High internal phase emulsions stabilized with amyloid fibrils and their polysaccharide complexes for encapsulation and protection of β-carotene

Hydrogels of diet-derived electron donors restore epithelial hypoxia and reduce iNOS synthesis to inhibit inflammation-induced overgrowth of facultatively anaerobic bacteria for gut homeostasis

Food hydrogels targeting respiration of microorganisms via changing the micro-ecological environment in gut were prepared through the self-assembly of polyphenols extracted from tea leaves harvested in summer and autumn and the protein fibrils originating from egg white lysozyme. Oral administration with the hydrogels effectively inhibited the over-expansion of the facultative anaerobic bacterium indicated by E. coli Nissle 1917 (EcN) and alleviated the clinic symptoms of chronic intestinal inflammation in mice. Importantly, the hypoxia of epithelial cells was elevated significantly and the overexpression of the inducible NO synthase (INOs)-related NOS2 gene was inhibited substantially in colons of the colitis mice, which accounted for prevention of the abnormal expansion of E. coli via blocking respiration. The treatment with the hydrogels preserved normal mitochondrial function in colonic epithelial cells under oxidative stress, which could serve as the mechanism to maintain the capability to consume oxygen.

High internal phase Pickering emulsions stabilized by tea residue protein: Application in β-carotene encapsulation

The increasing production and consumption of tea drinks has led to the generation of large amounts of discarded extracted tea residues. As a result, researchers have attempted to extract tea water-insoluble protein (TP) from discarded tea residues to produce food emulsifiers. Thus, in this study, high-internal-phase Pickering emulsions (HIPPEs) stabilized by TP were developed and characterized. First, the effects of salt ions on the emulsifying properties of TP were examined using interfacial tension and hydrophobicity. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy was used to determine the suitable range of salt ions in the processing stage. Then, the particle size distribution, microstructure, rheological properties, and stability of the emulsions were systematically investigated by controlling the oil phase volume, particle concentration of TP, and emulsification method. The results showed that TP was effectively adsorbed on the oil-water interface and formed a stable particle layer, which means that TP-stable high-internal-phase Pickering emulsions (TPHIPPEs) has been successfully prepared. Further analysis showed that TPHIPPEs exhibited good stability and gelation properties. The pH range was 7-9, and the salt ion concentration was <0.5 M. Additionally, TPHIPPEs exhibited excellent temperature tolerance and antioxidant ability. Finally, the application development results revealed that the loading and retention rates of β-carotene in TPHIPPEs were significantly higher than those of the control group of camellia oil, and that TPHIPPEs exhibited good resistance to UV light and thermal degradation. This study provides new insights into the high-value utilization of tea residue resources.

Study on the enhanced 3D printing performance of high internal phase emulsions using protein fibrosis strategy

Soy glycinin amyloid fibrils (11Fs) with different lengths were prepare, and their influence on 3D printing performance of high internal phase emulsions (HIPEs) were investigated. The longest fibril with an average length of 1594.40 ± 135.56 nm and a maximum surface charge of 27.62 ± 0.57 mV was obtained after 9 h heating treatment. The intermolecular force analysis revealed that the formation of amyloid fibrils was mainly mediated by hydrophobic interaction. The interfacial rheology showed the fibrils had faster diffusion and rearrangement rate at the oil-water interface compared with 11S, leading to a quicker reduction in the interfacial tension. Notably, the interfacial film formed by 11F9 maintained the highest dilatational modulus, which might be attributed to the entanglement of long fibrils to form a more elastic and tough network structure, thereby enhancing the storage and thermal stability of HIPEs. With increasing fibril length, the viscosity, G' and G'' of HIPEs slightly increased, and the linear viscoelastic region (LVR) gradually widened. 3D printing test revealed that HIPEs formed of 11F9 had good extrudability, high printability and shape fidelity. This study could provide a promising guide for enhancing the 3D printing performance of protein-based HIPEs.

Xanthan gum modulation of octenyl succinic anhydrate starch-based high internal phase emulsions: Characterization, rheological behavior, and 3D printing applications

The growing popularity of three-dimensional (3D) food printing has highlighted the need for suitable printable materials. This study explores the impact of xanthan gum on octenyl succinic anhydride (OSA) starch-stabilized High Internal Phase Emulsions (HIPEs) for 3D food printing applications. Xanthan gum was added to increase the viscosity of the continuous phase, which helps to slow down the movement and reduce the collision of emulsion droplets. The enhanced rheological properties resulting from the addition of xanthan gum enabled the successful use of OSA-based HIPEs in 3D printing. The formulation containing 0.3 wt% xanthan gum produced accurately detailed printed scaffolds. Furthermore, the study demonstrates improved thermal stability of β-carotene when encapsulated within these HIPEs. These findings provide comprehensive guidelines for formulating starch HIPE inks, presenting a promising method for incorporating diverse hydrophobic molecules in 3D food printing applications.

Fiber complex-stabilized high-internal-phase emulsion for allicin encapsulation: microstructure, stability, and thermal-responsive properties

BACKGROUND

Stimuli-responsive emulsions have garnered significant attention for their ability to enhance sensory qualities and control the release of encapsulated nutrient in emulsion-based products. However, the characteristics of synthetic materials of fabricating stimuli-responsive emulsions have been a crucial limitation in the food industry. Regulating the behavior of molecules at the interface could potentially achieve the desired stimuli-responsive behavior, but currently there is limited information available.

RESULTS

High-internal-phase emulsions (HIPEs) were fabricated for the encapsulation of allicin, stabilized by a complex of 20 g kg-1 whey protein amyloid fibrils (WPF) and 20 g kg-1 glycyrrhizin fibers (GA). The intermolecular interactions between WPF and GA in the fiber complexes were predominantly governed by hydrophobic and electrostatic forces. These complexes adsorbed and stacked around the oil droplets, forming a protective interfacial film that enhanced droplet stability. An increased proportion of WPF (WPF = 3:1 or 4:1) surrounding the oil droplets enhanced the accelerated storage stability of HIPEs, with instability indexes approaching 0.2. Additionally, HIPEs displayed a temperature-dependent modulus, with the emulsion stabilized by a WPF ratio of 3:1 showing the highest modulus at 85 °C. The encapsulation efficiency of allicin in HIPEs ranged from 88.69 ± 6.62% to 101 ± 1.37% at 25 °C, and from 31.95 ± 1.92% to 78.69 ± 4.63% after incubation at 85 °C for 8 h. The release profile of allicin from the HIPEs exhibited thermal responsiveness, depending on the interfacial content of GA.

CONCLUSION

These findings indicated that the thermal-responsive properties of HIPEs can be strategically engineered by manipulating their interfacial characteristics. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

High internal phase emulsion as a fat replacer: Effect on physico-chemical properties, microstructure and protein digestibility of processed meat during reheating

Excessive intake of saturated fatty acids poses health risks, necessitating the development of healthier animal fat substitutes. In this study, high internal phase emulsion (HIPE) stabilized by egg yolk-hydroxypropyl distarch phosphate (EY-HPDSP) complex was used as a fat replacer in processed meat. The effect of fat replacement ratios (0 %, 50 %, 100 %) and reheating core temperature (75 ℃, 85 ℃, 95 ℃) on physico-chemical properties, microstructure and protein digestibility of processed meat was investigated. HIPE addition enhanced the hardness, springiness and L* values, and reduced the cooking loss and TBARs values of the processed meat (P < 0.05). Moreover, the replacement of HIPE significantly increased the protein digestibility and surface hydrophobicity, decreased the free sulfhydryl content and also caused the decreases in the amount of α-helix concomitant with increases in β-sheet, random coil and β-turn contents. When reheated to the core temperatures of 75-85 ℃, the hardness, T22 and A22 and protein digestibility were not significantly affected by 50 % fat substitution. At 95 ℃, the HIPE filled in the matrix underwent destruction that reduced the springiness of fat-reduced meats. This study suggested that HIPE fabricated by EY-HPDSP complex could be a viable fat replacer for processed meat before and reheating.

Recent advances in nutraceutical delivery systems constructed by protein-polysaccharide complexes: A systematic review

Most nutraceuticals have low stability and solubility, making it difficult to achieve ideal bioavailability by directly incorporating into food. Therefore, constructing delivery systems to protect nutraceuticals is an essential strategy. Proteins and polysaccharides have become ideal materials for encapsulating nutraceuticals due to their superior nutritional value, edible safety, and physicochemical properties. This review first introduces the binding methods of protein-polysaccharide complexes and analyzes their respective merits, defects, and applications. Then, various protein-polysaccharide complex-based nutraceutical delivery systems are systematically summarized, including emulsions, gels, nanoparticles, microcapsules, complexes, and films, which can improve the stability, encapsulation efficiency, and bioaccessibility of nutraceuticals. In addition to traditional globular proteins mentioned in previous reviews, this review also introduces the advantages of another morphology of proteins (protein fibrils with linear structure) in the formation of protein-polysaccharide complexes and the construction of nutraceutical delivery systems. Next, the affecting factors are analyzed to achieve the precise control of protein-polysaccharide complex-based nutraceutical delivery systems. To improve public acceptability of protein-polysaccharide complex-based nutraceutical delivery systems, the safety and regulatory aspects are also discussed in detail. Moreover, the applications of such delivery systems are presented, including dietary supplements, food ingredients, food packaging, and food detection. Finally, several promising research directions that had not been provided before are innovatively proposed, including cell-cultured meat scaffolds, plant-based meat analogs, three-dimensional printing inks, and "three reductions" foods. Overall, this review provides guidance for designing protein-polysaccharide complex-based nutraceutical delivery systems with customized nutrition and superior bioavailability.

Advancements in emulsion systems for specialized infant formulas: Research process and formulation proposals for optimizing bioavailability of nutraceuticals

With the rapid advancements in nutrition and dietary management, infant formulas for special medical purposes (IFSMPs) have been developed to cater to the unique nutraceutical requirements of infants with specific medical conditions or physiological features. However, there are various challenges in effectively preserving and maximizing the health benefits of the specific nutraceuticals incorporated in IFSMPs. This review provides an overview of the nutritional compositions of various IFSMPs and highlights the challenges associated with the effective supplementation of specific nutraceuticals for infants. In addition, it emphasizes the promising potential of emulsion delivery systems, which possess both encapsulation and delivery features, to significantly improve the solubility, stability, oral acceptance, and bioavailability (BA) of nutraceutical bioactives. Based on this information, this work proposes detailed strategies for designing and developing model IFSMP emulsions to enhance the BA of specially required nutraceuticals. Key areas covered include emulsion stabilization, selective release mechanisms, and effective absorption of nutraceuticals. By following these proposals, researchers and industry professionals can design and optimize emulsion-based IFSMPs with enhanced health benefits. This review not only outlines the developmental states of IFSMP formulations but also identifies future research directions aimed at improving the physiological health benefits of IFSMPs. This effort lays the theoretical groundwork for the further development of emulsion-type IFSMP in infant formula (IF) industry, positioning the IF industry to better meet the complex needs of infants requiring specialized nutrition.

Protein oxidation affected the encapsulation properties of rice bran protein fibril-high internal phase pickering emulsions: Enhanced stability and bioaccessibility of β-carotene

Rice bran protein fibril (RBPF)-high internal phase Pickering emulsions (HIPPEs) loaded with β-carotene (CE) were constructed to enhance stability and bioavailability of CE. Rice bran (RB) protein with varying oxidation degrees was extracted from RB with varying storage period (0-10 days) to prepare RBPF by acid-heating (90 °C, 2-12 h) to stabilize HIPPEs. The influence of protein oxidation on the encapsulation properties of RBPF-HIPPEs was studied. The results showed that CE-HIPPEs could be stably stored for 56 days at 25 °C. When RB storage time was the same, the average particle size, lipid hydroperoxide content, and malondialdehyde content of CE-HIPPEs and the CE degradation rate initially fell, and then grew as the acid-heating time prolonged, while the ζ-potential value, viscosity, viscoelasticity, free fatty acid (FFA) release rate, and bioaccessibility first rose, and subsequently fell. When acid-heating time of RBPF was the same, the average particle size, lipid hydroperoxide content, and malondialdehyde content of CE-HIPPEs initially fell, and subsequently increased with RB storage time extended, while the ζ-potential value, viscosity, viscoelasticity, FFA release rate, and bioaccessibility initially increased, and then decreased. Overall, Moderate oxidation and moderate acid-heating enhanced the stability as well as rheological properties of CE-HIPPEs, thus improving the stability and bioaccessibility of CE. This study offered a new insight into the delivery of bioactive substances by protein fibril aggregates-based HIPPEs.

Effects of rice bran rancidity on the interfacial adsorption properties of rice bran protein fibril aggregates and stability of high internal phase Pickering emulsions

The effects of rice bran rancidity-induced protein oxidation and heating time on the stability of rice bran protein fibril aggregates (RBPFA)-high internal phase Pickering emulsions (HIPPEs) were investigated. The optimal conditions for RBPFA-HIPPEs were 8 mg/mL RBPFA with an oil phase volume fraction of 75 %. Moderate oxidation (rice bran stored for 3 d) and moderate heating (8 h) enhanced the wettability, flexibility, diffusion rate, and adsorption rate of RBPFA, meanwhile, the rheological properties of RBPFA-HIPPEs increased. RBPFA-HIPPEs could be stably stored for 50 d at 25 °C. Moderate oxidized and moderate heated RBPFA-stabilized HIPPEs could remain stable after heat treatment and could be re-prepared after freeze-thaw (3 cycles). Additionally, the stability of RBPFA-HIPPEs was significantly related to the structural characteristics and interfacial properties of RBPFA. Overall, moderate oxidation and moderate heating enhanced the storage, thermal, and freeze-thaw stability of RBPFA-HIPPEs by improving the interfacial properties of RBPFA.

Thiacalixarene Carboxylic Acid Derivatives as Inhibitors of Lysozyme Fibrillation

Amyloid fibroproliferation leads to organ damage and is associated with a number of neurodegenerative diseases affecting populations worldwide. There are several ways to protect against fibril formation, including inhibition. A variety of organic compounds based on molecular recognition of amino acids within the protein have been proposed for the design of such inhibitors. However, the role of macrocyclic compounds, i.e., thiacalix[4]arenes, in inhibiting fibrillation is still almost unknown. In the present work, the use of water-soluble thiacalix[4]arene derivatives for the inhibition of hen egg-white lysozyme (HEWL) amyloid fibrillation is proposed for the first time. The binding of HEWL by the synthesized thiacalix[4]arenes (logKa = 5.05-5.13, 1:1 stoichiometry) leads to the formation of stable supramolecular systems capable of stabilizing the protein structure and protecting against fibrillation by 29-45%. The macrocycle conformation has little effect on protein binding strength, and the native HEWL secondary structure does not change via interaction. The synthesized compounds are non-toxic to the A549 cell line in the range of 0.5-250 µg/mL. The results obtained may be useful for further investigation of the anti-amyloidogenic role of thiacalix[4]arenes, and also open up future prospects for the creation of new ways to prevent neurodegenerative diseases.

Ovotransferrin Fibril-Gum Arabic Complexes as Stabilizers for Oleogel-in-Water Pickering Emulsions: Formation Mechanism, Physicochemical Properties, and Curcumin Delivery

This project aimed to explore the influence of the interaction between ovotransferrin fibrils (OTF) and gum arabic (GA) on the formation mechanism, physicochemical properties, and curcumin delivery of the oleogel-in-water Pickering emulsion. Cryo-scanning electron microscopy results showed that OTF-GA complexes effectively adsorbed on the oil-water interface, generating spatial hindrance to inhibit droplet coalescence. The texture analysis also proved that OTF-GA complexes endowed oleogel-in-water Pickering emulsion with preferable springiness (0.49 ± 0.03 mm), chewiness (0.43 ± 0.07 mJ), and adhesion (0.31 ± 0.01 mJ). By exploring the coalescence stability, droplet size, and rheological properties of OTF-GA complexes-stabilized oleogel-in-water Pickering emulsion (OGPE), the higher coagulation stability, larger average droplet size (46.22 ± 0.08 μm), and stronger gel strength were observed. The microrheological results also exhibited stronger attraction between the OGPE droplets, a more pronounced solid-like structure, and a slower speed of movement than OTF-stabilized oleogel-in-water Pickering emulsion (OPE). Meanwhile, OGPE significantly enhanced the extent of lipolysis, stability, and bioaccessibility of curcumin, suggesting that it possessed superior performance as a delivery system for bioactive substances. This project provided adequate theoretical references for protein-polysaccharide complexes-stabilized oleogel-in-water Pickering emulsion, and contributed to expanding the application of oleogel-in-water Pickering emulsion in the food industry.

Lysozyme amyloid fibril-chitosan double network hydrogel: Preparation, characterization, and application on inhibition of Nε-(carboxyethyl)lysine

Nε-(carboxyethyl)lysine (CML), a typical advanced glycosylation end product produced during the processing of meat under high temperature, poses health risks. Active substances like polyphenols are known to inhibit the formation of harmful products during the processing of food. In this study, our objective was to prepare a double network hydrogel (DN) loaded with gallic acid using amyloid fibers and chitosan as a rigid and flexible network, respectively. The network as well as the interactions between the two networks were observed and analyzed. Chitosan concentration was the key factor regulating the structure and properties of the DN. At a chitosan concentration of 0.7%wt, the structure of DN became dense and its mechanical properties were improved, with the loading capacity and loading efficiency being increased by 143.79 % and 128.21 %, compared with those of amyloid fibril alone. Furthermore, the digestibility of gallic acid in simulated intestinal fluid was increased by 215.10 %. Moreover, adding DN to the beef patties effectively inhibited the formation of CML in a dose-response dependent manner. Addition of 3 wt% DN resulted in the inhibitory rate of CML in roast beef patties reaching a high 73.09 %. The quality and palatability of beef patties were improved. These findings suggest that DN shows great potential as an application that may be utilized to deliver active substances aimed at inhibiting CML in the meat processing industry.

Structure-property relationship of pea protein fibrils in stabilization of HIPEs and the encapsulation, protection, controlled release and oral delivery of carotenoids for alleviating intestinal inflammation

Increasing attentions are paid to high internal phase emulsions (HIPEs) due to their unique properties. In this study, pea protein-based fibrils were used as emulsifier to stabilize HIPEs. We demonstrated that the molecular assembly pathway and interfacial behavior of pea protein-based fibrils are affected by ionic strength. And the increased abundance of highly flexible worm-like nanofibrils facilitated their adsorption and packing on oil droplets, resulting in improved emulsion properties to stabilize the HIPEs with the internal phase volume fraction as high as 90%. Based on this, high loading content of carotenoids up to 0.05 wt% in the prepared HIPEs, protection of their stability against heating, UV and iron ions, and significantly increased bio-accessibilities of the carotenoids were realized. Animal studies using a mouse model of DSS-induced colitis revealed that carotenoid loaded HIPEs can alleviate the colon injury, by downregulating the expression of inflammatory cytokines, and promoting intestinal barrier function. This work will deepen the understanding of the formation of pea protein fibrils and provide a reference for the rational use of carotenoid loaded HIPEs in IBD management.

Sulfated Polysaccharides as a Fighter with Protein Non-Physiological Aggregation: The Role of Polysaccharide Flexibility and Charge Density

Proteins can lose native functionality due to non-physiological aggregation. In this work, we have shown the power of sulfated polysaccharides as a natural assistant to restore damaged protein structures. Protein aggregates enriched by cross-β structures are a characteristic of amyloid fibrils related to different health disorders. Our recent studies demonstrated that model fibrils of hen egg white lysozyme (HEWL) can be disaggregated and renatured by some negatively charged polysaccharides. In the current work, using the same model protein system and FTIR spectroscopy, we studied the role of conformation and charge distribution along the polysaccharide chain in the protein secondary structure conversion. The effects of three carrageenans (κ, ι, and λ) possessing from one to three sulfate groups per disaccharide unit were shown to be different. κ-Carrageenan was able to fully eliminate cross-β structures and complete the renaturation process. ι-Carrageenan only initiated the formation of native-like β-structures in HEWL, retaining most of the cross-β structures. In contrast, λ-carrageenan even increased the content of amyloid cross-β structures. Furthermore, κ-carrageenan in rigid helical conformation loses its capability to restore protein native structures, largely increasing the amount of amyloid cross-β structures. Our findings create a platform for the design of novel natural chaperons to counteract protein unfolding.

Design of Novel Knot-like Structures Based on Ovotransferrin Fibril-Gum Arabic Complexes: Effective Strategies to Stabilize Pickering Emulsions

This work aimed to clarify the effects of gum arabic (GA) on the morphology and properties of ovotransferrin fibrils (OVTFs). By constructing OVTF-GA complexes and exploring the dispersion stability, turbidity and the ζ-potential of the complexes, the optimum mass ratio of OVTFs to GA and pH for complex formation were confirmed as being 1:1 and pH 4.6, respectively. The interaction between OVTFs and GA was determined to be predominantly driven by electrostatic attraction. The OVTF-GA complexes exhibited a knot-like structure when observed using atomic force microscopy. Then, OVTFs and OVTF-GA complexes were compared in terms of contact angle, surface hydrophobicity and dynamic interfacial tension. The combination of OVTFs and GA decreased the contact angle of OVTFs from 80.85° to 70.36°. In comparison with OVTFs, OVTF-GA complexes reduced the oil-water interfacial tension to a lower level (8.14 mN/m). Furthermore, the capacities of OVTF-GA complexes in stabilizing emulsions were explored. OVTF-GA complex-stabilized oleogel-based Pickering emulsion (OGPE) was constructed, and OVTF-stabilized oleogel-based Pickering emulsion (OPE) was used as the control. OGPE had a higher emulsified phase volume fraction (EPVF) and stability index (SI). The EPVF of OGPE was 100.0% and 99.4% before and after one-month storage, respectively, compared with 98.3% and 95.7% of OPE. This work can provide some useful references for the design of biopolymers with novel structures composed of protein fibrils and polysaccharides, which may also help to construct and apply protein fibril-polysaccharide complexes under specific needs.

Recent advances in cellulose, pectin, carrageenan and alginate-based oral drug delivery systems

Polymers-based drug delivery systems constitute one of the highly explored thrust areas in the field of the medicinal and pharmaceutical industries. In the past years, the properties of polymers have been modified in context to their solubility, release kinetics, targeted action site, absorption, and therapeutic efficacy. Despite the availability of diverse synthetic polymers for the bioavailability enhancement of drugs, the use of natural polymers is still highly recommended due to their easy availability, accessibility, and non-toxicity. The aim of the review is to provide the available literature of the last five years on oral drug delivery systems based on four natural polymers i.e., cellulose, pectin, carrageenan, and alginate in a concise and tabulated manner. In this review, most of the information is in tabulated form to provide easy accessibility to the reader. The data related to active pharmaceutical ingredients and supported components in different formulations of the mentioned polymers have been made available.

Pickering emulsions stabilized by Chlorella pyrenoidosa protein-chitosan complex for lutein encapsulation

Lutein has many physiological functions like antioxidation, anti-cancer, and anti-inflammation, which presents good potential in the development of functional food for eye protection. However, the hydrophobicity and harsh environment factors during digestive absorption process will greatly reduce lutein bioavailability. In this study, Chlorella pyrenoidosa protein-chitosan complex stabilized Pickering emulsions were prepared, and lutein was encapsulated into corn oil droplets to increase its stability and bioavailability in gastrointestinal digestion. The interaction between Chlorella pyrenoidosa protein (CP) and chitosan (CS), and the effect of chitosan concentration on the emulsifying ability of the complex and emulsion stability were studied. With the increase of CS concentration from 0% to 0.8%, the emulsion droplet size obviously decreased, and the emulsion stability and viscosity increased significantly. In particular, when the concentration was 0.8%, the emulsion system was stable at 80 °C and 400 mM sodium chloride. After ultraviolet irradiation for 48 h, the retention rate of lutein encapsulated in Pickering emulsions was 54.33%, which was significantly higher than that (30.67%) of lutein dissolved in corn oil. The retention rate of lutein in Pickering emulsions stabilized by CP-CS complex was significantly higher than that in Pickering emulsions stabilized by CP only and corn oil after heating at 90 °C for 8 h. The results of simulated gastrointestinal digestion showed that the bioavailability of lutein encapsulated in Pickering emulsions stabilized by CP-CS complex reached 44.83%. These results explored the high-value utilization of Chlorella pyrenoidosa and provided new insights into the preparation of Pickering emulsions and the protection for lutein.

Biopolymer-based pickering high internal phase emulsions: Intrinsic composition of matrix components, fundamental characteristics and perspective

Pickering HIPEs have received tremendous attention in recent years due to their superior stability and unique solid-like and rheological properties. Biopolymer-based colloidal particles derived from proteins, polysaccharides and polyphenols have been demonstrated to be safety stabilizers for the construction of Pickering HIPEs, which can meet the demands of consumers for "all-natural" products and provide "clean-label" foods. Furthermore, the functionality of these biopolymers can be further extended by forming composite, conjugated and multi-component colloidal particles, which can be used to modulate the properties of the interfacial layer, thereby adjusting the performance and stability of Pickering HIPEs. In this review, the factors affecting the interfacial behavior and adsorption characteristics of colloidal particles are discussed. The intrinsic composition of matrix components and fundamental characteristics of Pickering HIPEs are emphatically summarized, and the emerging applications of Pickering HIPEs in the food industry are reviewed. Inspired by these findings, future perspectives concerning this field are also put forward, including (1) the exploration of the interactions between biopolymers used to produce Pickering HIPEs and target food ingredients, and the influence of the added biopolymers on the flavor and mouthfeel of the products, (2) the investigation of the digestion properties of Pickering HIPEs under oral administration, and (3) the fabrication of stimulus-responsive or transparent Pickering HIPEs. This review will give a reference for exploring more natural biopolymers for Pickering HIPEs application development.

Recent progress in emulsion gels: from fundamentals to applications

Emulsion gels, also known as gelled emulsions or emulgels, have garnered great attention both in fundamental research and practical applications due to their superior stability, tunable morphology and microstructure, and promising mechanical and functional properties. From an application perspective, attention in this area has been, historically, mainly focused on food industries, e.g., engineering emulsion gels as fat substitutes or delivery systems for bioactive food ingredients. However, a growing body of studies has, in recent years, begun to demonstrate the full potential of emulsion gels as soft templates for designing advanced functional materials widely applied in a variety of fields, spanning chemical engineering, pharmaceutics, and materials science. Herein, a concise and comprehensive overview of emulsion gels is presented, from fundamentals to applications, highlighting significant recent progress and open questions, to scout for and deepen their potential applications in more fields.

The Ability of Some Polysaccharides to Disaggregate Lysozyme Amyloid Fibrils and Renature the Protein

The deposition of proteins in the form of insoluble amyloid fibril aggregates is linked to a range of diseases. The supramolecular architecture of such deposits is governed by the propagation of β-strands in the direction of protofilament growth. In the present study, we analyze the structural changes of hen egg-white lysozyme fibrils upon their interactions with a range of polysaccharides, using AFM and FTIR spectroscopy. Linear anionic polysaccharides, such as κ-carrageenan and sodium alginate, are shown to be capable to disaggregate protofilaments with eventual protein renaturation. The results help to understand the mechanism of amyloid disaggregation and create a platform for both the development of new therapeutic agents for amyloidose treatment, and the design of novel functional protein-polysaccharide complex-based nanomaterials.

Nanofibrils of food-grade proteins: Formation mechanism, delivery systems, and application evaluation

Due to the high aspect ratio, appealing mechanical characteristics, and various adjustable functional groups on the surface proteins, food-grade protein nanofibrils have attracted great research interest in the field of food science. Fibrillation, known as a process of peptide self-assembly, is recognized as a common attribute for food-grade proteins. Converting food-grade proteins into nanofibrils is a promising strategy to broaden their functionality and applications, such as improvement of the properties of gelling and emulsifying, especially for constructing various delivery systems for bioactive compounds. Protein source and processing conditions have a great impact on the size, structure, and morphology of nanofibrils, resulting in extreme differences in functionality. With this feature, it is possible to engineer nanofibrils into four different delivery systems, including gels, microcapsules, emulsions, and complexes. Construction of nanofibril-based gels via multiple cross-linking methods can endow gels with special network structures to efficiently capture bioactive compounds and extra mechanical behavior. The adsorption behavior of nanofibrils at the interface is highly complex due to the influence of several intrinsic factors, which makes it challenging to form stabilized nanofibril-based emulsion systems. Based on electrostatic interactions, microcapsules and complexes prepared using nanofibrils and polysaccharides have combined functional properties, resulting in adjustable release behavior and higher encapsulation efficiency. The bioactive compounds delivery system based on nanofibrils is a potential solution to enhance their absorption in the gastrointestinal tract, improve their bioavailability, and deliver them to target organs. Although food-grade protein nanofibrils show unknown toxicity to humans, further research can contribute to broadening the application of nanofibrils in delivery systems.

Fabrication of chitosan-protocatechuic acid conjugates to inhibit lipid oxidation and improve the stability of β-carotene in Pickering emulsions: Effect of molecular weight of chitosan

In this study, chitosan (CS) with different molecular weights was functionalized with protocatechuic acid (PA) by free-radical grafting reaction, and used for the inhibition of lipid oxidation and the enhancement of stability of β-carotene in Pickering emulsions. The order of grafting ratio of PA in CS-PA conjugates was CS400 (400 kDa CS) > CS200 (200 kDa CS) > CS100 (100 kDa CS). UV-vis, FT-IR and ¹H NMR spectra proved that PA was covalently bonded to CS through amino and ester linkages. Compared with native CS, three CS-PA conjugates exhibited reduced crystallinity and thermal stability and improved antioxidant activity, with a molecular weight-dependent relationship. Besides, CS-PA-conjugate particles formed by ionic gelling procedure were spherically shaped and homogeneously dispersed, which substantially improved the stability of β-carotene in Pickering emulsions than CS particles under ultraviolet irradiation, natural light exposure and heat treatment, and the retention rates of β-carotene were in the following order: CS200-PA- > CS400-PA- > CS100-PA-conjugate particles. Furthermore, the oxidation stability of Pickering emulsions fabricated by CS-PA-conjugate particles was also higher than that of CS particles. These results will provide valuable information for the application of CS-PA conjugates to protect bioactive components and inhibit lipid oxidation in emulsion systems.

Egg white protein-based delivery system for bioactive substances: a review

Some bioactive substances in food have problems such as poor solubility, unstable chemical properties and low bioavailability, which limits their application in functional food. Recently, many egg white protein-based delivery carriers have been developed to improve the chemical stability, biological activity and bioavailability of bioactive substances. This article reviewed the structure and properties of several major egg white proteins commonly used to construct bioactive substance delivery systems. Several common carrier types based on egg white proteins, including hydrogels, emulsions, micro/nanoparticles, aerogels and electrospinning were then introduced. The biological functions of common bioactive substances, the limitations, and the role of egg white protein-based delivery systems were also discussed. At present, whole egg white protein, ovalbumin and lysozyme are most widely used in delivery systems, while ovotransferrin, ovomucoid and ovomucin are less developed and applied. Egg white protein-based nanoparticles are currently the most commonly used delivery carriers. Egg white protein-based hydrogels, emulsions, and microparticles are also widely used. Future research on the application of various egg white proteins in developed new delivery systems will provide more choices for the delivery of various bioactive substances.

Lysozyme amyloid fibril: Regulation, application, hazard analysis, and future perspectives

Self-assembly of misfolded proteins into ordered fibrillar aggregates known as amyloid results in various human diseases. However, more and more proteins, whether in human body or in food, have been found to be able to form amyloid fibrils with in-depth researches. As a model protein for amyloid research, lysozyme has always been the focus of research in various fields. Firstly, the formation mechanisms of amyloid fibrils are discussed concisely. Researches on the regulation of lysozyme amyloid fibrils are helpful to find suitable therapeutic drugs and unfriendly substances. And this review article summarizes a number of exogenous substances including small molecules, nanoparticles, macromolecules, and polymers. Small molecules are mainly connected to lysozyme through hydrophobic interaction, electrostatic interaction, π-π interaction, van der Waals force and hydrogen bond. Nanoparticles inhibit the formation of amyloid fibers by stabilizing lysozyme and fixing β-sheet. Besides, the applications of lysozyme amyloid fibrils in food-related fields are considered furtherly due to outstanding physical and mechanical properties. Nevertheless, the potential health threats are still worthy of our attention. Finally, we also give suggestions and opinions on the future research direction of lysozyme amyloid fibrils.

High Internal Phase Emulsions Stabilized with Polyphenol-Amyloid Fibril Supramolecules for Encapsulation and Protection of Lutein

High internal phase emulsions (HIPEs), also called highly concentrated emulsions with a minimal internal phase volume fraction of 74%, have been paid increasing attention in the development of functional foods due to their high potential in loading with large amounts of hydrophobic nutriceuticals. In the present study, HIPEs stabilized by polyphenol-amyloid supramolecular filaments were prepared for encapsulation of olive oil and loading with lutein. Binding and stacking of the green tea polyphenol epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) on the surface of amyloid fibrils fabricated from hen egg lysozyme resulted in the hybrid supramolecules, which assembled to form hydrogels. The amyloid fibril clusters shrouded by EGCG were observed in the microstructure of the hydrogels characterized by atomic force microscopy (AFM). HIPEs stabilized by the EGCG-amyloid fibril supramolecules showed the typical microstructure of highly packed polyhedral geometric oil droplets. The gel strength of the HIPEs stabilized by the hybrid supramolecules was greater than that of HIPEs stabilized by pure amyloid fibrils. The droplet size of the HIPEs first decreased and then increased with the increase of EGCG contents in the hybrid supramolecules, which was consistent with the corresponding emulsion morphologies obtained from the images of confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). Aggregation of the protein-based nanofibrils appeared in the continuous phase at higher EGCG contents. The droplet size of the HIPEs decreased with the increase of the amyloid fibril concentration, accompanied by more packed and homogenously dispersed lipid droplets, as shown in the CLSM images. A high loading content of lutein of up to 10 mg/mL in the prepared HIPEs was realized, and the stability of lutein against ultraviolet irradiation, heat, iron, and hydrogen peroxide was promoted significantly. In addition, encapsulation with the HIPEs prevented the oxidization of olive oil, and this effect was enhanced with the increase of the EGCG content in the hybrid supramolecules ranging from 0 to 0.25 wt %. The protection function of the HIPEs might be ascribed to the membrane of interfacial amyloid fibrils and the crowded oil droplet environment, both of which could shield the pro-oxidation factors.

High internal phase emulsions stabilized by native and heat-treated lactoferrin-carboxymethyl chitosan complexes: Comparison of molecular and granular emulsifiers

While the high internal phase emulsions (HIPEs) have been formed by food-grade biopolymers and granules have been widely reported, it is not known which components are more effective. In this work, we first used heat-treated lactoferrin (LF)-carboxymethyl chitosan (CMCTS) granules and native LF-CMCTS physical mixtures as emulsifiers to form HIPEs. The results showed that the interfacial behavior and emulsifying properties of the two complexes were controlled by the ratio of LF-CMCTS and the optimal ratio of LF to CMCTS was 1:1. Heated LF-CMCTS granules anchored to the water-oil interface and formed an elastic shell to stabilize HIPEs, while unheated LF-CMCTS complexes formed a thick film layer to stabilize HIPEs. Both HIPEs could act as delivery systems loaded with curcumin, and they showed better protection of curcumin than Tween-80 under light. This study provides a new basis for the design of LF-based HIPEs systems loaded with lipophilic food functional ingredients.

Exploiting the Amazing Diversity of Natural Source-Derived Polysaccharides: Modern Procedures of Isolation, Engineering, and Optimization of Antiviral Activities

Naturally occurring polysaccharide sulfates are highly diverse, owning variations in the backbone structure, linkage pattern and stereochemistry, branching diversity, sulfate content and positions of sulfate group(s). These structural characteristics bring about diverse sulfated polymers with dissimilar negative charge densities and structure-activity relationships. Herein, we start with a short discussion of techniques needed for extraction, purification, chemical sulfation, and structural characterization of polysaccharides. Processes of isolation and sulfation of plant-derived polysaccharides are challenging and usually involve two steps. In this context, we describe an integrated extraction-sulfation procedure that produces polysaccharide sulfates from natural products in one step, thereby generating additional pharmacological activities. Finally, we provide examples of the spectrum of natural source-derived polysaccharides possessing specific features of bioactivity, in particular focusing on current aspects of antiviral drug development and drug-target interaction. Thus, the review presents a detailed view on chemically engineered polysaccharides, especially sulfated derivatives, and underlines their promising biomedical perspectives.

Fabrication of Composite Structures of Lysozyme Fibril-Zein using Antisolvent Precipitation: Effects of Blending and pH Adjustment Sequences

Antisolvent precipitation is a widely used method to fabricate prolamin-based composites. In the present study, composite structures of lysozyme amyloid fibrils with zein proteins were fabricated using the antisolvent precipitation method by applying different blending and pH adjustment sequences. Globular prolamins were bound to the amyloid fibrils to combine their respective advantages. The dynamic light scattering showed that the composites with a characteristic stabilized behavior (43.60 ± 1.75 mV ∼ 35.20 ± 0.65 mV) were formed at pH 4.0-5.0, in which noncovalent interactions between fibril and particles occurred. Two different structures: fruit tree-like structure and beaded-like structure, were presented in AFM and TEM images due to the different pH adjustment sequences, while blending sequences had negligible effect on the morphology of the composites. A fruit tree-like entity was detected for lysozyme fibril-zein composites, where its "branches" bear zein globular particles. A beaded-like structure was observed for lysozyme fibril-zein composites, where lysozyme fibril was the thread and zein aggregates were the beads. The potential mechanism of this phenomenon can be explained as the fruit tree-like structure being primarily formed through electrostatic interactions while the beaded-like structure is mainly caused by hydrophobic interactions. The composites of fruit tree-like structures hold a more promising stability than those with beaded-like structures. The results of this research would give constructive information for the fabrication of amyloid fibril-prolamin protein composites, which may exhibit the combined advantages of each components and have potential applications in encapsulation and protection of bioactive substances and stabilizing emulsions.

Synergistic enhancement of loading contents and chemical stability of lycopene distributing both inside and on the oil/water interface

Loading contents and chemical stability of lycopene were synergistically enhanced after dispersion in genipin-crosslinked-chitosan (CS) stabilized high internal phase emulsions (HIPEs). HIPEs could be prepared with the parameters for the emulsifiers of CS concentration from 0.5 to 5 mg/mL, pH value from 5.5 to 7.5, and CS/genipin mass ratio from 2:1 to 20:1. High loading content of lycopene, up to 0.25 wt% was achieved, with emulsifier in the final system only 1 mg/mL. As the loading contents were elevated, increasing amount of lycopene distributed in HIPEs in the form of insoluble crystals. Meanwhile, density of oil droplets decreased and the shape changed from polygon to sphere, which is supposed to be related to the interaction between the crystal and the oil-water interface. Stability of lycopene against ultraviolet, temperature, hydrogen peroxide, and iron ions was improved significantly, which could be ascribed to the layer of genipin-crosslinked-CS on oil droplet surface and the crystal status of lycopene. The storage stability of lycopene was improved tremendously after encapsulation by HIPEs. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Low loading content of lycopene in emulsion systems is not conducive to the evaluation of its biological function in subsequent experiments, as well as their real application in food industry. It is also crucial to improve the stability of lycopene for the practical application in food industry. In this work, the loading content in delivery system and the chemical stability of lycopene are improved through encapsulation with high internal phase emulsions (HIPEs). The significance of these results may have implications in fields spanning from colloidal science to functional foods applications.

Electrostatic complexation of β-lactoglobulin aggregates with κ-carrageenan and the resulting emulsifying and foaming properties

The electrostatic complexation of protein and polysaccharide and the functional properties of the complexes are significantly affected by the structure of protein aggregates and are important in the development of new food ingredients. In this work, natural globular β-lactoglobulin (NGBLG), β-lactoglobulin nanoparticles (BLGNP), and β-lactoglobulin fibrils (BLGF) were prepared and complexed with κ-carrageenan (κ-car). Phase diagrams of the NGBLG-, BLGNP-, and BLGF-κ-car systems were established and divided into 4 regions: mixed soluble polymers (I), intramolecular soluble complex (II), intermolecular soluble complex (III), and intermolecular insoluble complex (IV). Aggregation shifted the boundaries of regions III and IV of BLGF- or BLGNP-κ-car to lower pH and higher protein aggregates/κ-car weight ratio (r), especially for BLGF-κ-car. The emulsifying and foaming properties of the 3 mixed systems were investigated in regions I and II. Complexes in region II had significantly better emulsifying properties than the corresponding mixtures in region I and the pure protein aggregates. Interestingly, phase separation resulted in different effects on the foaming properties of the 3 BLG-κ-car complexes, in which BLGF-κ-car complexation in region II decreased the foaming properties in region I but the complexation of NGBLG-κ-car and BLGNP-κ-car in region II increased the foaming properties. The BLGF-κ-car complex in regions I and II provided the best emulsifying and foaming properties. Interfacial data both on oil-water and air-water interfaces overall explained the emulsifying and foaming properties of the complexes.

Recent advances in polysaccharides stabilized emulsions for encapsulation and delivery of bioactive food ingredients: A review

Many bioactive food ingredients were encapsulated in different forms to improve their stability and bioavailability. Emulsions have showed excellent properties in encapsulation, controlled release, and targeted delivery of bioactives. Polysaccharides are widely available and have different structures with different advantages including non-toxic, easily digested, biocompatible and can keep stable over a wide range of pH and temperatures. In this review, the most common polysaccharides and polysaccharide based complexes as emulsifiers to stabilize emulsions in recent ten years are described. The close relationships between the types and structures of polysaccharides and their emulsifying capacities are discussed. In addition, the absorption and bioavailability of bioactive food components loaded in polysaccharide stabilized emulsions are summarized. The main goal of the review is to emphasize the important roles of polysaccharides in stabilizing emulsions. Moreover, speculations regarded to some issues for the further exploration and possible onward developments of polysaccharides stabilized emulsions are also discussed.

Amyloid-Polyphenol Hybrid Nanofilaments Mitigate Colitis and Regulate Gut Microbial Dysbiosis

It is a desirable and powerful strategy to precisely fabricate functional soft matter through self-assembly of molecular building blocks across a range of length scales. Proteins, nucleic acids, and polyphenols are the self-assemblers ubiquitous in nature. Assembly of proteins into flexible biocolloids, amyloid fibrils with high aspect ratio, has emerged as an unchallenged templating strategy for high-end technological materials and bio-nanotechnologies. We demonstrate the ability of these fibrils to support the deposition and self-assembly of polyphenols into hybrid nanofilaments and functional macroscopic hydrogels made thereof. The length scale of the substance that amyloid fibrils can attach with acting as the building templates was extended from nanometer down to sub-nanometer. Significantly increased loading capacities of polyphenols (up to 4.0 wt %) compared to that of other delivery systems and improved stability were realized. After oral administration, the hydrogels could transport from the stomach to the small intestine and finally to the gut (cecum, colon, rectum), with a long retention time in the colon. Oral administration of the hydrogels significantly ameliorated colitis in a mouse model, promoted intestinal barrier function, suppressed the pro-inflammatory mRNA expression, and very significantly (P < 0.01) regulated gut microbial dysbiosis. Specifically, it reduced the abundance of normally enriched operational taxonomic units related to colitis, especially targeting facultative anaerobes of the phylum Proteobacteria, such as Aestuariispira and Escherichia. The short-chain fatty acid metabolites were enriched. Combined with their nontoxic nature observed in this long-term study in mice, the obtained amyloid-polyphenol gels have high application potentials for gastrointestinal diseases by "drugging the microbiome".