MXene-based electrochemical and biosensing platforms to detect toxic elements and pesticides pollutants from environmental matrices

Cutting-edge nanotechnology approaches for efficient mercury remediation: Mechanisms, innovations and future prospects in polluted environments

Mercury contamination poses a significant threat to the environment and human health due to its persistence, bioaccumulation, and toxicity. Conventional remediation methods such as chemical precipitation, coagulation, and membrane filtration often fall short due to limitations like incomplete removal, secondary pollution, and low selectivity. In response, advanced nanomaterials, defined as engineered nanostructures with high surface area, tunable surface chemistry, and exceptional mercury-binding capabilities, have emerged as powerful alternatives. This review critically evaluates five major classes of nanomaterials, such as carbon-based nanomaterials, metal and metal oxide nanoparticles, functionalized polymer nanocomposites, biosynthesized nanoparticles, and hybrid nanomaterials, with a focus on their mercury removal efficiency, regeneration capacity, environmental safety, and real-world applicability. While these materials have been previously reported, this work offers a unique comparative analysis that synthesizes fragmented data across the literature to highlight performance trade-offs and implementation feasibility. Furthermore, nanotechnology-assisted techniques including adsorption, photocatalysis, membrane-based separation, and hybrid treatment systems are systematically reviewed, emphasizing removal efficiencies, operational parameters, and scalability. Among these, hybrid nanomaterials and multifunctional systems demonstrate the highest potential, achieving mercury removal rates exceeding 95 % and offering adaptability to complex contaminated matrices. Rather than introducing new experimental data, this review identifies key research gaps, unresolved challenges such as nanoparticle toxicity and recovery, and the lack of field-scale validation. It concludes with a roadmap to guide future research toward the development of safe, cost-effective, and environmentally sustainable nanotechnology-driven mercury remediation strategies. This work aims to support informed decision-making among researchers, engineers, and environmental policymakers working to mitigate mercury pollution effectively.

Bimetallic Ag2CrO4 nanoparticles with dual-enzyme-mimic activities in colorimetric sensor for sensitive and highly selective detection of dimethoate in vegetables

Colorimetric methods have the benefits of rapid detection and easy operation in dimethoate (DMT) analysis. However, the existing colorimetric sensor for DMT detection still face challenges in terms of performance stability and result reliability of sensing materials. Bimetallic Ag2CrO4 nanoparticles (NPs) have been found to have both oxidase-mimic and laccase-mimic catalytic activities. DMT has opposite effect on the above dual-enzyme-mimic activities, which can enhance oxidase-mimic activity while inhibiting laccase-mimic activity of Ag2CrO4 NPs. Therefore, a novel colorimetric sensor was constructed using the dual-enzyme-mimic activities as a sensing signal for rapidly detecting DMT in vegetables. The concentration of DMT is directly correlated with the absorbance change of the sensing solution, and the color change is further integrated with the smartphone to enable quantitative measurement of DMT. The limits of detection were as low as 8.7 μg L-1 in the oxidase-mimic channel and 10.9 μg L-1 in laccase-mimic channels. Besides, the colorimetric sensor has shown marked preference in selectivity over other competing pesticides, and obtained relatively preferable recovery rates in some vegetables, indicating that the established sensor has a wide range of potential applications in the area of vegetable pesticide detection.

MXene-Based Electrochemical Biosensors: Advancing Detection Strategies for Biosensing (2020-2024)

MXenes, a class of two-dimensional materials, have emerged as promising candidates for developing advanced electrochemical biosensors due to their exceptional electrical conductivity, large surface area, and rich surface chemistry. These unique properties enable high sensitivity, rapid response, and versatile functionalization, making MXene-based biosensors highly suitable for detecting biomolecules and pathogens in biomedical applications. This review explores recent advancements in MXene-based electrochemical biosensors from 2020 to 2024, focusing on their design principles, fabrication strategies, and integration with microfluidic platforms for enhanced performance. The potential of MXene sensors to achieve real-time and multiplexed detection is highlighted, alongside the associated challenges. Emphasis is placed on the role of MXenes in addressing critical needs in disease diagnostics, personalized medicine, and point-of-care testing, providing insights into future trends and transformative possibilities in the field of biomedical sensing technologies.

Isolation of Biomolecules Using MXenes

Biomolecule isolation is a crucial process in diverse biomedical and biochemical applications, including diagnostics, therapeutics, research, and manufacturing. Recently, MXenes, a novel class of two-dimensional nanomaterials, have emerged as promising adsorbents for this purpose due to their unique physicochemical properties. These biocompatible and antibacterial nanomaterials feature a high aspect ratio, excellent conductivity, and versatile surface chemistry. This timely review explores the potential of MXenes for isolating a wide range of biomolecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids, and small molecules, while highlighting key future research trends and innovative applications poised to transform the field. This review provides an in-depth discussion of various synthesis methods and functionalization techniques that enhance the specificity and efficiency of MXenes in biomolecule isolation. In addition, the mechanisms by which MXenes interact with biomolecules are elucidated, offering insights into their selective adsorption and customized separation capabilities. This review also addresses recent advancements, identifies existing challenges, and examines emerging trends that may drive the next wave of innovation in this rapidly evolving area.

Cr2TiC2Tx MXene as an adsorbent material in ultrasonic-assisted d-μ-solid phase extraction for trace detection of heavy metals

MXenes are a large family of two-dimensional transition metal carbides, nitrides, and carbonitrides. While MXenes have great potential for applications in analytical chemistry, most of the studies in this field are focused on Ti3C2Tx, the most popular MXene material. For example, several studies employed Ti3C2Tx as an adsorbent for the trace detection of toxic analytes, but there is limited knowledge on the utility of other MXene materials for this application. In this work, we investigated the potential of Cr2TiC2Tx, one of the least studied MXenes, for application as an adsorbent material in ultrasonic-assisted dispersive micro solid-phase extraction (d-μ-SPE) method for the detection of heavy metals at trace levels in food and soil samples. We synthesized large monolayer flakes of Cr2TiC2Tx and characterized it by a variety of microscopic and spectroscopic techniques. Cr2TiC2Tx MXene showed remarkable performance in the d-μ-SPE method with the detection limits of 0.09 and 1.9 ng mL-1, and dynamic ranges of 0.3-90 μg L-1 and 6-120 μg L-1 for cadmium (Cd2+) and lead (Pb2+) ions, respectively. The great performance of Cr2TiC2Tx MXene as an adsorbent for the trace detection of heavy metals highlights the importance of investigating other MXenes beyond Ti3C2Tx for analytical applications.

A Novel Array-Based Fluorescent Sensing Approach for the Identification and Quantification of Pesticides with High Sensitivity Based on Distinguishable Cross-response Algorithm

The presence of excessive residues of pesticides poses a great threat to ecology and human health. Herein, a novel, low-cost, simple and precise quantification sensing platform was established for differentiating and monitoring four common pesticides in China. Particularly, the array-based ratio fluorescent sensor array detector (ARF-SAD) based on cross-reaction characteristics of porphyrins and other porphyrin derivative was successfully constructed and integrated into the platform. Via acquiring the fluorescent data before and after the reaction of the ARF-SAD with pesticides, a novel, unique, and recognizable pattern of fluorescence changes was developed and utilized for the rapid characterization of pesticides. In addition, after raw data processed through the intervention of machine learning algorithms (hierarchical cluster analysis, principal component analysis, fitting of a polynomial), the selected pesticides and their mixture can be accurately distinguished via the constructed fluorescence fingerprint map by the platform in terms of category. By use of ratio fluorescence strategy, the platform and fluorescent sensor array can provide good sensitivity and selectivity for the monitoring of selected pesticides with LODs less than 10 ppb. Furthermore, the reproducibility, stability and practicability analysis of real sample have been thoroughly validated simultaneously. The findings indicated that the standard recovery rates of the six categories of blended pesticides in Jialing River water samples ranged from 86.13% to 114.84%, with the lowest relative standard deviation (RSD) reaching a remarkable level of only 3.04%. All representations consistently demonstrate that the detector serves as a prompt and viable sensing platform for discriminating and quantitatively analyzing pesticides, thereby showcasing its potential in the fields of pesticide differentiation and detection.

MXene Hydrogels for Soft Multifunctional Sensing: A Synthesis-Centric Review

Intelligent wearable sensors based on MXenes hydrogels are rapidly advancing the frontier of personalized healthcare management. MXenes, a new class of transition metal carbon/nitride synthesized only a decade ago, have proved to be a promising candidate for soft sensors, advanced human-machine interfaces, and biomimicking systems due to their controllable and high electrical conductivity, as well as their unique mechanical properties as derived from their atomistically thin layered structure. In addition, MXenes' biocompatibility, hydrophilicity, and antifouling properties render them particularly suitable to synergize with hydrogels into a composite for mechanoelectrical functions. Nonetheless, while the use of MXene as a multifunctional surface or an electrical current collector such as an energy device electrode is prevalent, its incorporation into a gel system for the purpose of sensing is vastly less understood and formalized. This review provides a systematic exposition to the synthesis, property, and application of MXene hydrogels for intelligent wearable sensors. Specific challenges and opportunities on the synthesis of MXene hydrogels and their adoption in practical applications are explicitly analyzed and discussed to facilitate cross gemination across disciplines to advance the potential of MXene multifunctional sensing hydrogels.

Advanced chemically modified electrodes and platforms in food analysis and monitoring

Electrochemical sensors and electroanalytical techniques become emerging as effective and low-cost tools for rapid assessment of special parameters of the food quality. Chemically modified electrodes are developed to change properties and behaviour, particularly sensitivity and selectivity, of conventional electroanalytical sensors. Within this comprehensive review, novel trends in chemical modifiers material structure, electrodes construction and flow analysis platforms are described and evaluated. Numerous recent application examples for the detection of food specific analytes are presented in a form of table to stimulate further development in both, the basic research and commercial field.

2D sheet structure of zinc molybdate decorated on MXene for highly selective and sensitive electrochemical detection of the arsenic drug Roxarsone in water samples

Water contamination is a serious environmental issue posing a significant global challenge. Roxarsone (ROX), a widely used anticoccidial drug is excreted in urine and feces, potentially disrupting natural habitats. Therefore, rapid and cost-effective ROX detection is essential. In this study, we developed a 2D sheet structure of zinc molybdate decorated on MXene (ZnMoO4/MXene) for detecting ROX using electrochemical methods. The materials were characterized using appropriate spectrophotometric and voltammetric techniques. The ZnMoO4/MXene hybrid exhibited excellent electrocatalytic performance due to its rapid electron transfer rate and higher electrical conductivity. The ZnMoO4/MXene-modified GCE (ZnMoO4/MXene/GCE) showed a broad linear range with high sensitivity (10.413 μA μМ-1 cm-2) and appreciable limit of detection (LOD) as low as 0.0081 μM. It also demonstrated significant anti-interference capabilities, excellent storage stability, and remarkable reproducibility. Furthermore, the feasibility of utilizing ZnMoO4/MXene/GCE for monitoring ROX in water samples was confirmed, achieving satisfactory recoveries.

Ultra-thin FeCoNi-LDH hollow nanoflower as solid-phase microextraction coating for targeted capture of six pesticides by electrostatic adsorption

Pesticides are common pollutants that cause detriment to the ecological environmental safety and health of human due to their toxicity, volatility and bioaccumulation. In this work, an ultra-thin polymetallic layered double hydroxide (FeCoNi-LDH) with hollow nanoflower structure composite was synthesized using ZIF-67 as a self-sacrificial template, which was used as solid-phase microextraction (SPME) coating for the targeted capture pesticides, which could be combined with high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to sensitive inspection pesticides in real water samples. Orthogonal experimental design (OAD) was applied to ensure the best SPME condition. Additionally, the adsorption properties were evaluated by chemical thermodynamics and kinetics. Under the optimized conditions, high adsorption capacity was obtained (117.0-21.5 mg g-1). A wide linear range (0.020-1000.0 μg L-1), low detection limit (0.008-0.172 μg L-1) and excellent reproducibility were obtained under the established method. This research provided a new strategy for designing hollow materials with multiple cations for the adsorption of anion or organic pollutants.

A ratiometric electrochemical biosensor based on ARGET ATRP for detection of HER2 gene

Human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2), a common proto-oncogene, is overexpressed in a subset of breast cancer patients. It is essential to track HER2 expression for early breast cancer diagnosis. Herein, a ratiometric electrochemical biosensor for detection of HER2 based on activators generated by electron transfer for atom transfer radical polymerisation (AGET ATRP) and hairpin DNA was developed. Specifically, hairpin DNA was first self-assembled on the gold electrode by Au-S bond. Upon capturing HER2, the stem-loop structure of hairpin DNA was unfolded, the signal value of methylene blue (MB) decreased as it moved away from the electrode surface. cDNA was linked with HER2 by complementary base pairing to introduce amino group. Then, the initiator 2-bromo-2-methylpropionic acid (BMP) were connected to the amino group on the cDNA to activate ARGET ATRP. The detection performance of biosensors for HER2 was explored by the ratio signal between two signal molecules. Under optimal conditions, this ratiometric electrochemical biosensor shows good selectivity and stability with a wide detection range of 1-1 × 106 pM and a detection limit of 78.47 fM. Furthermore, the biosensor exhibits satisfactory anti-interference ability due to the hairpin DNA and dual signal system, and has promising application prospects in the detection of other DNA disease markers.

2D MXene-Based Nanoscale Materials for Electrochemical Sensing Toward the Detection of Hazardous Pollutants: A Perspective

MXenes (Mn+1XnTx), a subgroup of 2-dimensional (2D) materials, specifically comprise transition metal carbides, nitrides, and carbonitrides. They exhibit exceptional electrocatalytic and photocatalytic properties, making them well-suited for the detection and removal of pollutants from aqueous environments. Because of their high surface area and remarkable properties, they are being utilized in various applications, including catalysis, sensing, and adsorption, to combat pollution and mitigate its adverse effects. Different characterization techniques like XRD, SEM, TEM, UV-Visible spectroscopy, and Raman spectroscopy have been used for the structural elucidation of 2D MXene. Current responses against applied potential were measured during the electrochemical sensing of the hazardous pollutants in an aqueous system using a variety of electroanalytical techniques, including differential pulse voltammetry, amperometry, square wave anodic stripping voltammetry, etc. In this review, a comprehensive discussion on structural patterns, synthesis, properties of MXene and their application for electrochemical detection of lethal pollutants like hydroquionone, phenol, catechol, mercury and lead, etc. are presented. This review will be helpful to critically understand the methods of synthesis and application of MXenes for the removal of environmental pollutants.

Construction of an electrochemical sensor towards environmental hazardous 4-nitrophenol based on Nd(OH)3-embedded VSe2 nanocomposite

The toxicity of 4-nitrophenol (4-NP) is one of the most common threats to the environment; therefore, developing a simple and sensitive analytical method to detect 4-NP is crucial. In this study, we prepared the Nd(OH)3/VSe2 nanocomposite using the simple hydrothermally assisted ultrasonication method and it was used to detect the 4-NP. Different characterization techniques were used to investigate the morphological and chemical compositions of Nd(OH)3/VSe2 nanocomposite. All of these investigations revealed that Nd(OH)3 nanoparticles were finely dispersed on the surface of the VSe2 nanosheet. The electrical conductivity of our prepared samples was evaluated by the electrochemical impedance spectroscopic technique. The CV and DPV methods were used to explore the electrochemical activity of 4-NP at the Nd(OH)3/VSe2/GCE sensor which exhibited a wide linear range (0.001 to 640 µM), low limit of detection (0.008 µM), and good sensitivity (0.41 µA µM-1 cm-2), respectively. Additionally, Nd(OH)3/VSe2/GCE sensor was tested in water samples for the detection of 4-NP, which exhibited good recovery results. The Nd(OH)3/VSe2 electrode material is a novel one for the electrochemical sensor field, and the obtained overall results also proved that our proposed material is an active material for sensor applications.

Construction of functionalized carbon nanotube@metal oxide nanocomposite for high-performance electrochemical measurement of antipyretic drug in water samples

Acetaminophen (AP) acts as supportive clinical therapy for fever and dysmenorrhea. An overdose of AP may result in severe adverse diseases, such as liver dysfunction. In addition, AP is a key-listed environmental pollutant, which is difficult to degrade in the environment and has serious effects on living bodies. Therefore, the simple and quantitative determination of AP is highly relevant today. In this work, tin dioxide (SnO2) nanoparticles with functionalized multi-walled carbon nanotube (f-MWCNT) as a hybrid composite were prepared by hydrothermal-assisted synthesis. The composite material was characterized by various spectral, morphological, and electrochemical tests. Electrochemical investigations were conducted using a SnO2@f-MWCNT-reinforced electrode for the detection of AP. The composite electrode exhibited better functional properties, which facilitated electron transfer and enhanced electrical conductivity. The calculated low detection limit (LOD) of 0.36 nM is with a wide linear range of concentration from 0.001 to 673 µM. Additionally, the SnO2@f-MWCNT-modified electrode exhibited good anti-interference capability, repeatability, reproducibility, storage, and operational stability. The developed SnO2@f-MWCNT-modified electrode was applied to practical analysis in diverse water matrices (river, drinking, and pond) with acceptable recovery percentages. A synthesized nanoscale metal oxide electrocatalyst is of great interest and an active research area that serves as a foundation for the development of new, cost-effective electrochemical antibiotic drug sensors.

Sensitive Detection of Perfluoroalkyl Substances Using MXene-AgNP-Based Electrochemical Sensors

Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) pose a significant threat to the environment due to their persistence, ability to bioaccumulate, and harmful effects. Methods to quantify PFAS rapidly and effectively are essential to analyze and track contamination, but measuring PFAS down to the ultralow regulatory levels is extremely challenging. Here, we describe the development of a low-cost sensor that can measure a representative PFAS, perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS), at the parts per quadrillion (ppq) level within 5 min. The method combines the ability of PFOS to bind to silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) embedded within a fluorine-rich Ti3C2-based multilayered MXene, which provides a large surface area and accessible binding sites for direct impedimetric detection. Fundamentally, we show that MXene-AgNPs are capable of binding PFOS and other long-chain PFAS compounds, though the synergistic action of AgNPs and MXenes via electrostatic and F-F interactions. This binding induced concentration-dependent changes in the charge-transfer resistance, enabling rapid and direct quantification with extremely high sensitivity and no response to interferences. The sensor displayed a linear range from 50 ppq to 1.6 ppt (parts per trillion) with an impressively low limit of detection of 33 ppq and a limit of quantification of 99 ppq, making this sensor a promising candidate for low-cost screening of the PFAS content in water samples, using a simple and inexpensive procedure.

Ti3C2Tx Coated with TiO2 Nanosheets for the Simultaneous Detection of Ascorbic Acid, Dopamine and Uric Acid

Two-dimensional MXenes have become an important material for electrochemical sensing of biomolecules due to their excellent electric properties, large surface area and hydrophilicity. However, the simultaneous detection of multiple biomolecules using MXene-based electrodes is still a challenge. Here, a simple solvothermal process was used to synthesis the Ti3C2Tx coated with TiO2 nanosheets (Ti3C2Tx@TiO2 NSs). The surface modification of TiO2 NSs on Ti3C2Tx can effectively reduce the self-accumulation of Ti3C2Tx and improve stability. Glassy carbon electrode was modified by Ti3C2Tx@TiO2 NSs (Ti3C2Tx@TiO2 NSs/GCE) and was able simultaneously to detect dopamine (DA), ascorbic acid (AA) and uric acid (UA). Under concentrations ranging from 200 to 1000 μM, 40 to 300 μM and 50 to 400 μM, the limit of detection (LOD) is 2.91 μM, 0.19 μM and 0.25 μM for AA, DA and UA, respectively. Furthermore, Ti3C2Tx@TiO2 NSs/GCE demonstrated remarkable stability and reliable reproducibility for the detection of AA/DA/UA.

Natural Polymer Encapsulated Zeolitic Imidazolate Framework-12 Composite toward Electrochemical Sensing of Antitumor Agent

Encapsulation of natural polymer pectin (Pec) into a zeolitic imidazolate framework-12 (ZIF-12) matrix via a simple chemical method toward anticancer agent gallic acid (GA) detection is reported in this work. GA, a natural phenol found in many food sources, has gained attention by its biological effects on the human body, such as an antioxidant and anti-inflammatory. Therefore, it is crucial to accurately and rapidly determine the GA level in humans. The encapsulation of Pec inside the ZIF-12 has been successfully confirmed from the physiochemical studies such as XRD, Raman, FTIR, and XPS spectroscopy along with morphological FESEM, BET, and HRTEM characterization. Under optimized conditions, the Pec@ZIF-12 composite exhibits wide linear range of 20 nM-250 μM with a detection limit of 2.2 nM; also, it showed excellent selectivity, stability, and reproducibility. Furthermore, the real sample analysis of food samples including tea, coffee, grape, and pomegranate samples shows exceptional recovery percentage in an unspiked manner. So far, there is little literature for encapsulating proteins, enzymes, metals, etc., that have been reported; here, we successfully encapsulated a natural polymer Pec inside the ZIF-12 cage. This encapsulation significantly enhanced the composite electrochemical performance, which could be seen from the overall results. All of these strongly suggest that the proposed Pec@ZIF-12 composite could be used for miniaturized device fabrication for the evaluation of GA in both home and industrial applications.

Ti3C2 nanosheet-induced autophagy derails ovarian functions

BACKGROUND

Two-dimensional ultrathin Ti3C2 (MXene) nanosheets have gained significant attention in various biomedical applications. Although previous studies have described the accumulation and associated damage of Ti3C2 nanosheets in the testes and placenta. However, it is currently unclear whether Ti3C2 nanosheets can be translocated to the ovaries and cause ovarian damage, thereby impairing ovarian functions.

RESULTS

We established a mouse model with different doses (1.25, 2.5, and 5 mg/kg bw/d) of Ti3C2 nanosheets injected intravenously for three days. We demonstrated that Ti3C2 nanosheets can enter the ovaries and were internalized by granulosa cells, leading to a decrease in the number of primary, secondary and antral follicles. Furthermore, the decrease in follicles is closely associated with higher levels of FSH and LH, as well as increased level of E2 and P4, and decreased level of T in mouse ovary. In further studies, we found that exposure toTi3C2 nanosheets increased the levels of Beclin1, ATG5, and the ratio of LC3II/Ι, leading to autophagy activation. Additionally, the level of P62 increased, resulting in autophagic flux blockade. Ti3C2 nanosheets can activate autophagy through the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway, with oxidative stress playing an important role in this process. Therefore, we chose the ovarian granulosa cell line (KGN cells) for in vitro validation of the impact of autophagy on the hormone secretion capability. The inhibition of autophagy initiation by 3-Methyladenine (3-MA) promoted smooth autophagic flow, thereby partially reduced the secretion of estradiol and progesterone by KGN cells; Whereas blocking autophagic flux by Rapamycin (RAPA) further exacerbated the secretion of estradiol and progesterone in cells.

CONCLUSION

Ti3C2 nanosheet-induced increased secretion of hormones in the ovary is mediated through the activation of autophagy and impairment of autophagic flux, which disrupts normal follicular development. These results imply that autophagy dysfunction may be one of the underlying mechanisms of Ti3C2-induced damage to ovarian granulosa cells. Our findings further reveal the mechanism of female reproductive toxicity induced by Ti3C2 nanosheets.

MXene-based anode materials for high performance sodium-ion batteries

As an emerging class of layered transition metal carbides/nitrides/carbon-nitrides, MXenes have been one of the most investigated anode subcategories for sodium ion batteries (SIBs), due to their unique layered structure, metal-like conductivity, large specific surface area and tunable surface groups. In particular, different MAX precursors and synthetic routes will lead to MXenes with different structural and electrochemical properties, which actually gives MXenes unlimited scope for development. In this feature article, we systematically present the recent advances in the methods and synthetic routes of MXenes, together with their impact on the properties of MXenes and also the advantages and disadvantages. Subsequently, the sodium storage mechanisms of MXenes are summarized, as well as the recent research progress and strategies to improve the sodium storage performance. Finally, the main challenges currently facing MXenes and the opportunities in improving the performance of SIBs are pointed out.

Enzyme-linked carbon nanotubes as biocatalytic tools to degrade and mitigate environmental pollutants

A wide array of organic compounds have been recognized as pollutants of high concern due to their controlled or uncontrolled presence in environmental matrices. The persistent prevalence of diverse organic pollutants, including pharmaceutical compounds, phenolic compounds, synthetic dyes, and other hazardous substances, necessitates robust measures for their practical and sustainable removal from water bodies. Several bioremediation and biodegradation methods have been invented and deployed, with a wide range of materials well-suited for diverse environments. Enzyme-linked carbon-based materials have been considered efficient biocatalytic platforms for the remediation of complex organic pollutants, mostly showing over 80% removal efficiency of micropollutants. The advantages of enzyme-linked carbon nanotubes (CNTs) in enzyme immobilization and improved catalytic potential may thus be advantageous for environmental research considering the current need for pollutant removal. This review outlines the perspective of current remediation approaches and highlights the advantageous features of enzyme-linked CNTs in the removal of pollutants, emphasizing their reusability and stability aspects. Furthermore, different applications of enzyme-linked CNTs in environmental research with concluding remarks and future outlooks have been highlighted. Enzyme-linked CNTs serve as a robust biocatalytic platform for the sustainability agenda with the aim of keeping the environment clean and safe from a variety of organic pollutants.

Biomass derived green carbon dots for sensing applications of effective detection of metallic contaminants in the environment

The rapid consumption of metals and unorganized disposal have led to unprecedented increases in heavy metal ion concentrations in the ecosystem, which disrupts environmental homeostasis and results in agricultural biodiversity loss. Mitigation and remediation plans for heavy metal pollution are largely dependent on the discovery of cost-effective, biocompatible, specific, and robust detectors because conventional methods involve sophisticated electronics and sample preparation procedures. Carbon dots (CDs) have gained significant importance in sensing applications related to environmental sustainability. Fluorescence sensor applications have been enhanced by their distinctive spectral properties and the potential for developing efficient photonic devices. With the recent development of biomass-functionalized carbon dots, a wide spectrum of multivalent and bivalent transition metal ions responsible for water quality degradation can be detected with high efficiency and minimal toxicity. This review explores the various methods of manufacturing carbon dots and the biochemical mechanisms involved in metal detection using green carbon dots for sensing applications involving Cu (II), Fe (III), Hg (II), and Cr (VI) ions in aqueous systems. A detailed discussion of practical challenges and future recommendations is presented to identify feasible design routes.

The Renaissance of Ferrocene-Based Electrocatalysts: Properties, Synthesis Strategies, and Applications

The fascinating electrochemical properties of the redox-active compound ferrocene have inspired researchers across the globe to develop ferrocene-based electrocatalysts for a wide variety of applications. Advantages including excellent chemical and thermal stability, solubility in organic solvents, a pair of stable redox states, rapid electron transfer, and nontoxic nature improve its utility in various electrochemical applications. The use of ferrocene-based electrocatalysts enables control over the intrinsic properties and electroactive sites at the surface of the electrode to achieve specific electrochemical activities. Ferrocene and its derivatives can function as a potential redox medium that promotes electron transfer rates, thereby enhancing the reaction kinetics and electrochemical responses of the device. The outstanding electrocatalytic activity of ferrocene-based compounds at lower operating potentials enhances the specificity and sensitivity of reactions and also amplifies the response signals. Owing to their versatile redox chemistry and catalytic activities, ferrocene-based electrocatalysts are widely employed in various energy-related systems, molecular machines, and agricultural, biological, medicinal, and sensing applications. This review highlights the importance of ferrocene-based electrocatalysts, with emphasis on their properties, synthesis strategies for obtaining different ferrocene-based compounds, and their electrochemical applications.

Design and synthesis of high performance magnetically separable exfoliated g-C3N4/γ-Fe2O3/ZnO yolk-shell nanoparticles: a novel and eco-friendly photocatalyst toward removal of organic pollutants from water

Herein, a new visible-light active exfoliated g-C3N4/γ-Fe2O3/ZnO yolk-shell nanoparticles (NPs) was synthesized as a magnetically separable photocatalyst. For an in-depth understanding of the magnetic photocatalyst's structural, morphological, and optical properties, the products were extensively characterized with FT-IR, XRD, TEM, HRTEM, FESEM, EDS, EDS-mapping, VSM, DRS, EIS, and photocurrent. The photocatalyst was then utilized to degrade Levofloxacin (LEVO) and Indigo Carmine (IC) by visible light at room temperature. The exfoliated g-C3N4/γ-Fe2O3/ZnO yolk-shell NPs photocatalyst revealed 80% and 95.6% degradation efficiency for Levofloxacin and Indigo Carmine within 25 and 15 min, respectively. In addition, the optimal factors such as concentration, loading of photocatalyst, and pH were also assessed. Levofloxacin degradation mechanistic studies showed that electrons and holes significantly contribute to the photocatalytic process of photocatalyst degradation. In addition, after 5 times regeneration, exfoliated g-C3N4/γ-Fe2O3/ZnO yolk-shell NPs remained as an excellent magnetic photocatalyst for the eco-friendly degradation of Levofloxacin and Indigo Carmine (76% and 90%), respectively. The superior photocatalytic performance of exfoliated g-C3N4/γ-Fe2O3/ZnO yolk-shell nanoparticles (NPs) was mostly ascribed to the synergistic advantages of stronger visible light response, larger specific surface area, and the more effective separation and transfer of photogenerated charge carriers. Based on these results, the highly effective magnetic photocatalyst achieved better results than numerous studied catalysts in the literature. The degradation of Levofloxacin and Indigo Carmine under environmentally friendly conditions can be achieved using exfoliated g-C3N4/γ-Fe2O3/ZnO yolk-shell NPs (V) as an efficient and green photocatalyst. The magnetic photocatalyst was characterized by spectroscopic and microscopic methods, revealing a spherical shape and particle size of 23 nm. Additionally, the magnetic photocatalyst could be separated from the reaction mixture by a magnet without significantly reducing its catalytic activity.

A biogenesis construction of CuO@MWCNT via Chenopodium album extract: an effective electrocatalyst for synaptic plasticity neurodegenerative drug pollutant detection

Clioquinol (CLQ) is one of the most toxic halogenated neurodegenerative drugs, and its synaptic plasticity effect directly affects human health and the environment. Cupric oxide (CuO) is an ideal electrocatalyst owing to its earth-abundance, non-toxic nature, and cost-effectiveness. Since phenolate oxygen and pyridine nitrogen in CLQ act as an electron donor and pave the way for detection with Cu2+ ions in the CuO. Designing the architecture of CuO with a multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWCNT) is a sensible strategy to improve the electrochemical activity of the developed sensor. Inspired by the bio-synthesis and green processing, we have demonstrated the in-situ synthesis of CuO nanosphere-decorated MWCNT by Chenopodium album leaf extract through a sonochemical approach and explored its electrochemical sensing performance toward CLQ. The physical comprehensive characterization of prepared nanocomposite was investigated by various microscopic and spectroscopic techniques. For comparison studies, the CuO nanosphere was prepared by the same preparation process without MWCNT. Based on the physical characterization outcomes, the morphological nature of CuO was observed to be a sphere-like structure, which was decorated on the MWCNT with an average crystallite size of 16 nm (± 1 nm). Based on the electrochemical studies, the fabricated nanocomposite exhibits a wider linear range of 0.025-1375 μM, with a minimum detection limit of 4.59 nM L-1 toward CLQ. The viability examination on the biological matrix obtained considerable spike recoveries.

Construction of bacterial laccase displayed on the microbial surface for ultrasensitive biosensing of phenolic pollutants with nanohybrids-enhanced performance

Although bacterial laccase (BLac) has many advantages including short fermentation period and adaptable activity to wide temperature and pH ranges, it is of challenge and significance to apply BLac to the biosensors, due to the intracellular secretion and poor electron transfer efficiency of BLac. Here, cell surface-displayed BLac (CSDBLac) was successfully constructed as whole-cell biocatalyst through microbial surface display technology, eliminating the mass transfer restriction and laborious purification steps. Meanwhile, MXenes/polyetherimide-multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MXenes/PEI-MWCNTs) nanohybrids were designed to immobilize CSDBLac and improve their electrochemical activity. Then, an electrochemical biosensor was successfully constructed to detect common phenolic pollutants (catechol and hydroquinone) by the co-immobilization of CSDBLac and MXenes/PEI-MWCNTs nanohybrids onto a glassy carbon electrode. Subsequently, it was successfully applied to the water samples assay with good reliability and repeatability. This work innovatively used BLac and nanohybrid as the core elements of biosensor, which not only effectively solved the application bottleneck of BLac on biosensors, but also dramatically promote the electro transfer efficiency between whole-cell biocatalyst and electrode. This method is of profound meanings for significantly improving the performance of phenolic biosensors and other biosensors from the origin.

Emerging carbonate anion intercalated- ZnCr-layered double hydroxide/vanadium carbide nanocomposite: Sustainable design strategies based on disposal electrochemical sensor for diethofencarb fungicide monitoring

Diethofencarb (DFC) is widely used in agriculture to fight against plant fungal attacks and enhance food crop production. On the other hand, the National food safety standard has set the overall maximum residual limit (MRL) of DFC to be 1 mg/kg. Hence it becomes essential to limit their usage, and it is vital to quantify the amount of DFC present in real-life samples to safeguard the health and environmental well-being. Here, we introduce a simple hydrothermal procedure for preparing vanadium carbide (VC) anchored by ZnCr-LDH. The sustainably designed electrochemical sensor for the detection of DFC portrayed high electro-active surface area, conductivity, rapid-electron transport ratio, and high ion diffusion parameters. The obtained structural and morphological information confirms the enriched electrochemical activity of the ZnCr-LDH/VC/SPCE towards DFC. The ZnCr-LDH/VC/SPCE electrode has displayed exceptional characteristics with DPV resulting in a vast linear response (0.01-228 μM), and lower LOD (2 nM) with high sensitivity. Real-sample analysis was carried out to demonstrate the specificity of the electrode with an acceptable recovery in both water (±98.75-99.70%) and tomato (±98.00-99.75%) samples.

Advances in MXene-Based Electrochemical (Bio)Sensors for Neurotransmitter Detection

Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that play an important role in the nervous system's control of the body's physiological state and behaviour. Abnormal levels of neurotransmitters are closely associated with some mental disorders. Therefore, accurate analysis of neurotransmitters is of great clinical importance. Electrochemical sensors have shown bright application prospects in the detection of neurotransmitters. In recent years, MXene has been increasingly used to prepare electrode materials for fabricating electrochemical neurotransmitter sensors due to its excellent physicochemical properties. This paper systematically introduces the advances in MXene-based electrochemical (bio)sensors for the detection of neurotransmitters (including dopamine, serotonin, epinephrine, norepinephrine, tyrosine, NO, and H₂S), with a focus on their strategies for improving the electrochemical properties of MXene-based electrode materials, and provides the current challenges and future prospects for MXene-based electrochemical neurotransmitter sensors.

Toward Smart Sensing by MXene

The Internet of Things era has promoted enormous research on sensors, communications, data fusion, and actuators. Among them, sensors are a prerequisite for acquiring the environmental information for delivering to an artificial data center to make decisions. The MXene-based sensors have aroused tremendous interest because of their extraordinary performances. In this review, the electrical, electronic, and optical properties of MXenes are first introduced. Next, the MXene-based sensors are discussed according to the sensing mechanisms such as electronic, electrochemical, and optical methods. Initially, biosensors are introduced based on chemiresistors and field-effect transistors. Besides, the wearable pressure sensor is demonstrated with piezoresistive devices. Third, the electrochemical methods include amperometry and electrochemiluminescence as examples. In addition, the optical approaches refer to surface plasmonic resonance and fluorescence resonance energy transfer. Moreover, the prospects are delivered of multimodal data fusion toward complicated human-like senses. Eventually, future opportunities for MXene research are conveyed in the new material discovery, structure design, and proof-of-concept devices.

Biomimetic Polylactic Acid Electrospun Fibers Grafted with Polyethyleneimine for Highly Efficient Methyl Orange and Cr(VI) Removal

The rapid growth of industrialization has resulted in the release of large quantities of pollutants into the environment, especially dyes and heavy metals, which are environmentally hazardous for humans and animals. It is considered as the most promising and environmentally friendly route to develop green materials by using the green modification method, which has no negative impact on the environment. In this work, the green material of polylactic acid (PLA) was used as the substrate material, and a novel modification method of polydopamine (PDA)-assisted polyethyleneimine (PEI) grafting was developed. The electrospun PLA fibers are mainly composed of stereocomplex crystallites, which were achieved via the electrospinning of poly(l-lactic acid) and poly(d-lactic acid). The water-soluble PEI was grafted onto the PDA-modified PLA fibers through the glutaraldehyde-assisted cross-linking reaction. The prepared composite fibers can be degraded, which is environmentally friendly and meets the requirements of sustainable development. The potential application of such PLA composite fibers in wastewater treatment was intensively evaluated. The results show that at appropriate fabrication conditions (PDA concentration of 3 g·L^-1 and a PEI molecular weight of 70,000 g·mol^-1), the composite fibers exhibit the maximum adsorption capacities of 612 and 398.41 mg·g^-1 for methyl orange (MO) and hexavalent chromium [Cr(VI)], respectively. Simultaneously, about 64.79% of Cr(VI) adsorbed on the composite fibers was reduced to Cr(III). The above results show that the PLA composite fibers have a good development prospect in the field of wastewater treatment.

Growth Control of Metal-Organic Framework Films on Marine Biological Carbon and Their Potential-Dependent Dopamine Sensing

Ever-evolving advancements in films have fueled many of the developments in the field of electrochemical sensors. For biosensor application platforms, the fabrication of metal-organic framework (MOF) films on microscopically structured substrates is of tremendous importance. However, fabrication of MOF film-based electrodes always exhibits unsatisfactory performance, and the mechanisms of the fabrication and sensing application of the corresponding composites also need to be explored. Here, we report the fabrication of conformal MIL-53 (Fe) films on carbonized natural seaweed with the assistance of an oxide nanomembrane and a potential-dependent electrochemical dopamine (DA) sensor. The geometry and structure of the composite can be conveniently tuned by the experimental parameters, while the sensing performance is significantly influenced by the applied potential. The obtained sensor demonstrates ultrahigh sensitivity, a wide linear range, a low limit of detection, and a good distinction between DA and ascorbic acid at an optimized potential of 0.3 V. The underneath mechanism is investigated in detail with the help of theoretical calculations. This work bridges the natural material and MOF films and is promising for future biosensing applications.

Bagarius bagarius, and Eichhornia crassipes are suitable bioindicators of heavy metal pollution, toxicity, and risk assessment

Water quality index (WQI) of Narora channel and health of endemic fish Bagarius bagarius and plant Eichhornia crassipes, district Bulandshahar, Uttar Pradesh, India were studied. Among the physicochemical properties of water, pH, D.O, Cr, Fe, Ni, and Cd were above the recommended standards. These factors lead to high WQI (4124.83), indicating poor quality and not suitable for drinking and domestic usage. In fish tissues, the highest metal load was reported in the liver (58.29) and the lowest in the kidney (33.73). Heavy metals also cause a lowering of condition indices. As expected, decreased serum protein (- 63.41%) and liver glycogen (- 79.10%) were recorded in the exposed fish. However, blood glucose (47.22%) and serum glycogen (74.69%) showed elevation. In the plant, roots (21.50) contained the highest, and leaves (16.87) had the lowest heavy metal load. Bioaccumulation factor (BAF) > 1, indicates hyperaccumulation of all metals. E. crassipes roots showed the highest translocation factor (TF) > 1 for Ni (1.57) and Zn (1.30). The high mobility factor (MF) reflected the suitability of E. crassipes for phytoextraction of Mn, Cd, Zn, Fe, Ni, and Cu. Moreover, Bagarius sp. consumption could not pose any non-cancer risk. Although, lower cancer risk can be expected from Ni and Cr.

New insights into MXene applications for sustainable environmental remediation

Multiple ecological contaminants in gaseous, liquid, and solid forms are vented into ecosystems due to the huge growth of industrialization, which is today at the forefront of worldwide attention. High-efficiency removal of these environmental pollutants is a must because of the potential harm to public health and biodiversity. The alarming concern has led to the synthesis of improved nanomaterials for removing pollutants. A path to innovative methods for identifying and preventing several obnoxious, hazardous contaminants from entering the environment is grabbing attention. Various applications in diverse industries are seen as a potential directions for researchers. MXene is a new, excellent, and advanced material that has received greater importance related to the environmental application. Due to its unique physicochemical and mechanical properties, high specific surface area, physiological compatibility, strong electrodynamics, and raised specific surface area wettability, its applications are growing. This review paper examines the most recent methods and trends for environmental pollutant removal using advanced 2D Mxene materials. In addition, the history and the development of MXene synthesis were elaborated. Furthermore, an extreme summary of various environmental pollutants removal has been discussed, and the future challenges along with their future perspectives have been illustrated.

Application Prospects of MXenes Materials Modifications for Sensors

The first two-dimensional (2D) substance sparked a boom in research since this type of material showed potential promise for applications in field sensors. A class of 2D transition metal nitrides, carbides, and carbonitrides are referred to as MXenes. Following the 2011 synthesis of Ti3C2 from Ti3AlC2, much research has been published. Since these materials have several advantages over conventional 2D materials, they have been extensively researched, synthesized, and studied by many research organizations. To give readers a general understanding of these well-liked materials, this review examines the structures of MXenes, discusses various synthesis procedures, and analyzes physicochemistry properties, particularly optical, electronic, structural, and mechanical properties. The focus of this review is the analysis of modern advancements in the development of MXene-based sensors, including electrochemical sensors, gas sensors, biosensors, optical sensors, and wearable sensors. Finally, the opportunities and challenges for further study on the creation of MXenes-based sensors are discussed.

2D MXene-Based Biosensing: A Review

MXene emerged as decent 2D material and has been exploited for numerous applications in the last decade. The remunerations of the ideal metallic conductivity, optical absorbance, mechanical stability, higher heterogeneous electron transfer rate, and good redox capability have made MXene a potential candidate for biosensing applications. The hydrophilic nature, biocompatibility, antifouling, and anti-toxicity properties have opened avenues for MXene to perform in vitro and in vivo analysis. In this review, the concept, operating principle, detailed mechanism, and characteristic properties are comprehensively assessed and compiled along with breakthroughs in MXene fabrication and conjugation strategies for the development of unique electrochemical and optical biosensors. Further, the current challenges are summarized and suggested future aspects. This review article is believed to shed some light on the development of MXene for biosensing and will open new opportunities for the future advanced translational application of MXene bioassays.

Nanotechnology-Enabled Biosensors: A Review of Fundamentals, Design Principles, Materials, and Applications

Biosensors are modern engineering tools that can be widely used for various technological applications. In the recent past, biosensors have been widely used in a broad application spectrum including industrial process control, the military, environmental monitoring, health care, microbiology, and food quality control. Biosensors are also used specifically for monitoring environmental pollution, detecting toxic elements' presence, the presence of bio-hazardous viruses or bacteria in organic matter, and biomolecule detection in clinical diagnostics. Moreover, deep medical applications such as well-being monitoring, chronic disease treatment, and in vitro medical examination studies such as the screening of infectious diseases for early detection. The scope for expanding the use of biosensors is very high owing to their inherent advantages such as ease of use, scalability, and simple manufacturing process. Biosensor technology is more prevalent as a large-scale, low cost, and enhanced technology in the modern medical field. Integration of nanotechnology with biosensors has shown the development path for the novel sensing mechanisms and biosensors as they enhance the performance and sensing ability of the currently used biosensors. Nanoscale dimensional integration promotes the formulation of biosensors with simple and rapid detection of molecules along with the detection of single biomolecules where they can also be evaluated and analyzed critically. Nanomaterials are used for the manufacturing of nano-biosensors and the nanomaterials commonly used include nanoparticles, nanowires, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), nanorods, and quantum dots (QDs). Nanomaterials possess various advantages such as color tunability, high detection sensitivity, a large surface area, high carrier capacity, high stability, and high thermal and electrical conductivity. The current review focuses on nanotechnology-enabled biosensors, their fundamentals, and architectural design. The review also expands the view on the materials used for fabricating biosensors and the probable applications of nanotechnology-enabled biosensors.

Comparisons of diatoms and fishes as toxic metal bioindicator: a case study of an A-class wetland in northwest Turkey under effect of an intensive paddy cultivation stress

In this research, diatoms as the first step and fishes as the last step of the food chain were compared as toxic metal accumulation bioindicator in an A-class wetland in Turkey. Bioaccumulations of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) were determined in liver, gill and muscle tissues of two commercially consumed fish species Carassius gibelio and Cyprinus carpio and in frustules of epiphytic diatom communities living on submerged macrophytes. Samples were collected seasonally from the Gala Lake, which is among the best stopover habitats of birds migrating between Europe and Africa, considering the paddy harvest period that is a major stress factor for the ecosystem. Also, potential human health risks associated with the consumption of fishes and consumption - dermal contact of diatoms were evaluated both for summer - before paddy harvest (BPH) and autumn - after paddy harvest (APH) periods. As a result of this research, the investigated toxic metal concentrations were increased significantly in diatoms in the APH period, while less significant exchanges were recorded in fishes. The bioaccumulations of PTEs were ranked as follows: Zn > Mn > Se > Cu > B > Cr > Ni > As > Pb > Cd for C. gibelio; Zn > Mn > Se > Cu > B > Cr > As > Ni > Pb > Cd for C. carpio; and Mn > Zn > Se > Pb > B > Ni > Cr > Cu > As > Cd for diatom frustules. Although the HI values in diatoms detected in the APH period were statistically significantly higher (about 1000 times; p < 0.05) than detected in the BPH period, they were less than the limit of 1 in both seasons. However, the HI coefficients of fishes were quite higher than the limit (an average of 23.59 for C. gibelio and 19.18 for C. carpio), which means quite high probable non-carcinogenic health risks for humans. Furthermore, the CR coefficients of Cr, Ni and As in muscle tissues of fishes were considerably higher than the limit of 10-4, which reflects a significant carcinogenic health risk for consumers. The data showed that although the fishes at the top of the food chain bioaccumulate the PTEs in their tissues much higher than the diatoms at the bottom of the food chain, the diatoms are much more sensitive to changes in the environmental conditions than the fishes and they are more effective biological tools as toxic metal accumulation bioindicators.

A review on carbon-based molecularly-imprinted polymers (CBMIP) for detection of hazardous pollutants in aqueous solutions

This article discusses the unique properties and performance of carbon-based molecularly-imprinted polymers (MIPs) for detecting hazardous pollutants in aqueous solutions. Although MIPs have several advantages such as specific recognition sites, selectivity, and stability, they suffer from a series of drawbacks, including loss of conductivity, electrocatalytic activity, and cost, which limit their use in various fields. Carbon-based MIPs, which utilize carbon electrodes, carbon nanoparticles, carbon dots, carbon nanotubes, and graphene substrates, have been the focus of research in recent years to enhance their properties and remove their weaknesses as much as possible. These carbon-based nanomaterials have excellent sensitivity and specificity for molecular identification. As a result, they have been widely used in various applications, such as assessing the environmental, biological, and food samples. This article examines the growth of carbon-based MIPs and their environmental applications.

Detection of Emerging Pollutants Using Aptamer-Based Biosensors: Recent Advances, Challenges, and Outlook

The synergistic potentialities of innovative materials that include aptamers have opened new paradigms in biosensing platforms for high-throughput monitoring systems. The available nucleobase functional moieties in aptamers offer exclusive features for bioanalytical sensing applications. In this context, compared to various in-practice biological recognition elements, the utilization of aptamers in detection platforms results in an extensive range of advantages in terms of design flexibility, stability, and sensitivity, among other attributes. Thus, the utilization of aptamers-based biosensing platforms is extensively anticipated to meet unaddressed challenges of various in-practice and standard analytical and sensing techniques. Furthermore, the superior characteristics of aptasensors have led to their applicability in the detection of harmful pollutants present in ever-increasing concentrations in different environmental matrices and water bodies, seeking to achieve simple and real-time monitoring. Considering the above-mentioned critiques and notable functional attributes of aptamers, herein, we reviewed aptamers as a fascinating interface to design, develop, and deploy a new generation of monitoring systems to aid modern bioanalytical sensing applications. Moreover, this review aims to summarize the most recent advances in the development and application of aptasensors for the detection of various emerging pollutants (EPs), e.g., pharmaceutical, and personal care products (PPCPs), endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), pesticides and other agricultural-related compounds, and toxic heavy elements. In addition, the limitations and current challenges are also reviewed, considering the technical constraints and complexity of the environmental samples.

N, S dual doped mesoporous carbon assisted simultaneous electrochemical assay of emerging water contaminant hydroquinone and catechol

Heteroatom doped mesoporous carbon materials are promising catalysts for the electrochemical sensing application. Herein, we report highly efficient dual heteroatom-doped hexagonal mesoporous carbon (MC) derived from Santa Barbara Amorphous-15 (SBA-15) hard template for the detection of phenolic isomers. The synthesis involves dopamine hydrochloride (DA)/thiophene complex, which helps to attain perfectly retained N and S dual doped mesoporous carbon (NS-MC) framework. NS-MC exhibits higher surface area (951 m² g^-1) as well as higher pore volume (0.12 cm³ g^-1) with huge graphitic, pyridinic and thiophenic defective sites which facilitates the well-resolved simultaneous electrochemical detection of phenolic isomers hydroquinone (HQ) and catechol (CC). Our results demonstrate that as-synthesized NS-MC material had a LOD of 0.63 μM and 0.29 μM for HQ and CC, respectively. From the calibration curve, sensitivities of proposed sensor were found to be 9.44, 2.71 μA μM^-1 cm^-2 and 20.80, 10.02 μA μM^-1 cm^-2 for HQ and CC, respectively with good linear ranges of 10-45 μM and 45-115 μM for HQ; 2-16 μM and 16-40 μM for CC. The NS-MC modified electrode exhibited good selectivity over various possible interferences. The present investigation reveals that the proposed NS-MC material is a promising metal-free catalyst which boosted to electrochemically detect both HQ and CC, present in the municipal tap as well as natural river stream water samples.

Ternary heterostructures of 1D/2D/2D CuCo2S4/CuS/Ti3C2 MXene: Boosted amperometric sensing for chlorpyrifos

Multicomponent heterogeneous Ti₃C₂ transition metal carbide (MXene)-based materials are receiving extensive research attention due to their interesting synergistic interactions and catalytic properties. However, the morphology-controllable synthesis of heterostructures as structural stabilizers for Ti₃C₂ MXene remains a challenge owing the complicated synthesis procedure. In this work, a kind of ternary heterogeneous nanomaterials CuCo₂S₄/CuS/Ti₃C₂ MXene with a nanorod/nanoplate/nanosheet hybrid architecture is constructed through a one-step low-temperature solvothermal method. The well-designed ternary one-dimensional (1D)/two-dimensional (2D)/2D CuCo₂S₄/CuS/Ti₃C₂ MXene heteromaterials exhibit synergistic improvements in substrate-catalyzed reactions for electrochemical acetylcholinesterase (AChE) biosensor. The Michaelis-Menten constant for the Nafion/AChE/CuCo₂S₄/CuS/Ti₃C₂ MXene/GCE biosensor is 228 μM, which is smaller than ones reported in previous literatures, indicating a higher affinity of the fabricated enzyme biosensor to acetylthiocholine chloride. The biosensor exhibits a well linear relationship with chlorpyrifos concentration ranging from 2.852 × 10^-12 M to 2.852 × 10^-6 M. The multicomponent 1D/2D/2D CuCo₂S₄/CuS/Ti₃C₂ MXene heteromaterial may shine a light in more electrochemical applications.

Polymer based nanocomposites: A strategic tool for detection of toxic pollutants in environmental matrices

A large fraction of population is suffering from waterborne diseases due to the contaminated drinking water. Both anthropogenic and natural sources are responsible for water contamination. Revolution in industrial and agriculture sectors along with a huge increase in human population has brought more amount of wastes like heavy metals, pesticides and antibiotics. These toxins are very harmful for human health, therefore, it is necessary to sense their presence in environment. Conventional strategies face various problems in detection and quantification of these pollutants such as expensive equipment and requirement of high maintenance with limited portability. Recently, nanostructured devices have been developed to detect environmental pollutants. Polymeric nanocomposites have been found robust, cost effective, highly efficient and accurate for sensing various environmental pollutants and this is due to their porous framework, multi-functionalities, redox properties, great conductivity, catalytic features, facile operation at room temperature and large surface area. Synergistic effects between polymeric matrix and nanomaterials are responsible for improved sensing features and environmental adaptability. This review focuses on the recent advancement in polymeric nanocomposites for sensing heavy metals, pesticides and antibiotics. The advantages, disadvantages, operating conditions and future perspectives of polymeric nanocomposites for sensing toxic pollutants have also been discussed.

Electrochemical detection of nicotine at a carbon Nanofiber-Poly(amidoamine) dendrimer modified glassy carbon electrode

Development of electrochemical sensors for important drugs such nicotine (an addictive drug) is important for the society. This study reports the electrochemical detection of nicotine at a carbon nanofiber/poly (amidoamine) dendrimer modified glassy carbon electrode. The carbon nanofiber (CNF) modified GCE was prepared by drop-coating followed by the electrodeposition of generation 4 poly (amidoamine) succinamic acid dendrimer (PAMAM) to form the sensor - CNF-PAMAM GCE. Characterization of prepared materials and modified electrodes was carried out using Fourier transmission infrared spectroscopy, field emission scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy, Raman spectroscopy, cyclic voltammetry, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) and differential pulse voltammetry (DPV). The CNF-PAMAM composite was confirmed by microscopy. A marked reduction in charge transfer resistance and increase in current of the CNF-PAMAM GCE in comparison to the bare electrode showed a synergic improvement electrochemical response because of the CNF-PAMAM nanocomposite. The CNF-PAMAM demonstrated an enhanced performance in the oxidation of nicotine in comparison to the bare GCE by shifting the anodic potential E_pa of nicotine from 0.9 V to 0.8 V. The electrochemical sensor achieved a detection limit (LOD) of 0.02637 μM in the concentration range of 0.4815-15.41 μM of nicotine in 0.1 M PBS at pH 7.5. The sensor ability to determine nicotine in real samples was assessed in cigarettes obtaining recovery percentages of 88.00 and 97.42%. The sensor demonstrated selectivity toward nicotine in the presence of interferences. Finally, the method was validated by ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy analysis.

Robust strategies to eliminate endocrine disruptive estrogens in water resources

The widespread occurrence and ubiquitous distribution of estrogens, i.e., estrone (E1), estradiol (E2), and estriol (E3) in our water matrices, is an issue of global concern. Public and regulatory authorities are concerned and placing joint efforts to eliminate estrogens and related environmentally hazardous compounds, due to their toxic influences on the environmental matrices, ecology, and human health, even at low concentrations. However, most of the available literature is focused on the occurrence of estrogens in different water environments with limited treatment options. Thus, a detailed review to fully cover the several treatment processes is needed. This review comprehensively and comparatively discusses many physical, chemical, and biological-based treatments to eliminate natural estrogens, i.e., estrone (E1), estradiol (E2), and estriol (E3) and related synthetic estrogens, e.g., 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2) and other related hazardous compounds. The covered techniques include adsorption, nanofiltration, ultrafiltration, ultrasonication, photocatalysis of estrogenic compounds, Fenton, Fenton-like and photo-Fenton degradation of estrogenic compounds, electro-Fenton degradation of estrogenic compounds, ozonation, and biological methods for the removal of estrogenic compounds are thoroughly discussed with suitable examples. The studies revealed that treatment plants based on chemical and biological approaches are cost-friendly for removing estrogenic pollutants. Further, there is a need to properly monitor and disposal of the usage of estrogenic drugs in humans and animals. Additional studies are required to explore a robust and more advanced oxidation treatment strategy that can contribute effectively to industrial-scale applications. This review may assist future investigations, monitoring, and removing estrogenic compounds from various environmental matrices. In concluding remarks, a way forward and future perspectives focusing on bridging knowledge gaps in estrogenic compounds removal are also proposed.

Facile synthesis of nanomaterials as nanofertilizers: a novel way for sustainable crop production

Nutrient fertilization plays a major role in improving crop productivity and maintaining soil fertility. In the last few decades, the productivity of current agricultural practices highly depends on the use of chemical fertilizers. Major drawback of traditional fertilizers is their low crop nutrient use efficiency and high loss into water. Nanomaterial in agriculture is a multipurpose tool for increasing growth, development, and yield of plants. Nanotechnology facilitates the amplifying of agriculture production by reducing relevant losses and improving the input efficiency. Nanotechnology has emerged as an attractive field of research and has various agriculture applications, especially the use of nano-agrochemicals to increase nutrient use efficiency and agricultural yield. Nanofertilizers are more effective as compared to chemical fertilizers due to their cost-efficient, eco-friendly, non-toxic, and more stable in nature. Overall, this chapter focuses on synthesis of nanofertilizers through physical, chemical, and biological methods. This chapter will also explore the use of nano-enabled fertilizers to enhance the nutrient use efficiency for sustainable crop production, and global food safety.

Thermal Properties of MXenes and Relevant Applications

The properties and applications of MXenes (a family of layered transition metal carbides, nitrides, and carbonitrides) have aroused enormous research interests for a decade since the successful synthesis of few-layer transition metal carbides in 2011. Though MXenes, as the building blocks, have already been applied in various fields (such as wearable electronics) owing to the distinctive optical, mechanical and electrical properties, their thermal stability and intrinsic thermal properties were less thoroughly investigated compared to other characteristics in early reports. The pioneering theoretical prediction of the thermoelectric nature of MXenes was performed in 2013 while the first experiment-based report concerning the degradation behavior of the 2D structure at elevated temperatures in a controlled atmosphere was published in 2015, followed by numerous discoveries regarding the thermal properties of MXenes. Herein, after a brief description of the synthesis, this Review summarized the latest insights into the thermal stability and thermophysical properties of MXenes, and further associated these unique properties with relevant applications by multiple examples. Finally, current hurdles and challenges in this field were provided along with some advices on potential research directions in the future.

Synthesis, Toxicity Assessment, Environmental and Biomedical Applications of MXenes: A Review

MXenes are a family of two-dimensional (2D) composite materials based on transition metal carbides, nitrides and carbonitrides that have been attracting attention since 2011. Combination of electrical and mechanical properties with hydrophilicity makes them promising materials for biomedical applications. This review briefly discusses methods for the synthesis of MXenes, their potential applications in medicine, ranging from sensors and antibacterial agents to targeted drug delivery, cancer photo/chemotherapy, tissue engineering, bioimaging, and environmental applications such as sensors and adsorbents. We focus on in vitro and in vivo toxicity and possible mechanisms. We discuss the toxicity analogies of MXenes and other 2D materials such as graphene, mentioning the greater biocompatibility of MXenes. We identify existing barriers that hinder the formation of objective knowledge about the toxicity of MXenes. The most important of these barriers are the differences in the methods of synthesis of MXenes, their composition and structure, including the level of oxidation, the number of layers and flake size; functionalization, test concentrations, duration of exposure, and individual characteristics of biological test objects Finally, we discuss key areas for further research that need to involve new methods of nanotoxicology, including predictive computational methods. Such studies will bring closer the prospect of widespread industrial production and safe use of MXene-based products.

Convex fiber-tapered seven core fiber-convex fiber (CTC) structure-based biosensor for creatinine detection in aquaculture

The purpose of this article is to propose an optical fiber sensor probe based on the localized surface plasma resonance (LSPR) technique for the detection of creatinine in aquaculture. The sensing probe is functionalized through the use of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), niobium carbide (Nb₂CTx) MXene, and creatinase (CA) enzyme. The intrinsic total internal reflection (TIR) mechanism is modified to increase the evanescent field intensity using a heterogeneous core mismatch and tapering probe structure (i.e., convex fiber-tapered seven core fiber-convex fiber (CTC) structure). Strong evanescent fields can stimulate AuNPs and induce the LSPR effect, thereby increasing probe sensitivity. The specific recognition is enhanced by Nb₂CTx MXene adsorbing more active CA enzymes. The developed sensor probe has a sensitivity and limit of detection of 3.1 pm/µM and 86.12 µM, respectively, in the linear range of 0-2000 µM. Additionally, the sensor probe's reusability, reproducibility, stability, and selectivity were evaluated, with satisfactory results obtained with impact for areas like food protein, marine life and healthcare.