyrosine phosphatase non-receptor type 5 (PTPN5), also called striatal-enriched protein tyrosine phosphatase (STEP), is highly expressed in neurons of the basal ganglia, hippocampus, cortex, and related structures, also in the pituitary. Gonadotropins are the key regulator of the reproduction in mammals. In this study, PTPN5 is detected to express in murine pituitary in a developmental manner. Moreover, the expression of PTPN5 in the pituitary is heavily reduced after ovary removal. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) secretion in gonadotropes is regulated by PTPN5 via binding GnRH to GnRH-R. Two parallel signaling pathways, Gs-protein kinase A (PKA)-PTPN5 and Gq-phospholipases C (PLC)-p38 MAPK-PTPN5, cooperatively regulate GnRH-induced FSH secretion. We also show that influx of Ca²⁺ activates the Ca²⁺ -dependent phosphatase calcineurin, leading to the phosphorylation and activation of PTPN5. The intracellular release of Ca²⁺ is reduced via TC2153. In conclusion, blocking or knocking out of PTPN5 reduces the release of FSH in whole pituitary. Mechanically, PTPN5 regulates gonadotropes' function through regulating intracellular calcium homeostasis.

Combined Effects of Exercise and Phytoanabolic Extracts in Castrated Male and Female Mice

Dry extracts from the Eurasian plants, Ajuga turkestanica, Eurycoma longifolia, and Urtica dioica have been used as anabolic supplements, despite the limited scientific data on these effects. To assess their actions on early sarcopenia signs, male and female castrated mice were supplemented with lyophilized extracts of the three plants, isolated or in association (named TLU), and submitted to resistance exercise. Ovariectomy (OVX) led to body weight increase and non-high-density cholesterol (HDL) cholesterol elevation, which had been restored by exercise plus U. dioica extract, or by exercise and TLU, respectively. Orchiectomy (ORX) caused skeletal muscle weight loss, accompanied by increased adiposity, being the latter parameter reduced by exercise plus E. longifolia or U. dioica extracts. General physical activity was improved by exercise plus herbal extracts in either OVX or ORX animals. Exercise combined with TLU improved resistance to fatigue in OVX animals, though A. turkestanica enhanced the grip strength in ORX mice. E. longifolia or TLU also reduced the ladder climbing time in ORX mice. Resistance exercise plus herbal extracts partly altered gastrocnemius fiber size frequencies in OVX or ORX mice. We provide novel data that tested ergogenic extracts, when combined with resistance exercise, improved early sarcopenia alterations in castrated male and female mice.

Endocrine disrupting chemicals and metabolic disorders in the liver: What if we also looked at the female side?

Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are linked to the worldwide epidemic incidence of metabolic disorders and fatty liver diseases, which affects quality of life and represents a high economic cost to society. Energy homeostasis exhibits strong sexual dimorphic traits, and metabolic organs respond to EDCs depending on sex, such as the liver, which orchestrates both drug elimination and glucose and lipid metabolism. In addition, fatty liver diseases show a strong sexual bias, which in part could also originate from sex differences observed in gut microbiota. The aim of this review is to highlight significant differences in endocrine and metabolic aspects of the liver, between males and females throughout development and into adulthood. It is also to illustrate how the male and female liver differently cope with exposure to various EDCs such as bisphenols, phthalates and persistent organic chemicals in order to draw attention to the need to include both sexes in experimental studies. Interesting data come from analyses of the composition and diversity of the gut microbiota in males exposed to the mentioned EDCs showing significant correlations with hepatic lipid accumulation and metabolic disorders but information on females is lacking or incomplete. As industrialization increases, the list of anthropogenic chemicals to which humans will be exposed will also likely increase. In addition to strengthening existing regulations, encouraging populations to protect themselves and promoting the substitution of harmful chemicals with safe products, innovative strategies based on sex differences in the gut microbiota and in the gut-liver axis could be optimistic outlook.

Exploring the mechanism of PingTang No.5 capsule on nonalcoholic fatty liver disease through network pharmacology and experimental validation

PingTang No.5 capsule (PT5), a modified Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) formula of Zexie Decoction, is used to treat patients with lipid metabolism disorders in our hospital. The present study was designed to investigate the mechanisms of PT5 in treating non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). PT5 information including ingredients, pharmacological properties, and potential targets was obtained from TCM databases. The candidate targets of PT5 were predicted by network pharmacological analysis, and the possible pathway and mechanism were obtained from DAVID database, followed by experimental validation in NAFLD mice model treated with PT5. Total 328 compounds were selected using the threshold oral bioactivity (OB) > 30% or drug-likeness (DL) > 0.1 of pharmacology characteristic, and 1033 candidate targets obtained to construct the network analysis. The 113 targets were selected from the intersection between candidate targets of PT5 and NAFLD relative gene. These targets were evaluated in diabetic complications, cancer, Hepatitis B, Fluid shear stress and atherosclerosis, and TNF signaling pathway. TNF-α was the important factor in protein interaction analysis of STRING and involved in the lipid regulation and oxidative stress in NAFLD. When administrated to the NAFLD mice, PT5 reduced weight, blood fatty acids, decreased the adipocyte size, and improved the metabolism. Besides, the molecular verification of lipid metabolism increased and oxidative stress reduced that interpreted the mechanism of PT5 preventing liver cell from lipid accumulation and injury of NAFLD. These results presented PT5 have the potential therapy as an alternative treatment for NAFLD.

Dichloroacetate reverses sepsis-induced hepatic metabolic dysfunction

Metabolic reprogramming between resistance and tolerance occurs within the immune system in response to sepsis. While metabolic tissues such as the liver are subjected to damage during sepsis, how their metabolic and energy reprogramming ensures survival is unclear. Employing comprehensive metabolomic, lipidomic, and transcriptional profiling in a mouse model of sepsis, we show that hepatocyte lipid metabolism, mitochondrial tricarboxylic acid (TCA) energetics, and redox balance are significantly reprogrammed after cecal ligation and puncture (CLP). We identify increases in TCA cycle metabolites citrate, cis-aconitate, and itaconate with reduced fumarate and triglyceride accumulation in septic hepatocytes. Transcriptomic analysis of liver tissue supports and extends the hepatocyte findings. Strikingly, the administration of the pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDK) inhibitor dichloroacetate reverses dysregulated hepatocyte metabolism and mitochondrial dysfunction. In summary, our data indicate that sepsis promotes hepatic metabolic dysfunction and that targeting the mitochondrial PDC/PDK energy homeostat rebalances transcriptional and metabolic manifestations of sepsis within the liver.

Development of a novel model of cholecystectomy in subsequently ovariectomized mice and characterization of metabolic and gastrointestinal phenotypes: a pilot study

Background

Cholecystectomy (XGB) is the most common abdominal surgery performed in the United States and is associated with an increased post-surgery incidence of metabolic and gastrointestinal (GI) diseases. Two main risk factors for XGB are sex (female) and age (40–50 yr), corresponding with onset of menopause. Post-menopausal estrogen loss alone facilitates metabolic dysfunction, but the effects of XGB on metabolic and GI health have yet to be investigated in this population. Study objectives were to (1) identify possible short-term effects of XGB and (2) develop a novel murine model of XGB in human menopause via subsequent ovariectomy (OVX) and assess longitudinal effects of OVX on metabolism, GI physiology, and GI microbiota in XGB mice.

Methods

Female C57BL/6 mice were utilized in two parallel studies (S1&S2). In S1, XGB mice were compared to a non-XGB baseline group after six wk. In S2, mice were XGB at wk0, either sham (SHM) or OVX at wk6, and sacrificed at wk12, wk18, and wk24. Body composition assessment and fresh fecal collections were conducted periodically. Serum and tissues were collected at sacrifice for metabolic and GI health endpoints.

Results

Compared to baseline, XGB increased hepatic CYP7A1 and decreased HMGCR relative expression, but did not influence BW, fat mass, or hepatic triglycerides after six wk. In S2, XGB/OVX mice had greater BW and fat mass than XGB/SHM. Cecal microbiota alpha diversity metrics were lower in XGB/OVX mice at wk24 compared the XGB/SHM. No consistent longitudinal patterns in fasting serum lipids, fecal microbial diversity, and GI gene expression were observed between S2 groups.

Conclusions

In addition to developing a novel, clinically-representative model of XGB and subsequent OVX, our results suggest that OVX resulted in the expected phenotype to some extent, but that XGB may modify or mask some responses and requires further investigation.

Estetrol prevents Western diet-induced obesity and atheroma independently of hepatic estrogen receptor α

Estetrol (E4), a natural estrogen synthesized by the human fetal liver, is currently evaluated in phase III clinical studies as a new menopause hormone therapy. Indeed, E4 significantly improves vasomotor and genito-urinary menopausal symptoms and prevents bone demineralization. Compared with other estrogens, E4 was found to have limited effects on coagulation factors in the liver of women allowing to expect less thrombotic events. To fully delineate its clinical potential, the aim of this study was to assess the effect of E4 on metabolic disorders. Here, we studied the pathophysiological consequences of a Western diet (42% kcal fat, 0.2% cholesterol) in ovariectomized female mice under chronic E4 treatment. We showed that E4 reduces body weight gain and improves glucose tolerance in both C57Bl/6 and LDLR^-/- mice. To evaluate the role of hepatic estrogen receptor (ER) α in the preventive effect of E4 against obesity and associated disorders such as atherosclerosis and steatosis, mice harboring a hepatocyte-specific ERα deletion (LERKO) were crossed with LDLR^-/- mice. Our results demonstrated that, whereas liver ERα is dispensable for the E4 beneficial actions on obesity and atheroma, it is necessary to prevent steatosis in mice. Overall, these findings suggest that E4 could prevent metabolic, hepatic, and vascular disorders occurring at menopause, extending the potential medical interest of this natural estrogen as a new hormonal treatment.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Estetrol prevents obesity, steatosis, and atherosclerosis in mice fed a Western diet. Hepatic ERα is necessary for the prevention of steatosis, but not of obesity and atherosclerosis.

Ovariectomy Impaired Hepatic Glucose and Lipid Homeostasis and Altered the Gut Microbiota in Mice With Different Diets

The lower incidence of metabolic diseases of women than men and the increasing morbidity of metabolic disorders of menopausal women indicated that hormones produced by ovaries may affect homeostasis of glucose and lipid metabolism, but the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. To explore the functions of ovaries on regulating glucose and lipid metabolism in females, 8 weeks old C57BL/6 mice were preformed ovariectomy and administrated with normal food diet (NFD) or high fat diet (HFD). Six weeks after ovariectomy, blood biochemical indexes were tested and the morphology and histology of livers were checked. The expression levels of genes related to glucose and lipid metabolism in liver were detected through transcriptome analysis, qPCR and western blot assays. 16S rDNA sequence was conducted to analyze the gut microbiota of mice with ovariectomy and different diets. The serum total cholesterol (TC) was significantly increased in ovariectomized (OVX) mice fed with NFD (OVXN), and serum low density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C) was significantly increased in both OVXN mice and OVX mice fed with HFD (OVXH). The excessive glycogen storage was found in livers of 37.5% mice from OVXN group, and lipid accumulation was detected in livers of the other 62.5% OVXN mice. The OVXN group was further divided into OVXN-Gly and OVXN-TG subgroups depending on histological results of the liver. Lipid drops in livers of OVXH mice were more and larger than other groups. The expression level of genes related with lipogenesis was significantly increased and the expression level of genes related with β-oxidation was significantly downregulated in the liver of OVXN mice. Ovariectomy also caused the dysbiosis of intestinal flora of OVXN and OVXH mice. These results demonstrated that hormones generated by ovaries played important roles in regulating hepatic glucose and lipid metabolism and communicating with the gut microbiota in females.

Advanced maternal age impacts physiologic adaptations to pregnancy in vervet monkeys

The trend to delay pregnancy in the USA has resulted in the number of advanced maternal age (AMA) pregnancies to also increase. In humans, AMA is associated with a variety of pregnancy-related pathologies such as preeclampsia (PE). While AMA is known to be a factor which contributes to the development of pregnancy-induced diseases, the molecular and cellular mechanisms giving rise to this phenomenon are still very limited. This is due in part to lack of a preclinical model which has physiologic relevance to human pregnancy while also allowing control of environmental and genetic variability inherent in human studies. To determine potential physiologic relevance of the vervet/African green monkey (Chlorocebus aethiops sabaeus) as a preclinical model to study the effects of AMA on adaptations to pregnancy, thirteen age-diverse pregnant vervet monkeys (3-16 years old) were utilized to measure third trimester blood pressure (BP), complete blood count, iron measurements, and hormone levels. Significant associations were observed between third trimester diastolic BP and maternal age. Furthermore, the presence of leukocytosis with enhanced circulating neutrophils was observed in AMA mothers compared to younger mothers. Moreover, we observed a negative relationship between maternal age and estradiol, progesterone, and cortisol levels. Finally, offspring born to AMA mothers displayed a postnatal growth retardation phenotype. These studies demonstrate physiologic impairment in the adaptation to pregnancy in AMA vervet/African green monkeys. Our data indicate that the vervet/African green monkey may serve as a useful preclinical model and tool for deciphering pathological mediators of maternal disease in AMA pregnancy.

FSH promotes fat accumulation by activating PPARγ signaling in surgically castrated, but not immunocastrated, male pigs

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) was recently implicated as a novel regulator of fat accumulation. Surgical castration causes high FSH concentrations and increases fat accumulation, whereas immunocastration results in low FSH concentrations and less fat in immunocastrated boars versus barrows. However, detailed information regarding the role of FSH in regulation of fat accumulation in male pigs is unclear. First, expression of FSH receptor was confirmed (real-time quantitative PCR) in subcutaneous and visceral adipose tissues (SAT and VAT, respectively) of boars. Then, surgical castration (high FSH model) was compared to immunocastration (low FSH model) to investigate potential roles of FSH in adipogenesis and fat accumulation. High FSH concentrations after surgical castration activated PPARγ signaling by upregulating expression of CREB (P < 0.05), and then recruited an array of PPARγ target adipogenic genes, including transcription factor (C/EBPα), long-chain fatty acid uptake (LPL), fatty acid de novo synthesis (FASN, ACACA) and lipid droplet formation (PLIN1) in both SAT and VAT, promoting fat accumulation in barrows. In contrast, much lower serum FSH concentrations in immunocastrates attenuated (P < 0.05) expressions of PPARγ and PPARγ target genes in both SAT and VAT, resulting in less fat accumulation in immunocastrated boars versus barrows. We concluded that the substantially elevated FSH concentrations in barrows promoted fat accumulation by activating the PPARγ signaling pathway in adipose tissues, whereas immunocastrates accumulated less fat due to low FSH.

Moderate Aerobic Exercise Training Prevents the Augmented Hepatic Glucocorticoid Response Induced by High-Fat Diet in Mice

Glucocorticoids (GCs) are critical regulators of energy balance. Their deregulation is associated with the development of obesity and metabolic syndrome. However, it is not understood if obesity alters the tissue glucocorticoid receptor (GR) response, and moreover whether a moderate aerobic exercise prevents the alteration in GR response induced by obesity. Methods: To evaluate the GR response in obese mice, we fed C57BL6J mice with a high-fat diet (HFD) for 12 weeks. Before mice were sacrificed, we injected them with dexamethasone. To assess the exercise role in GR response, we fed mice an HFD and subjected them to moderate aerobic exercise three times a week. Results: We found that mice fed a high-fat diet for 12 weeks developed hepatic GC hypersensitivity without changes in the gastrocnemius or epididymal fat GR response. Therefore, moderate aerobic exercise improved glucose tolerance, increased the corticosterone plasma levels, and prevented hepatic GR hypersensitivity with an increase in epididymal fat GR response. Conclusion: Collectively, our results suggest that mice with HFD-induced obesity develop hepatic GR sensitivity, which could enhance the metabolic effects of HFD in the liver. Moreover, exercise was found to be a feasible non-pharmacological strategy to prevent the deregulation of GR response in obesity.

Non-alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease as a Canonical Example of Metabolic Inflammatory-Based Liver Disease Showing a Sex-Specific Prevalence: Relevance of Estrogen Signaling

There is extensive evidence supporting the interplay between metabolism and immune response, that have evolved in close relationship, sharing regulatory molecules and signaling systems, to support biological functions. Nowadays, the disruption of this interaction in the context of obesity and overnutrition underlies the increasing incidence of many inflammatory-based metabolic diseases, even in a sex-specific fashion. During evolution, the interplay between metabolism and reproduction has reached a degree of complexity particularly high in female mammals, likely to ensure reproduction only under favorable conditions. Several factors may account for differences in the incidence and progression of inflammatory-based metabolic diseases between females and males, thus contributing to age-related disease development and difference in life expectancy between the two sexes. Among these factors, estrogens, acting mainly through Estrogen Receptors (ERs), have been reported to regulate several metabolic pathways and inflammatory processes particularly in the liver, the metabolic organ showing the highest degree of sexual dimorphism. This review aims to investigate on the interaction between metabolism and inflammation in the liver, focusing on the relevance of estrogen signaling in counteracting the development and progression of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), a canonical example of metabolic inflammatory-based liver disease showing a sex-specific prevalence. Understanding the role of estrogens/ERs in the regulation of hepatic metabolism and inflammation may provide the basis for the development of sex-specific therapeutic strategies for the management of such an inflammatory-based metabolic disease and its cardio-metabolic consequences.

AQP7 mediates post-menopausal lipogenesis in adipocytes through FSH-induced transcriptional crosstalk with AP-1 sites

RESEARCH QUESTION

Fat accumulation is present in most post-menopausal women, but the underlying mechanism remains unclear. Aquaporin 7 (AQP7) is the most important glycerol channel facilitating glycerol efflux in adipocytes. High circulating FSH in post-menopausal women may play an independent role in regulation of the lipogenic effect of AQP7 in adipocytes. This study explored the role of AQP7 in the pathophysiology of post-menopausal lipogenesis mediated by high concentrations of circulating FSH.

DESIGN

Primary adipocytes from post-menopausal and childbearing women were analysed. An in-vivo post-menopausal animal model was established. AQP7 expression, lipid accumulation and glycerol concentration in adipocytes were measured. Luciferase reporter assay and chromatin immunoprecipitation were performed to identify transcriptional crosstalk in AQP7 promoter.

RESULTS

It was found that FSH down-regulated AQP7 expression and glycerol efflux function in mature adipocytes of post-menopausal women and ovariectomized (OVX) mice. In vitro, FSH inhibited lipid accumulation in primary cultured mature adipocytes in a dose-dependent manner and the mechanism was down-regulating AQP7 expression via a FSH receptor pathway. The effect of FSH on AQP7 in adipocytes was through activation of cAMP response element-binding (CREB) protein, which could bind to activator protein-1 (AP-1) sites in the AQP7 promoter, and therefore inhibited the transcriptional activation elicited by c-Jun.

CONCLUSIONS

Down-regulation of AQP7 by FSH mediated post-menopausal lipogenesis, and the role of FSH was based on binding competition for AP-1 sites between CREB and c-Jun.