Dietary supplementation with blueberries, spinach, or spirulina reduces ischemic brain damage

The effects of Stemregen® host modulation therapy on experimentally induced apical periodontitis in rats

OBJECTIVE

This study evaluated the effect of Stemregen® nutritional supplement on inflammation and resorption in apical periodontitis using a rat model.

METHODOLOGY

Rats were divided in three groups: negative control (n=7), positive control (n=10), and Stemregen® (Stem) (n=10). Apical periodontitis was induced in the positive control and Stem groups, and all rats were sacrificed on the 30th day. Serum phosphorus (P), calcium (Ca), and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) were analyzed. Histopathological assessments measured osteoblastic and osteoclastic activity, inflammation, fibrosis, and abscess density. Immunohistochemical analyses evaluated RANKL, TRAP, and OPG levels.

RESULTS

Results showed significantly lower osteoblastic activity in the negative control compared to Stem and positive control groups (p=0.005). Osteoclastic activity was higher in the positive control (p=0.032). Inflammation and abscess formation were reduced in the Stem group compared to the positive control (p<0.001). OPG levels were lower in the negative control compared to the other groups (p=0.005).

CONCLUSION

Stemregen® effectively reduced inflammation and bone destruction, suggesting potential benefits for apical periodontitis management, though further research is needed.

How do consumers discuss the texture of frozen blueberries? An investigation using word association, hedonic scales and rate-all-that-apply

BACKGROUND

Flavour, texture, and extended shelf life are key quality traits for blueberries. Studies have used trained panelists and texture analysers to evaluate frozen blueberries. However, more studies are needed to investigate consumer perception and acceptance of frozen blueberries' texture. This study used word association, hedonic scales, and rate-all-that-apply to evaluate how consumers perceive the texture of frozen blueberries.

RESULTS

Consumers were interested in the firmness of frozen blueberries, as well as crunchiness, softness, juiciness, and smoothness. They also identified the textural descriptors mushy, tough, chewy, squishy, and mealy. The participants separated the wild blueberries from the cultivated blueberries when evaluating their liking. Textural attributes were correlated with the consumers' overall liking (juicy, firm, crunchy, smooth positively and mushy, tough, squishy negatively).

CONCLUSION

This study identified which textural attributes influence consumers' liking of frozen blueberries. Consumers preferred frozen blueberries that were firm, juicy and crunchy. © 2024 The Author(s). Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

Effects of Vaccinium-derived antioxidants on human health: the past, present and future

Dietary intake of Vaccinium berries has demonstrated significant potential in preventing many risk factors associated with metabolic syndromes in the human population. In recent years, a multitude of research has shown the role of antioxidants derived from Vaccinium berries on chronic diseases such as cardiovascular disorders, diabetes, obesity, and cancer. Several studies have also investigated the effect of Vaccinium berry consumption on their ability to modulate the risk factors associated with oxidative stress, vascular function, inflammation, and lipid metabolism. Regarding cancer, studies showed that the consumption of berries reduces inflammation, inhibits angiogenesis, protects against DNA damage within the cell, and controls apoptosis and proliferation rates in malignant tumours. However, which components are responsible for the health benefits is still unclear. Reports show that whole berry consumption usually confers positive effects on human health, and the health-promoting potentials are likely due to the presence of polyphenols with antioxidant activities. Among these polyphenols, various Vaccinium berry species have been reported to contain anthocyanins and flavonoids. These two polyphenolic compounds are known to have higher antioxidant activity and are beneficial for human health. There are now several studies and human clinical trials documenting the beneficial effects of Vaccinium berries, and these findings suggest that they may be promising for preventing and treating neurodegenerative diseases. This review focuses primarily on dietary Vaccinium berries consumption effects on human health and their potential role as therapeutic agents.

Medicinal plants and plant-based traditional medicine: Alternative treatments for depression and their potential mechanisms of action

Background

Clinical depression is a serious public health issue that affects 4.7 % of the world's population and can lead to suicide tendencies. Although drug medications are available, only 60 % of the depressed patients respond positively to the treatments, while the rest experience side effects that resulted in the discontinuation of their medication. Thus, there is an urgent need for developing a new anti-depressant with a distinct mode of action and manageable side effects. One of the options is using medicinal plants or plant-based traditional medicine as alternative therapies for psychiatric disorders.

Objectives

Therefore, the objective of this review was twofold; to identify and critically evaluate anti-depressant properties of medicinal plants or those incorporated in traditional medicine; and to discuss their possible mechanism of action as well as challenges and way forward for this alternative treatment approach.

Methods

Relevant research articles were retrieved from various databases, including Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science, for the period from 2018 to 2020, and the search was updated in September 2024. The inclusion criterion was relevance to antidepressants, while the exclusion criteria included duplicates, lack of full-text availability, and non-English publications.

Results

Through an extensive literature review, more than 40 medicinal plant species with antidepressant effects were identified, some of which are part of traditional medicine. The list of the said plant species included Albizia zygia (DC.) J.F.Macbr., Calculus bovis Sativus, Celastrus paniculatus Willd., Cinnamomum sp., Erythrina velutina Willd., Ficus platyphylla Delile, Garcinia mangostana Linn., Hyptis martiusii Benth, and Polygonum multiflorum Thunb. Anti-depressant mechanisms associated with those plants were further characterised based on their modes of action such as anti-oxidation system, anti-inflammation action, modulation of various neurotransmitters, neuroprotective effect, the regulation of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and anti-depressant mechanism. The challenges and future outlook of this alternative and complementary medicine are also explored and discussed.

Conclusion

This pool of identified plant species is hoped to offer health care professionals the best possible alternatives of anti-depressants from natural phytocompounds that are efficacious, safe and affordable for applications in future clinical settings.

Bioactive compounds and in vitro biological properties of Arthrospira platensis and Athrospira maxima: a comparative study

Cyanobacteria, especially Arthrospira, are valuable resources of nutrients and natural pigments with many beneficial health-related properties. This study optimized the extraction conditions of Arthrospira to achieve high phenolic contents and antioxidant activities. Under optimized extraction conditions, the bioactive compounds (phenolics and pigment components), antioxidant activities, and inhibitions of the key enzymes relevant to some non-communicable diseases were compared between Arthrospira platensis and Arthrospira maxima. Optimized extraction conditions were determined as 2 h shaking time, 50 °C extraction temperature, and 1% (w/v) solid-to-liquid ratio, giving effective phenolic and phycocyanin contents using aqueous extraction, while 80% (v/v) aqueous ethanolic extraction provided high total chlorophyll content. Most antioxidant activities were higher using 80% (v/v) aqueous ethanolic extracts. Both Arthrospira species inhibited the key enzymes involved in controlling non-communicable diseases including hyperlipidemia (lipase), diabetes (α-amylase, α-glucosidase, and dipeptidyl peptidase-IV), Alzheimer's disease (acetylcholinesterase, butyrylcholinesterase and β-secretase), and hypertension (angiotensin-converting enzyme). High inhibitory activities were detected against β-secretase (BACE-1), the enzyme responsible for β-amyloid plaque formation in the brain that acts as a significant hallmark of Alzheimer's disease. Arthrospira extract and donepezil (Alzheimer's disease drug) synergistically inhibited BACE-1, suggesting the potential of Arthrospira extracts as effective BACE-1 inhibitors. Interestingly, A. maxima exhibited higher bioactive compound contents, antioxidant activities, and key enzyme inhibitions than A. platensis, indicating high potential for future food and medicinal applications.

Blueberry extract for the treatment of ischaemic stroke through regulating the gut microbiota and kynurenine metabolism

Although the gut microbiota and kynurenine (KYN) metabolism have significant protective effects against ischaemic stroke (IS), the exact mechanism has yet to be fully elucidated. Combined serum metabolomics and 16S rRNA gene sequencing were used to reveal the differences between the gut microbiota and metabolites in rats treated with or without blueberry extract. Faecal microbiota transplantation (FMT) was employed to validate the protective role of the gut microbiota in IS. Furthermore, the interaction between Prevotella and IS was also confirmed in patients. Rats with IS experienced neurological impairments accompanied by an impaired intestinal barrier and disturbed intestinal flora, which further contributed to heightened inflammatory responses. Furthermore, Prevotella played a critical role in IS pathophysiology, and a positive correlation between Prevotella and KYN was detected. The role of KYN metabolism in IS was further demonstrated by the finding that IDO was significantly upregulated and that the use of the IDO inhibitor, attenuated KYN metabolic pathway activity and ameliorated neurological damage in rats with IS. Prevotella intervention also significantly improved stroke symptoms and decreasing KYN levels in rats with IS. FMT showed that the beneficial effects of blueberry extract on IS involve gut bacteria, especially Prevotella, which were confirmed by microbiological analyses conducted on IS patients. Moreover, blueberry extract led to significant changes in kynurenic acid levels and tryptophan and IDO levels through interactions with Prevotella. Our study demonstrates for the first time that blueberry extract could modulate "intestinal microecology-KYN metabolism" to improve IS.

Ameliorative Effect of Chitosan/Spirulina platensis Ethanolic Extract Nanoformulation against Cyclophosphamide-Induced Ovarian Toxicity: Role of PPAR-γ/Nrf-2/HO-1 and NF-kB/TNF-α Signaling Pathways

Cyclophosphamide (CP) is an anticancer drug that causes infertility disorders. This study was designed to evaluate a nanoformulation of chitosan with an ethanolic extract from Spirulina platensis in terms of its protection against cyclophosphamide-induced ovarian toxicity. Nine groups of female Wistar rats were randomly assigned as follows: 1: control vehicle, 2: chitosan polymer, 3: telmisartan, 4: Spirulina platensis extract, 5: nanoformulation of the Spirulina platensis, and 6: single injection of CP; groups 7, 8, and 9 received the same treatments as those used in groups 3, 4, and 5, respectively, with a single dose of CP (200 mg/kg, I.P). The results displayed that the CP treatment decreased estradiol, progesterone, anti-mullerian hormone, and GSH content, and it downregulated PPAR-γ, Nrf-2, and HO-1 gene expression. In addition, the CP treatment caused an increase in the FSH, LH, and MDA levels. In the same manner, the protein expression of caspase-3, NF-kB, and TNF-α was upregulated in response to the CP treatment, while PPAR-γ was downregulated in comparison with the control. The rats treated with SPNPs exhibited a substantial reduction in the detrimental effects of oxidative stress and inflammation of the ovarian tissue. This study's conclusions showed that SPNPs counteracted the effects of CP, preventing the death of ovarian follicles and restoring the gonadotropin hormone balance and normal ovarian histological appearance.

New insights into the potential cardioprotective effects of telmisartan and nanoformulated extract of Spirulina platensis via regulation of oxidative stress, apoptosis, and autophagy in an experimental model

Background

Cardiotoxicity is one of the limiting side effects of the commonly used anticancer agent cyclophosphamide (Cyclo).

Materials and methods

The possible protective effects of telmisartan and nanoformulated Spirulina platensis (Sp) methanolic extract against Cyclo-induced cardiotoxicity were examined in this study. Experimental groups of rats were randomly divided into nine groups as control vehicle, control polymer, telmisartan (TEL, 10 mg/kg), free Sp extract (300 mg/kg), nano Sp extract (100 mg/kg), Cyclo (200 mg/kg), TEL + Cyclo, free Sp + Cyclo, and nano Sp + Cyclo. The groups with Cyclo combinations were treated in the same manner as their corresponding ones without Cyclo, with a single dose of Cyclo on day 18.

Results

The results indicate that Cyclo causes significant cardiotoxicity, manifesting in the form of notable increases of 155.49%, 105.74%, 451.76%, and 826.07% in the serum levels of glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase (SGOT), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), creatine kinase MB (CK-MB), and cardiac troponin I (cTnI) enzyme activities, respectively, as compared to the control. In addition, the cardiac glutathione (GSH) content and activity of glutathione peroxidase-1 (GPX-1) enzyme decreased by 65.94% and 73.85%, respectively. Treatment with nano Sp extract showed the most prominent restorations of the altered biochemical, histopathological, and immunohistochemical features as compared with those by TEL and free Sp; moreover, reductions of 30.64% and 43.02% in the p-AKT content as well as 60.43% and 75.30% of the endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) immunoreactivity were detected in the TEL and free Sp treatment groups, respectively. Interestingly, nano Sp boosted the autophagy signal via activation of beclin-1 (36.42% and 153.4%), activation of LC3II (69.13% and 195%), downregulation of p62 expressions (39.68% and 62.45%), and increased gene expressions of paraoxonase-1 (PON-1) (90.3% and 225.9%) compared to the TEL and free Sp treatment groups, respectively.

Conclusion

The findings suggest the protective efficiency of telmisartan and nano Sp extract against cardiotoxicity via activations of the antioxidant, antiapoptotic, and autophagy signaling pathways.

Beneficial Effects of Spirulina Supplementation in the Management of Cardiovascular Diseases

In recent decades, as a result of rising mortality rates due to cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), there has been a growing urgency to find alternative approaches to conventional pharmaceutical treatment to prevent the onset of chronic diseases. Arthrospira platensis, commonly known as Spirulina, is a blue-green cyanobacterium, classified as a "superfood", used worldwide as a nutraceutical food supplement due to its remarkable nutritional value, lack of toxicity, and therapeutic effects. Several scientific studies have evaluated the cardioprotective role of Spirulina. This article presents a comprehensive review of the therapeutic benefits of Spirulina in improving cardio- and cerebrovascular health. It focuses on the latest experimental and clinical findings to evaluate its antihypertensive, antidiabetic, and antihyperlipidemic properties. The objective is to highlight its potential in preventing and managing risk factors associated with cardiovascular disease (CVD).

Spinacia Oleracea: Exploring the Therapeutic Potential in Persian Medicine and Modern Pharmacology

BACKGROUND

Spinach is a widely cultivated dark leafy vegetable highly regarded for its medicinal properties in traditional Persian medicine. It is rich in vitamins, minerals, flavonoids, carotenoids, and other bioactive compounds, and this review aims to explore the historical applications of spinach in Persian medicine and juxtapose them with current scientific evidence. Despite its historical significance, there remains a need to comprehensively evaluate and integrate traditional knowledge with modern research on the therapeutic benefits of spinach.

METHODS

To achieve this, a comprehensive search was conducted in Persian medicine references and scientific databases to gather information on the traditional uses, chemical composition, and pharmacological effects of spinach. Studies that met the inclusion criteria were meticulously categorized, and relevant data were analyzed to draw insightful comparisons.

RESULTS

Persian medicine describes spinach as a nutrient-rich, laxative, and fast-digesting agent with therapeutic effects on inflammation, lung diseases, back pain, sore throats, jaundice, urinary disorders, joint pain, eye inflammation, insomnia, dementia, and more. Modern studies have substantially corroborated these traditional uses, revealing that spinach possesses antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer, blood sugar-lowering, lipid-lowering, anti-obesity, neurological, ocular, and musculoskeletal effects.

CONCLUSION

Spinach exhibits a wide range of beneficial effects on various health conditions. Its widespread availability, low cost, and exceptional nutritional richness position it as a promising candidate for further investigation. Future studies should explore the clinical effectiveness of spinach in various diseases, while taking into consideration the principles emphasized in Persian medicine to guide research and inform therapeutic strategies.

The Cytokines-Directed Roles of Spirulina for Radioprotection of Lacrimal Gland

PURPOSE

To evaluate the radioprotective effect of spirulina (SP) on the lacrimal glands after RAI treatment.

METHODS

A total of 30 rats were separated into control, RAI and SP group. The radioprotective effect of SP on lacrimal glands was evaluated with histopathological and cytopathological analysis. Lacrimal glands were analyzed for tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-2 (IL-2), IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB), total oxidant status (TOS) and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) levels.

RESULTS

RAI increased TNF-α (p = .001), IL-6 (p = .018), and NF-κB levels (p < .0005). Following the administration of SP, TNF-α (p < .0005), IL-4 (p = .026), and IL-6 (p = .006) levels decreased. RAI decreased the TAC levels (p = .001), and co-administration of SP increased the TAC level, but was not statistically significant. SP decreased the TOS level after RAI (p = .022)                .

CONCLUSIONS

SP protects lacrimal glands from RAI-induced damage.

Spinach (Spinacia oleracea) microgreen prevents the formation of advanced glycation end products in model systems and breads

The formation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) in daily diets poses a great threat to human health, since AGEs are closely related to some chronic metabolic diseases. In this study, we investigated the antiglycative capabilities of some popular microgreens in chemical model. Our data indicated that baby spinach (Spinacia oleracea) had the highest antiglycative activity during 4-wks incubation, with antioxidation being the main action route. Moreover, a bread model was set up to evaluate its antiglycative potential in real food model. The results showed that the fortification of baby spinach in bread significantly inhibited AGEs formation, with acceptable taste and food quality. Further study revealed that the antiglycative components were mainly distributed in leaves, which were separated via column chromatography and tentatively identified as chlorophyll derivatives. In summary, this study highlighted the antiglycative benefits of baby spinach which can be developed into healthy functional foods.

Polyphenols composition and the biological effects of six selected small dark fruits

The health-promoting activities of fruits are in the limelight in view of the growing risks posed by civilisational diseases and are connected with polyphenols. The present study examined bilberry, blueberry, blackcurrant, redcurrant, cherry and plum for their polyphenolic content and biological activities. The contents of total polyphenolic compounds and their subclasses were determined. Liquid chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry was used to characterise the polyphenolic profiles. Small dark fruits' antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cholinesterase activities were also extensively determined. Significant qualitative and quantitative differences in the analysed fruits' polyphenols composition and biological activities were demonstrated. The highest polyphenolic contents and antioxidant activities were established in blackcurrant fruit, but bilberry also had our attention due to an additional mild influence on antioxidant enzymes. The condensed tannin content in small dark fruits is developed. All tested fruits exhibit anti-inflammatory and anti-cholinesterase activities.

Beneficial Effects of Spirulina Consumption on Brain Health

Spirulina is a microscopic, filamentous cyanobacterium that grows in alkaline water bodies. It is extensively utilized as a nutraceutical food supplement all over the world due to its high levels of functional compounds, such as phycocyanins, phenols and polysaccharides, with anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, immunomodulating properties both in vivo and in vitro. Several scientific publications have suggested its positive effects in various pathologies such as cardiovascular diseases, hypercholesterolemia, hyperglycemia, obesity, hypertension, tumors and inflammatory diseases. Lately, different studies have demonstrated the neuroprotective role of Spirulina on the development of the neural system, senility and a number of pathological conditions, including neurological and neurodegenerative diseases. This review focuses on the role of Spirulina in the brain, highlighting how it exerts its beneficial anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects, acting on glial cell activation, and in the prevention and/or progression of neurodegenerative diseases, in particular Parkinson’s disease, Alzheimer’s disease and Multiple Sclerosis; due to these properties, Spirulina could be considered a potential natural drug.

The effects of spirulina (Arthrospira platensis) supplementation on anthropometric indices, blood pressure, sleep quality, mental health, fatigue status and quality of life in patients with ulcerative colitis: A randomised, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial

BACKGROUND

An emerging body of evidence has highlighted the protective role of spirulina in human health. Thus, we conducted a randomised controlled trial to discern the effects of spirulina supplementation on anthropometric indices, blood pressure, sleep quality, mood, fatigue status and quality of life among ulcerative colitis patients.

METHODS

Eighty participants with ulcerative colitis were randomly allocated to receive, either, 1 g/day (two 500 mg capsules) spirulina (n = 40) or placebo (n = 40), in a clinical trial for eight weeks. Dietary intake, physical activity, sleep quality, mental health, fatigue status and quality of life were assessed for each participant at baseline and trial cessation. Anthropometric indices and blood pressure were also assessed.

RESULTS

Seventy-three participants completed the intervention. Our results revealed that spirulina supplementation significantly reduced sleep disturbances (P = .03), while no significant changes occurred in the sleep quality score or other sleep parameters, vs the placebo group (P > .05). Furthermore, a significant reduction in stress score (P = .04) and increase in quality of life (P = .03) was detected; but not anxiety, depression or fatigue scores (P > .05). Additionally, anthropometric indices and blood pressure did not significantly change (P > .05).

CONCLUSION

An improved quality of life was observed among ulcerative colitis patients following spirulina supplementation, which could be attributed to improved sleep disturbance and stress status. Further clinical studies, with longer duration interventions and suitably powered sample sizes, are necessary to elucidate the veracity of our findings.

Spirulina platensis (Arthrospira platensis) attenuates Cyclophosphamide-induced reproductive toxicity in male Wistar rats: Evidence for sperm apoptosis and p53/Bcl-2 expression

Cyclophosphamide is an antitumor agent that causes disorders in fertility. This study aimed to evaluate the protective effects of Spirulina platensis against Cyclophosphamide-induced testicular toxicity. 42 male Wistar rats were randomly divided into six groups. Experimental groups included three groups. The first experimental group received Cyclophosphamide at a dose of 5 mg/kg body weight (BW) orally. The second and third experimental groups received 5 mg/kg BW Cyclophosphamide and 500 and 1,000 mg/kg BW S. platensis orally, respectively. The control groups included a control group, and two S. platensis control groups. Following 28 days, two flow cytometry techniques were used to determine sperm apoptosis and testicular protein expression of tumor protein (p53) and B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2). p53 is a tumor suppressor protein that causes the cell to enter the apoptosis cycle after DNA damage and Bcl-2 is an anti-apoptotic protein that acts through the mitochondrial pathway of apoptosis. FITC-Annexin V assay was used for sperm apoptosis evaluation. For protein expression assay, primary and secondary antibodies staining were performed. The Cyclophosphamide group showed a significant increase in sperm apoptosis compared to the control group. Cyclophosphamide significantly increased p53 and decreased Bcl-2 expression compared to the control group. S. platensis co-treated groups exhibited a significant decrease in sperm apoptosis compared to the Cyclophosphamide group. Moreover, S. platensis co-treated groups displayed a significant decreasing in p53 and increasing in Bcl-2 expression compared to the Cyclophosphamide group. The results of this study indicated that S. platensis protected rats against Cyclophosphamide-induced reproductive toxicity. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Cyclophosphamide is the chemotherapy agent used to treat different cancers. Cyclophosphamide has side effects on the male reproductive system. Spirulina plantesis has a protective effect because of its antioxidant and anti-apoptotic properties. Co-administration of Spirulina plantesis with Cyclophosphamide reduces sperm apoptosis also decreases P53 protein expression and increases Bcl-2 protein expression. This study validated the anti-apoptotic potential of Spirulina plantesis against Cyclophosphamide-induced male reproductive toxicity.

Spirulina Microalgae and Brain Health: A Scoping Review of Experimental and Clinical Evidence

Spirulina microalgae contain a plethora of nutrient and non-nutrient molecules providing brain health benefits. Numerous in vivo evidence has provided support for the brain health potential of spirulina, highlighting antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective mechanisms. Preliminary clinical studies have also suggested that spirulina can help to reduce mental fatigue, protect the vascular wall of brain vessels from endothelial damage and regulate internal pressure, thus contributing to the prevention and/or mitigating of cerebrovascular conditions. Furthermore, the use of spirulina in malnourished children appears to ameliorate motor, language, and cognitive skills, suggesting a reinforcing role in developmental mechanisms. Evidence of the central effect of spirulina on appetite regulation has also been shown. This review aims to understand the applicative potential of spirulina microalgae in the prevention and mitigation of brain disorders, highlighting the nutritional value of this "superfood", and providing the current knowledge on relevant molecular mechanisms in the brain associated with its dietary introduction.

Improved spinal cord gray matter morphology induced by Spirulina platensis following spinal cord injury in rat models

Despite intense preclinical research focusing on developing potential strategies of mitigating spinal cord injury (SCI), SCI still results in permanent, debilitating symptoms for which there are currently no effective pharmacological interventions to improve the recovery of the fine ultrastructure of the spinal cord. Spirulina platensis is thought to have potential neuroprotective effects. We have previously demonstrated its protective potential on the lesioned corticospinal tracts and behavioral recovery. In this study, spirulina, known for its neuroprotective properties was used to further explore its protective effects on spinal cord gray matter ultrastructural. Twenty-four Sprague-Dawley rats were used and divided into sham group (laminectomy without SCI), control group (SCI without S. platensis), and S. platensis group (SCI + 180 mg/kg S. platensis). All animals were anesthetized via intramuscular injection. A partial crush injury was induced at the level of T12. The rats were humanely sacrificed for 28 days postinjury for ultrastructural study. There were significant mean differences with respect to pairwise comparisons between the ultrastructural grading score of neuronal perikarya of control and the S. platensis following injury at day 28, which correlates with the functional locomotor recovery at this timepoint in our previous study. The group supplemented with spirulina, thus, revealed a better improvement in the fine ultrastructure of the spinal cord gray matter when compared to the control group thereby suggesting neuroprotective potentials of spirulina in mitigating the effects of spinal cord injury and inducing functional recovery.

The Chemical and Biological Profiles of Leaves from Commercial Blueberry Varieties

Blueberries have seen an ascending production line boosted by World Health Organization (WHO) approvals for their contributions to a healthy diet and the evidence that they act against different diseases. This increase resulted in significant amounts of discarded leaves, which could be a valuable source of bioactive compounds. In the present study, ultrasound-assisted extraction technology was used to determine and compare the chemical and biological profiles of leaves from six commercial blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum L.) varieties. Feruloylquinic acid was the major compound identified, ranging from 19.23 ± 0.18 mg/g (at the lowest level, registered in the Spartan variety) to 49.62 ± 0.41 mg/g (at the highest level, registered in the Nelson variety). Rutin was the second major compound identified, for which Toro, Nelson, and Elliot leaves registered the highest values, with 35.77 ± 0.19 mg/g, 32.50 ± 0.20 mg/g, and 31.53 ± 0.1 mg/g, respectively. Even though analogous polyphenols were detected in the six cultivars, their concentrations and amounts were different. The leaf extracts of the cultivars Toro, Elliot, and Nelson appear to be good sources of antioxidants, registering high percentage inhibitions of DPPH radicals, of 70.41%, 68.42%, and 58.69%, respectively. The blueberry leaf extracts had a strong antibacterial activity and a low antifungal capacity, and a low-to-moderate antimutagenic capacity towards Salmonella typhimurium TA98 and TA100 strains, with Toro leaf being the best candidate. All of these biological activities indicate health-related benefits, recommending them as suitable candidates for medical and pharmaceutical applications. The present paper adds significant knowledge to the field of blueberry leaves via chemical and biological profiles, supporting the ultrasound-assisted extraction technique as a useful and green method to provide alternative sources of bioactive compounds.

Effects of Dietary Inclusion of Bilberry and Walnut Leaves Powder on the Digestive Performances and Health of Tetra SL Laying Hens

Simple Summary

In poultry, diet composition influences growth performance, egg production, as well as digestion. In this study, the effects of dietary additives obtained from bilberry and walnut leaves powder on the digestive performances of Tetra SL hens were evaluated by histologic and morphometric analyses of the intestinal mucosa as well as by the enzymatic activity measurements of alpha-amylase, invertase, maltase, and trypsin correlated with cecum microbiota.

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of dietary inclusion of two additives at the final concentration of 0.5% bilberry (E1) and 1% walnut (E2) leaves powder in the basal diet on digestive health of hens. A total number of 90 Tetra SL hens were divided into two experimental groups (E1 and E2) and one control group (C) consisting of 30 hens each. After four weeks, 10 hens of each group were sacrificed and tissue samples and intestinal content were taken from the duodenum, jejunum, and cecum in order to perform histological, enzymatic, and microbiota analyses. In groups E1 and E2, the histological analysis showed a significant increase of villus height, resulting probably in increased absorption of nutrients in duodenum and jejunum. A decrease in the specific activity of alpha-amylase and trypsin in E1 and E2 for both duodenum and jejunum compared to the control one was also recorded. In addition, the maltase and invertase specific activity in duodenum increased, a tendency that was kept for maltase but not for invertase in jejunum. The cecal microbiota of E1 and E2 individuals was characterized by an increase of Firmicutes and Lactobacilli and a decrease of Enterobacteriaceae. In conclusion, our results indicate that bilberry and walnut leaves additives in feed may improve the health status of the poultry gastrointestinal tract.

Use of spinach powder as functional ingredient in the manufacture of UF-Soft cheese

Spinach fine powder is a good source of protein, fiber, antioxidant, and minerals, making it a suitable ingredient to be used in the formulation of foods with high nutritional or biological values. In the current study, spinach nano-powder (0.50, 1.00, 1.50, and 2%) was used in the manufacturing of ultra-filtered soft chesses (UF-soft chesses). The quality of the cheeses was assessed by measuring their chemical compositions, colors, sensory, and antioxidant properties. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) showed that particles of spinach powder followed a normal distribution pattern with an average diameter of about 328 nm. By increasing the addition of spinach nano-powder with retentate its content of fiber, minerals, total phenolic content, and antioxidant activity was improved. Moreover, the total solid, protein and acidity contents increased significantly with the increased percentage of added spinach nano-powder reaching maximum values after four weeks of cold storage. Cheese containing 0.5% and 1% spinach powder demonstrated higher values for sensory parameters than other treatments. UF-cheese prepared in this work represents a novel functional dairy product that can potentially provide the human body with better nutrients.

Collagen–curcumin nanocomposites showing an enhanced neuroprotective effect against short term focal cerebral ischemia

The effectiveness of curcumin in treating cerebral ischemia has been reported in recent studies. However, its mode of action is still not defined. The objective of the present study is to formulate collagen–curcumin nanocomposites which will work effectively against cerebral ischemia/reperfusion injury. Ischemic injury is followed by inflammatory damage and oxidative stress, which together contribute a lot in the pathogenesis of cerebral ischemia and may be considered a good target for treatment. The present study focused on examining the effectiveness of collagen–curcumin nanocomposites stabilized by increasing the degree of crosslinking in reducing oxidative stress associated with brain injury resulting from cerebral ischemia. The collagen nanoparticles were prepared by conjugating collagen on the surface of Tween©80 micelles, and further stabilizing them using crosslinkers. The effectiveness of the prepared nanocomposite was validated by performing infarct analysis followed by biochemical, behavioral, histopathological and immunohistochemical studies. The outcomes of this study are promising for the use of collagen–curcumin nanocomposites in showing neuroprotective potential in treating ischemic injury.

A synthetic collagen–curcumin nanocomposite enhanced drug efficacy by increasing its bioavailability and showing slow and sustained drug release in the treatment against focal cerebral ischemia.

Neuroprotective potential of Spirulina platensis on lesioned spinal cord corticospinal tract under experimental conditions in rat models

Spinal cord injury (SCI) results from penetrating or compressive traumatic injury to the spine in humans or by the surgical compression of the spinal cord in experimental animals. In this study, the neuroprotective potential of Spirulina platensis was investigated on ultrastructural and functional recovery of the spinal cord following surgical-induced injury. Twenty-four Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into three groups; sham group, control (trauma) group, and experimental (S. platensis) group (180 mg/kg) of eight rats each. For each group, the rats were then subdivided into two groups to allow measurement at two different timepoints (day 14 and 28) for the microscopic analysis. Rats in the control and experimental S. platensis groups were subjected to partial crush injury at the level of T12 with Inox number 2 modified forceps by compressing on the spinal cord for 30 s. Pairwise comparisons of ultrastructural grading mean scores difference between the control and experimental S. platensis groups reveals that there were significant differences on the axonal ultrastructure, myelin sheath and BBB Score on Day 28; these correlate with the functional locomotor recovery at this timepoint. The results suggest that supplementation with S. platensis induces functional recovery and effective preservation of the spinal cord ultrastructure after SCI. These findings will open new potential avenue for further research into the mechanism of S. platensis-mediated spinal cord repair.

Anthocyanins and Their Metabolites as Therapeutic Agents for Neurodegenerative Disease

Neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), are characterized by the death of neurons within specific regions of the brain or spinal cord. While the etiology of many neurodegenerative diseases remains elusive, several factors are thought to contribute to the neurodegenerative process, such as oxidative and nitrosative stress, excitotoxicity, endoplasmic reticulum stress, protein aggregation, and neuroinflammation. These processes culminate in the death of vulnerable neuronal populations, which manifests symptomatically as cognitive and/or motor impairments. Until recently, most treatments for these disorders have targeted single aspects of disease pathology; however, this strategy has proved largely ineffective, and focus has now turned towards therapeutics which target multiple aspects underlying neurodegeneration. Anthocyanins are unique flavonoid compounds that have been shown to modulate several of the factors contributing to neuronal death, and interest in their use as therapeutics for neurodegeneration has grown in recent years. Additionally, due to observations that the bioavailability of anthocyanins is low relative to that of their metabolites, it has been proposed that anthocyanin metabolites may play a significant part in mediating the beneficial effects of an anthocyanin-rich diet. Thus, in this review, we will explore the evidence evaluating the neuroprotective and therapeutic potential of anthocyanins and their common metabolites for treating neurodegenerative diseases.

Maternal Protein Malnutrition: Current and Future Perspectives of Spirulina Supplementation in Neuroprotection

Malnutrition has been widely recognized as a grave burden restricting the progress of underdeveloped and developing countries. Maternal, neonatal and postnatal nutritional immunity provides an effective approach to decrease the risk of malnutrition associated stress in adulthood. Particularly, maternal nutritional status is a critical contributor for determining the long-term health aspects of an offspring. Maternal malnutrition leads to increased risk of life, poor immune system, delayed motor development and cognitive dysfunction in the children. An effective immunomodulatory intervention using nutraceutical could be used to enhance immunity against infections. The immune system in early life possesses enormous dynamic capacity to manage both genetic and environment driven processes and can adapt to rapidly changing environmental exposures. These immunomodulatory stimuli or potent nutraceutical strategy can make use of early life plasticity to target pathways of immune ontogeny, which in turn could increase the immunity against infectious diseases arising from malnutrition. This review provides appreciable human and animal data showing enduring effects of protein deprivation on CNS development, oxidative stress and inflammation and associated behavioral and cognitive impairments. Relevant studies on nutritional supplementation and rehabilitation using Spirulina as a potent protein source and neuroprotectant against protein malnutrition (PMN) induced deleterious changes have also been discussed. However, there are many futuristic issues that need to be resolved for proper modulation of these therapeutic interventions to prevent malnutrition.

Health promoting properties of blueberries: a review

With the strengthening of the link between diet and health, several foodstuffs have emerged as possessing potential health benefits such as phenolic rich fruits and vegetables. Blueberries, along with other berries, given their flavonoid and antioxidant content have long since been considered as a particularly interesting health promoting fruit. Therefore, the present work aimed to compile the existing evidences regarding the various potential benefits of blueberry and blueberry based products consumption, giving particular relevance to in vivo works and epidemiological studies whenever available. Overall, the results demonstrate that, while the evidences that support a beneficial role of blueberry and blueberry extracts consumption, further human based studies are still needed.

Putative Effect of Spirulina Extract on Enzyme Activities Participating in Lipid and Carbohydrate Digestion Processes

Excessive calorie intake is generally accepted as a primary cause of metabolic syndrome, and therefore a well-balanced diet and moderate exercise can be expected to be the most effective measures to avoid the disorder of energy utilization and storage. Furthermore, as any other way to improve the disorder of energy balance, it may be effective to delay and lower the digestion and/or absorption of energy sources, lipids, and carbohydrates. As a primary screening of effective substances to delay and lower the digestion and absorption processes among natural materials, the protein-deprived extract was prepared from blue-green algae Spirulina platensis, and the effect of this extract on lipase and α-glucosidase activities was examined. The extract was shown to inhibit lipase activity but not α-glucosidase activity, thus proposing the possibility that the extract prevented the postprandial elevation of blood triglyceride (TG) levels as a result of reducing the digestion and absorption of lipids in the intestinal tract. Therefore, it seems possible to speculate that nonprotein components of Spirulina may be able to effectively improve the disorder of energy balance as a consequence of suppressing the excessive intake of calories by reducing the absorption of lipids in patients with metabolic syndrome.

Protective effect of aqueous spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) extract on spinal cord ischemia-reperfusion injury in rats

Operation on the thoraco-abdominal aorta may lead to paraplegia or paraparesis is after spinal ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury. In this study, we investigated the protective effect of the spinach extract on spinal cord I/R injury. Thirty-five male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into five groups: Intact, sham surgery, normal saline (NS), low dose spinach extract (20 mg kg^-1), high dose spinach extract (50 mg kg^-1). Neurological function, biochemical and histological evaluations were performed in 72 hr after ischemia. The mean motor deficit index scores of the spinach extract groups were significantly lower than in the NS group at 72hr after spinal cord ischemia. In addition, Spinach extract groups significantly increased plasma level of total antioxidative capacity and decreased the plasma level of malondialdehyde than the NS group. The spinach extract groups displayed a significantly large number of normal motor neurons compared with the NS group. In conclusion, the present study showed that the spinach extract may preserve more neurons in a rat model of spinal cord I/R injury.

Postoperative cognitive dysfunction and short-term neuroprotection from blueberries: a pilot study

BACKGROUND

General anesthesia may be a risk factor for post-operative cognitive impairment, which could be counteracted by neuroprotective compounds. The aims of this study were to determine cognitive functions impaired by general anesthesia and to test blueberry juice as a neuroprotective agent against neuropsychological dysfunctions induced by general anesthesia.

METHODS

Twenty-six patients undergoing elective major surgery were randomized into two groups, receiving either 500 mL/day of blueberry juice within 14 preoperative days (G1) or to a control group (G0). Neuropsychological tests were performed around 20 days before surgery (T0), as well as both three hours (T1) and 24 hours (T2) after surgery. All the scores were statistically analyzed to find significant differences between groups and within the three times.

RESULTS

The control (G0) group showed a significant decrease in the performance in the Prose Memory Test (P<0.001), the Attentional Matrices Test (P<0.01), and the Trail Making Test Part B (P<0.01) after general anesthesia. Significant differences were reported in the Prose Memory test, T0 versus T1 (P<0.01), T0 versus T2 (P<0.001); in the Trail Making Test Part B, T0 versus T2 (P<0.01); and the Attentional Matrices test, and T0 versus T2 (P<0.001). The G1 group did not show any decrease in the performance of the three tests.

CONCLUSIONS

General anesthesia induces a short-term impairment of verbal memory and selective and divided attention. Blueberry compounds may prevent these neuropsychological deficits through a neuroprotective action in patients undergoing general anesthesia.

Protective Effect of Water Extracted Spirulina maxima on Glutamate-induced Neuronal Cell Death in Mouse Hippocampal HT22 Cell

Introduction:

Spirulina maxima was used as important nutritional source in the Aztec civilization because it is rich in proteins and vitamins. It contains various antioxidants such as phycocyanin and flavonoids. Based on abundant antioxidants, S. maxima is known to possess anti-inflammatory effect, especially on neuronal cells.

Materials and Methods:

S. maxima was extracted in water and contain of phycocyanin was identified by high-performance liquid chromatography. Cell viability test was performed with treatment of S. maxima extract. After, oxidative stress-related mechanisms were evaluated by detecting the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and Ca²⁺ influx, and decrease of mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) level. Then, the glutathione (GSH) related assays were conducted.

Results:

The water extracted S. maxima exerted the neuroprotective activity by attenuating the ROS and Ca²⁺ formation, maintaining the MMP level, and protecting the activity of the antioxidant enzymes by increasing reduced GSH against oxidative stress compared to control.

Conclusion:

The results suggested that water extracted S. maxima showed powerful neuroprotective effect through the mechanism related to antioxidant activity, able to preventing the radical-mediated cell death.

SUMMARY

Water extracted Spirulina maxima contains C-phycocyanin

Water extracted Spirulina maxima exerts neuroprotective effect on HT22 cell

To investigate the protective mechanisms, reactive oxygen species, Ca²⁺, mitochondrial membrane potential, Glutathione-related assays were performed.

Abbreviations used: ROS: Reactive oxygen species; MMP: Mitochondrial membrane potential; GSH: Glutathione; GSSG: Glutathione disulfide, oxidized glutathione; GPx: Glutathione peroxidase; GR: Glutathione reductase; DMEM: Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium; FBS: Fetal bovine serum; DCF-DA: 2',7'-dichlorofluorescein diacetate; PBS: Phosphate buffered serum; Rho 123: Rhodamine 123; NADPH: Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate; DTNB: 5,5'-dithiobis-2-nitrobenzoic acid, Ellman's reagent; GSSG-R: Glutathione disulfide reductase; MTT: 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide; DMSO: Dimethyl sulfoxide; HPLC: High-performance liquid chromatography.

Dried and free flowing granules of Spinacia oleracea accelerate bone regeneration and alleviate postmenopausal osteoporosis

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to demonstrate the efficacy of extract derived from Spinacia oleracea extract (SOE) in reversing bone loss induced by ovariectomy and bone healing properties in a drill-hole fracture model in rats.

METHODS

SOE was administered orally for 12 weeks in adult ovariectomized Sprague Dawley rats after inducing osteopenic condition. Bone micro-architecture, expressions of osteogenic and resorptive gene markers, biomechanical strength, new bone formation, and bone turnover markers were studied. Uterine histomorphometry was used to assess estrogenicity. Bone regeneration potential of SOE was assessed in a drill-hole fracture model. Fracture healing was assessed by calcein intensity and micro-CT analysis of callus at fracture region.

RESULTS

SOE prevented ovariectomy-induced bone loss as evident from 122% increase in bone volume/tissue volume (BV/TV) and 29% decline in Tb.Sp in femoral trabecular micro-architecture. This was corroborated by the more than twofold stimulation in the expression of osteogenic genes runt-related transcription factor 2, osterix, osteocalcin, bone morphogenetic protein 2, collagen-1. Furthermore in the fracture healing model, we observed a 25% increase in BV/TV and enhancement in calcein intensity at the fractured site. The extract when converted into dried deliverable Spinaceae oleracea granule (SOG) form accelerated bone regeneration at fracture site, which was more efficient as evident by a 39% increase in BV/TV. Transforming SOE into dried granules facilitated prolonged systemic availability, thus providing enhanced activity for a period of 14 days.

CONCLUSIONS

SOE treatment effectively prevents ovariectomy-induced bone loss and stimulated fracture healing in adult rats. The dried granular form of the extract of Spinaceae oleracea was effective in fracture healing at the same dose.

Therapeutic Potentials of Microalgae in the Treatment of Alzheimer's Disease

Current research is geared towards the discovery of new compounds with strong neuroprotective potential and few or no side effects compared to synthetic drugs. This review focuses on the potentials of extracts and biologically active compounds derived from microalgal biomass for the treatment and management of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Microalgal research has gained much attention recently due to its contribution to the production of renewable fuels and the ability of alga cells to produce several secondary metabolites such as carotenoids, polyphenols, sterols, polyunsaturated fatty acids and polysaccharides. These compounds exhibit several pharmacological activities and possess neuroprotective potential. The pathogenesis of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) involves complex mechanisms that are associated with oxidative stress, cholinergic dysfunction, neuronal damage, protein misfolding and aggregation. The antioxidant, anticholinesterase activities as well as the inhibitory effects of some bioactive compounds from microalgae extracts on β-amyloid aggregation and neuronal death are discussed extensively. Phytochemical compounds from microalgae are used as pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals and food supplements, and may possess neuroprotective potentials that are relevant to the management and/or treatment of AD.

Aging leads to altered microglial function that reduces brain resiliency increasing vulnerability to neurodegenerative diseases

Aging is the primary risk factor for many neurodegenerative diseases. Thus, understanding the basic biological changes that take place with aging that lead to the brain being less resilient to disease progression of neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's disease or Alzheimer's disease or insults to the brain such as stroke or traumatic brain injuries. Clearly this will not cure the disease per se, yet increasing the ability of the brain to respond to injury could improve long term outcomes. The focus of this review is examining changes in microglia with age and possible therapeutic interventions involving the use of polyphenol rich dietary supplements.

Neuroprotective diets for stroke

Stroke is one of the main causes of death and disability in the elderly. In the last few years, there has been increasing evidence that suggests the influence of the diet on the decrease of stroke risk. Probably, because of the presence of bioactive components with beneficial effects such as antioxidant or anti-inflammatory properties. This article reviews several dietary bioactive compounds from studies in models of cerebral ischemia that have obtained promising results decreasing cerebral damage. We propose that many of these compounds present in diet could be good candidates to test new neuroprotection approaches focused on reducing the damage and protecting the brain before stroke occurs.

Alpha-Tocopherol Reduces Brain Edema and Protects Blood-Brain Barrier Integrity following Focal Cerebral Ischemia in Rats

OBJECTIVE

This study was conducted to examine the neuroprotective effects of α-tocopherol against edema formation and disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) following transient focal cerebral ischemia in rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ninety-six male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into 3 major groups (n = 32 in each), namely the sham, and control and α-tocopherol-treated (30 mg/kg) ischemic groups. Transient focal cerebral ischemia (90 min) was induced by occlusion of the left middle cerebral artery. At the end of the 24-hour reperfusion period, the animals were randomly selected and used for 4 investigations (n = 8) in each of the 3 main groups: (a) assessment of neurological score and measurement of infarct size, (b) detection of brain edema formation by the wet/dry method, (c) evaluation of BBB permeability using the Evans blue (EB) extravasation technique, and (d) assessment of the malondialdehyde (MDA) and reduced glutathione (GSH) concentrations using high-performance liquid chromatography methods.

RESULTS

Induction of cerebral ischemia in the control group produced extensive brain edema (brain water content 83.8 ± 0.11%) and EB leakage into brain parenchyma (14.58 ± 1.29 µg/g) in conjunction with reduced GSH and elevated MDA levels (5.86 ± 0.31 mmol/mg and 63.57 ± 5.42 nmol/mg, respectively). Treatment with α-tocopherol significantly lowered brain edema formation and reduced EB leakage compared with the control group (p < 0.001, 80.1 ± 0.32% and 6.66 ± 0.87 µg/g, respectively). Meanwhile, treatment with α-tocopherol retained tissue GSH levels and led to a lower MDA level (p < 0.01, 10.17 ± 0.83 mmol/mg, and p < 0.001, 26.84 ± 4.79 nmol/mg, respectively).

CONCLUSION

Treatment with α-tocopherol reduced ischemic edema formation and produced protective effects on BBB function following ischemic stroke occurrence. This effect could be through increasing antioxidant activity.

Neuroprotective effect of Arthrospira (Spirulina) platensis against kainic acid-neuronal death

Context Arthrospira (Spirulina) platensis (SP) is a cyanobacterium which has attracted attention because of its nutritional value and pharmacological properties. It was previously reported that SP reduces oxidative stress in the hippocampus and protects against damaging neurobehavioural effects of systemic kainic acid (KA). It is widely known that the systemic administration of KA induces neuronal damage, specifically in the CA3 hippocampal region. Objective The present study determines if the SP sub-chronic treatment has neuroprotective properties against KA. Materials and methods Male SW mice were treated with SP during 24 d, at doses of 0, 200, and 800 mg/kg, once daily, and with KA (35 mg/kg, ip) as a single dose on day 14. After the treatment, a histological analysis was performed and the number of atrophic neuronal cells in CA3 hippocampal region was quantified. Results Pretreatment with SP does not protect against seizures induced by KA. However, mortality in the SP 200 and the SP 800 groups was of 20%, while for the KA group, it was of 60%. A single KA ip administration produced a considerable neuronal damage, whereas both doses of SP sub-chronic treatment reduced the number of atrophic neurons in CA3 hippocampal region with respect to the KA group. Discussion The SP neurobehaviour improvement after KA systemic administration correlates with the capacity of SP to reduce KA-neuronal death in CA3 hippocampal cells. This neuroprotection may be related to the antioxidant properties of SP. Conclusion SP reduces KA-neuronal death in CA3 hippocampal cells.

Structural and Physicochemical Characterization of Spirulina (Arthrospira maxima) Nanoparticles by High-Resolution Electron Microscopic Techniques

The objective of this work was to obtain Spirulina (Arthrospira maxima) nanoparticles (SNPs) by using high-impact mechanical milling and to characterize them by electron microscopy and spectroscopy techniques. The milling products were analyzed after various processing times (1-4 h), and particle size distribution and number mean size (NMS) were determined by analysis of high-resolution scanning electron microscopic images. The smallest particles are synthesized after 3 h of milling, had an NMS of 55.6±3.6 nm, with 95% of the particles being smaller than 100 nm. High-resolution transmission electron microscopy showed lattice spacing of ~0.27±0.015 nm for SNPs. The corresponding chemical composition was obtained by energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and showed the presence of Ca, Fe, K, Mg, Na, and Zn. The powder flow properties showed that the powder density was higher when the average nanoparticle size is smaller. They showed free flowability and an increase in their specific surface area (6.89±0.23 m2/g) up to 12-14 times larger than the original material (0.45±0.02 m2/g). Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy suggested that chemical damage related to the milling is not significant.

Promising therapeutic potential of pterostilbene and its mechanistic insight based on preclinical evidence

Pterostilbene (PS) is a well-recognized antioxidant that primarily exists in blueberries, grapevines and heartwood of red sandalwood. Interest in this compound has been renewed in recent years, and studies have found that PS possesses an array of pharmacological properties, including chemopreventive, antiinflammatory, antidiabetic, antidyslipidemic, antiatherosclerotic and neuroprotective effects. However, the greater in vivo bioavailability of PS, as compared to resveratrol, is an added advantage for its efficacy. This review provides a summary regarding the sources, pharmacokinetic aspects and pharmacodynamics of PS, with a focus on the molecular mechanisms underlying its protective effects against cancer, brain injuries and heart disease. Studies regarding the safety profile of PS have also been included. Based on the presently available evidence, we conclude that PS represents an active phytonutrient and a potential drug with pleiotropic health applications.

Review of Neuro-nutrition Used as Anti-Alzheimer Plant, Spinach, Spinacia oleracea

Neuro-nutrition is the nutrition needed to achieve health brain and neurocognitive function. Diets rich in antioxidants, vitamins, flavonoids, and polyphenolic compounds will help suppress the onset of Alzheimer's disease. Spinacia oleracea (Family: Amaranthaceae) commonly known as spinach or Buai Leng (in Thai), one of the traditional medicinal plants with high in those mention nutrients. The micronutrients in spinach include a range of vitamins and minerals, which can prevent deficiency diseases and are essential for normal physiological function. Its phytochemicals are carotenoids, flavonoids, and phenolic compounds, which can prevent chronic health problems, as well as other diseases associated with aging. The objective of this article was to conduct a review on various ethnomedicinal uses of the spinach and its influences on the pathophysiology of Alzheimer's disease based on a literature review.

Spirulina and C-phycocyanin reduce cytotoxicity and inflammation-related genes expression of microglial cells

OBJECTIVE

Our aim was to investigate the effects of Spirulina on BV-2 microglial cell cytotoxicity and inflammatory genes expression.

METHODS

BV-2 microglial cells were treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) (1 µg/ml) and various concentrations of Spirulina platensis water extract or its active component (C-phycocyanin (C-PC)) for 24 hours. Cytotoxicity (lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release) and expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) mRNAs were assayed.

RESULTS

LPS increased LDH production and up-regulated expression of iNOS, COX-2, TNF-α, and IL-6 by BV-2 microglial cells. However, Spirulina platensis water extract and C-PC significantly reduced LPS-induced LDH release, and expression of iNOS, COX-2, TNF-α, and IL-6 mRNAs.

CONCLUSION

Spirulina can reduce the cytotoxicity and inhibit expression of inflammation-related genes of LPS-stimulated BV-2 microglial cells.

Assessment of C-phycocyanin effect on astrocytes-mediated neuroprotection against oxidative brain injury using 2D and 3D astrocyte tissue model

Drugs are currently being developed to attenuate oxidative stress as a treatment for brain injuries. C-phycocyanin (C-Pc) is an antioxidant protein of green microalgae known to exert neuroprotective effects against oxidative brain injury. Astrocytes, which compose many portions of the brain, exert various functions to overcome oxidative stress; however, little is known about how C-Pc mediates the antioxidative effects of astrocytes. In this study, we revealed that C-Pc intranasal administration to the middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) rats ensures neuroprotection of ischemic brain by reducing infarct size and improving behavioral deficits. C-Pc also enhanced viability and proliferation but attenuated apoptosis and reactive oxygen species (ROS) of oxidized astrocytes, without cytotoxicity to normal astrocytes and neurons. To elucidate how C-Pc leads astrocytes to enhance neuroprotection and repair of ischemia brain, we firstly developed 3D oxidized astrocyte model. C-Pc had astrocytes upregulate antioxidant enzymes such as SOD and catalase and neurotrophic factors BDNF and NGF, while alleviating inflammatory factors IL-6 and IL-1β and glial scar. Additionally, C-Pc improved viability of 3D oxidized neurons. In summary, C-Pc was concluded to activate oxidized astrocytes to protect and repair the ischemic brain with the combinatorial effects of improved antioxidative, neurotrophic, and anti-inflammatory mechanisms.

The search for a promising cell factory system for production of edible vaccine

Despite worldwide vaccination against devastating diseases for decades, millions of children in remote and impoverished regions of the globe die every year from vaccine-preventable infectious diseases. The reasons for incomplete coverage of vaccination programs are based in part on the relatively high costs of conventional vaccinations, including mass production, refrigeration, transportation, and training as well as funding personnel for their administration. Plant-based edible vaccines (PEVs) have been introduced as a revolutionary cost-effective vaccination modality. However, they suffer from major deficiencies that have restricted their application to bench-scale. This article discusses the deficiencies of PEVs and also provides concise overview on the health-promoting, biological and biotechnological features of spirulina (Arthrospira). In short, we envision that spirulina could be considered as a potential alternative biofactory system to the plants toward the production of edible vaccines in high-yield with low-costs that other hosts cannot yet offer.