Characterization and storage stability of astaxanthin esters, fatty acid profile and α-tocopherol of lipid extract from shrimp (L. vannamei) waste with potential applications as food ingredient

Encapsulation Techniques to Enhance Astaxanthin Utilization as Functional Feed Ingredient

Herein, the effectiveness of astaxanthin (AX) as functional feed ingredient was assessed by enhancing its stability and bioavailability using encapsulation methods. Spray-drying and liposome entrapment were applied to a natural AX source from shrimp by-products, along with two commercially synthetic alternatives. Encapsulated AX formulations were evaluated for their physico-chemical properties, thermal stability, and in vitro performance using RTL-W1, a rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) liver-derived cell line. Both techniques achieved high encapsulation efficiency (73-89%) and provided remarkable protection to AX during thermal treatments, maintaining its stability at 80 °C for up to 2 h and at 100 °C for 30 min. Nevertheless, neither encapsulation methods significantly mitigated water absorption over time. Additionally, morphological characterization revealed spray-dried microcapsules with typical round, partially collapsed particles with a broad size distribution, while liposomes further stabilized into dry powders by spray-drying showed structural rearrangements and an increase in size upon rehydration, although maintaining a uniform and stable distribution. In vitro testing revealed enhanced RTL-W1 cell viability and reduced reactive oxygen species (ROS) production when encapsulation was employed. Overall, these findings demonstrate the potential of the selected encapsulation techniques to optimize the stability, bioavailability, and functionality of AX, providing valuable insights to improve its utilization as a functional ingredient in fish feed formulations.

Advance toward function, production, and delivery of natural astaxanthin: A promising candidate for food ingredients with future perspectives

Astaxanthin (AST) exhibits potent antioxidant activity, effectively preventing neurological diseases and cancer. Presently, producing AST from microorganisms like Haematococcus pluvialis and Phaffia rhodozyma is a growing trend. This review summarizes the main research topics on AST in the past five years. AST plays a crucial role in cancer and diabetes prevention, as well as neuroprotection, however, the presence of both free and esterified forms of AST results in differences in their functionality and applications. The primary challenges in industrial production of natural AST lie in breeding high-yield natural producers and developing methods to enhance yield. The use of high-quality food matrix materials and preparation methods is crucial for the delivery system of loaded AST. This study elucidates the bottlenecks and future development directions encountered by natural AST during industrialization, aiming to promote the healthy and rapid growth of the food industry.

Determination of astaxanthin and astaxanthin esters in three samples of shrimp waste (Parapenaeus longirostris) by high performance liquid chromatography coupled photo-diode array and mass spectrometry detection

The present study aimed to identify the content of astaxanthin and its esterified forms using high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with diode array and atmospheric pressure chemical ionisation mass spectrometry detection in three samples of shrimp waste. The analyses revealed twenty-one astaxanthin derivatives, including astaxanthin in free form, across all three extracts with the highest number of derivatives observed in the head extract. The shell extract had a lower content of astaxanthin and its esterified forms, with monoesterified astaxanthins being the major components, with contents ranging from 0.5-1 mg g-1. On the other hand, in both global waste and head extracts, astaxanthin diesters were found to be the dominant bioactive compounds, with contents ranging from 0.7-5.2 mg g-1 and 10.2-18.2 mg g-1, respectively. Notably, the astaxanthin content extracted from head was significantly higher compared to other extracts, indicating its potential as a valuable source of bioactive compounds.

Shrimp Waste Upcycling: Unveiling the Potential of Polysaccharides, Proteins, Carotenoids, and Fatty Acids with Emphasis on Extraction Techniques and Bioactive Properties

Shrimp processing generates substantial waste, which is rich in valuable components such as polysaccharides, proteins, carotenoids, and fatty acids. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the valorization of shrimp waste, mainly shrimp shells, focusing on extraction methods, bioactivities, and potential applications of these bioactive compounds. Various extraction techniques, including chemical extraction, microbial fermentation, enzyme-assisted extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, ultrasound-assisted extraction, and pressurized techniques are discussed, highlighting their efficacy in isolating polysaccharides, proteins, carotenoids, and fatty acids from shrimp waste. Additionally, the bioactivities associated with these compounds, such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and antitumor properties, among others, are elucidated, underscoring their potential in pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, and cosmeceutical applications. Furthermore, the review explores current and potential utilization avenues for these bioactive compounds, emphasizing the importance of sustainable resource management and circular economy principles in maximizing the value of shrimp waste. Overall, this review paper aims to provide insights into the multifaceted aspects of shrimp waste valorization, offering valuable information for researchers, industries, and policymakers interested in sustainable resource utilization and waste-management strategies.

Green active coating from chitosan incorporated with spontaneous cinnamon oil nanoemulsion: Effects on dried shrimp quality and shelf life

Green active film from chitosan (C) incorporated with spontaneous emulsified cinnamon oil nanoemulsion (CONE; droplet size of 79.27 nm and polydispersity index of 0.27) was developed. The obtained chitosan film containing CONE (C + CONE) had tensile elongation and light protective effect higher than C film due to the incorporation of bioactive compounds from cinnamon oil as proven by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy. The effect of C + CONE as active edible coating on the physical, chemical, and microbiological properties of dried shrimp was then investigated. The quality of samples coated with C + CONE (DS + C + CONE) was compared to those coated with C (DS + C) and without coating (DS). In this study, C + CONE could enhance astaxanthin content and reduce lipid oxidation in dried shrimp. During 6 weeks of storage, C + CONE was found to be an effective antimicrobial coating that significantly inhibited growth of bacteria, delayed lipid oxidation and retarded the production of volatile amines in dried shrimp. DS + C + CONE had lower malonaldehyde equivalents (0.52 mg/kg oil), trimethylamine (11.74 mg/100 g), total volatile base nitrogen (84.33 mg/100 g) and total viable count (4.80 Log CFU/g), but had higher astaxanthin content (12.53 ± 0.12 μg/g) than DS and DS + C. The results suggested that the developed C + CONE coating has potential to be used as active coating for preserving food quality.

Sustainable valorization approaches on crustacean wastes for the extraction of chitin, bioactive compounds and their applications - A review

The unscientific disposal of the most abundant crustacean wastes, especially those derived from marine sources, affects both the economy and the environment. Strategic waste collection and management is the need of the hour. Sustainable valorization approaches have played a crucial role in solving those issues as well as generating wealth from waste. The shellfishery wastes are rich in valuable bioactive compounds such as chitin, chitosan, minerals, carotenoids, lipids, and other amino acid derivatives. These value-added components possessed pleiotropic applications in different sectors viz., food, nutraceutical, cosmeceutical, agro-industrial, healthcare, and pharmaceutical sectors. The manuscript covers the recent status, scope of shellfishery management, and different bioactive compounds obtained from crustacean wastes. In addition, both sustainable and conventional routes of valorization approaches were discussed with their merits and demerits along with their combinations. The utilization of nano and microtechnology was also included in the discussion, as they have become prominent research areas in recent years. More importantly, the future perspectives of crustacean waste management and other potential valorization approaches that can be implemented on a large scale.

Improvement strategies for fats and oils used in future food processing based on health orientation and sustainability: research progress, challenges and solutions

As the third largest source of energy in addition to carbohydrates and proteins, lipids provide the body with more than twice as much energy as carbohydrates and proteins and are the accumulated "fuel bank" of the body. They are widely stored in animals, plants and microorganisms and are effectively extracted for dietary use by improved and novel technologies. Under the pressure of the current environment, we should immediately look for new strategies to improve or develop dietary lipids that are compatible with the development of the future food industry, in order to mitigate the environmental and climatic degradation caused by the lipid-producing activities of the animal husbandry industry, to avoid the contradiction between the demand for high quality of human beings and the strain on the resources, and to reduce the health risks caused by saturated fats and trans-fats in meat products. At present, workers concerned are opening up new avenues for the future edible lipids, for example, researches into fat and oil substitutes, the use of biotechnology in lipids and the value-added reuse of waste products is in full swing. The article therefore began with a detailed overview of the known lipids available, understanding their origins and the ways in which they were classified by region. Secondly, possible trends and potential strategies for dietary lipids for use in future foods were presented. Finally, constructive comments are made on the problems and challenges that may be encountered in the research and subsequent industrialization process.

Development of a Ready-to-Eat Fish Product Enriched with Fish Oil Entrapped in a κ-Carrageenan Egg White Fish Protein Hydrolysate Dry Powder

This work describes the development of a ready-to-eat (RTE) product based on an equal mixture of fish mince from three undervalued fish species with different fat contents and protein gelling capacity, which was enriched with fish oil entrapped in a κ-carrageenan egg white fish protein hydrolysate powder, obtained by either spray drying (SD) or heat drying (HD) at 80 °C (HD80). Previously, the spray-dried (SD) powder and heat-dried powders obtained at 45 °C, 60 °C and 80 °C (HD45, HD60 and HD80) were characterised in terms of water solubility, lipid oxidation (TBARS), hygroscopicity and ζ potential. All HD powders showed higher hygroscopicity and lower TBARS than the SD powder. The dry powder was incorporated into a blend composed of salt-ground batter and raw mince to improve binding and textural properties. Changes in water-holding capacity, colour, shear strength and microorganisms were monitored during the processing steps. The RTE product presented a high protein content and a noticeable amount of long-chain ω-3 fatty acids. The use of undervalued fish species together with fish oil and a protein hydrolysate from fish waste contribute to improving the sustainability of fishery resources, being conducive to obtaining a potentially functional RTE product.

A multi-omics-based investigation into the flavor formation mechanisms during the fermentation of traditional Chinese shrimp paste

The fermentation process of traditional shrimp paste is closely associated with the production of flavor substances, but the formation mechanism of key aroma components is still unclear. In this study, a comprehensively flavor profile analysis of traditional fermented shrimp paste was carried out by E-nose and SPME-GC-MS. A total of 17 key volatile aroma components with OAV > 1 contributed greatly to the overall flavor formation of shrimp paste. In addition, high-throughput sequencing (HTS) analysis revealed that Tetragenococcus was the dominant genera in the whole fermentation process. Moreover, metabolomics analysis showed that the oxidation and degradation of lipids, protein, organic acids and amino acids produced a large number of flavor substances and intermediates, which laid the foundation for the Maillard reaction in term of generating the distinct aroma of the traditional shrimp paste. This work will provide theoretical support for the realization of flavor regulation and quality control in traditional fermented foods.

Physical and Oxidative Water-in-Oil Emulsion Stability by the Addition of Liposomes from Shrimp Waste Oil with Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Properties

Liposomes made of partially purified phospholipids (PL) from Argentine red shrimp waste oil were loaded with two antioxidant lipid co-extracts (hexane-soluble, Hx and acetone-soluble, Ac) to provide a higher content of omega-3 fatty acids. The physical properties of the liposomes were characterized by Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC). The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity of the lipid extracts and liposomal suspensions were evaluated in terms of Superoxide and ABTS radical scavenging capacities and TNF-α inhibition. Uni-lamellar spherical liposomes (z-average ≈ 145 nm) with strong negative ζ potential (≈ -67 mV) were obtained in all cases. The high content of neutral lipids in the Hx extract caused structural changes in the bilayer membrane and decreased entrapment efficiency regarding astaxanthin and EPA + DHA contents. The liposomes loaded with the Hx/Ac extracts showed higher antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity compared with empty liposomes. The liposomal dispersions improved the physical and oxidative stability of water-in-oil emulsions as compared with the PL extract, inducing pronounced close packing of water droplets. The liposomes decreased hydroperoxide formation in freshly made emulsions and prevented thio-barbituric acid-reactive substances (TBARS) accumulation during chilled storage. Liposomes from shrimp waste could be valuable nanocarriers and stabilizers in functional food emulsions.

Effects of microencapsulation in dairy matrix on the quality characteristics and bioavailability of docosahexaenoic acid astaxanthin

BACKGROUND

Compared with free astaxanthin (Asta), docosahexaenoic acid astaxanthin monoester (Asta-C22:6) has higher stability and bioavailability. However, Asta-E is still unable to be used in the water system. Hence it is necessary to build a water-soluble delivery system. In this study, Asta-C22:6 microemulsion and microcapsule using whey protein isolate (WPI) and hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HPβ-CD) as composite wall material were prepared. They were added to three dairy products (milk powder, yogurt and flavored dairy product). A dairy product rich in Asta-C22:6 with high bioavailability was designed by measuring quality characteristics, sensory evaluation and in vivo experiments.

RESULTS

Compared with spray drying, the freeze-drying microcapsule had a higher encapsulation efficiency (72.5%), water content (4%) and better solubility, and Asta-C22:6 microcapsule (1 g L^-1 ) yogurt had the best quality. The bioavailability of Asta-C22:6 microcapsule yogurt was further evaluated. After a single oral dose in mice, the bioavailability of Asta-C22:6 microcapsule in yogurt was significantly increased (C_max  = 0.31 μg mL^-1 , AUC_0-T  = 3.20 h μg mL^-1 ).

CONCLUSION

We successfully prepared Asta-C22:6 microcapsule yogurt, which improved the stability and bioavailability of Asta. The present research is meaningful for delivering unstable bioactive small molecules based on WPI and HPβ-CD. It provides an experimental basis for the application of Asta-C22:6 and the development of functional dairy products. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Improved cholesterol depletion with enhanced astaxanthin and polyunsaturated fatty acids of lipid from Pacific white shrimp cephalothorax using prior ethanolic separation of polar lipid and β-Cyclodextrin

Shrimp lipid (SL) from Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) cephalothorax was subjected to ethanol separation with subsequent cholesterol removal. Around 98.4% of cholesterol was removed from cholesterol rich polar lipid fraction (PLF), in which PLF/β cyclodextrin (β-CD)/mixed solvents (ethyl acetate/water,1:1) at the ratio of 1:10:20 (w/w/v) were used. Thereafter, PLF with lowered cholesterol was combined with non-polar fraction rich in triglycerides to obtain lowered cholesterol shrimp lipid (LC-SL). Astaxanthin content in LC-SL was augmented by three-fold, compared to that found in SL. Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) contents of LC-SL were also significantly increased, contrasted with SL. Peroxide value and phospholipids were decreased in LC-SL (4.56 ± 0.15 meq/kg and 9.94 ± 1.9%) compared to those of SL (4.80 ± 0.25 meq/kg and 49.11 ± 2.1%), while TBARS and p-Anisidine values remained unchanged. However, conjugated dienes and free fatty acids were augmented, plausibly due to hydrolysis. FTIR spectra confirmed the increased degree of unsaturation of lipids. Thus, the lowered cholesterol shrimp lipid could be used as functional foods or nutraceutical for health promotion.

New Isolated Shrimp (Litopenaeus setiferus) Chitosan-Based Films Loaded with Fly Ash for Antibacterial Evaluation

New three fabricated chitosan (CS) loaded with fly ash (FA) films were developed in this study. The shell waste of white shrimp was used as a precursor for the isolation of chitin and converted into chitosan by carrying out a deacetylation process. The formation of chitosan was conducted by various preparation steps deproteinization, demineralization, and deacetylation. The degree of deacetylation was found to be 95.2%. The obtained chitosan was used to prepare three different chitosan loaded-fly ash films. The prepared films contained various fly ash: chitosan ratios (2:1, FA-CSF1), (1:1, FA-CSF2), and (1:2, FA-CSF3). The obtained films were characterized using FTIR, XRD, and SEM. The micrograph images of the formed films showed spherical particles with an average size of 10 µm. The surface area, adsorption-desorption properties, thermal stability, and water/fat binding features of the fabricated chitosan films were studied. The results revealed that the prepared films displayed typical BET graphs with surface areas ranging from 2.436 m2 g−1 to 8.490 m2 g−1. The fabricated FA-CSF films also showed high thermal stability at temperatures up to 284.9 °C and excellent water/fat binding capacities. The antibacterial potential of the designed films was screened against E. coli (Gram-negative) and B. cereus (Gram-positive) bacterial strains. The tested solution of CS (1%) exhibited inhibition zones for E. coli and B. cereus as 18.51 mm and 14.81 mm, respectively, while in FA solution (1%), the inhibition zones were found to be 10.16 mm, and 13.57 mm, respectively. The results encourage and open up the new and promising areas of research for applying chitosan extracted from waste materials in biological applications.

Sustainable processes for treatment and management of seafood solid waste

Seafood processing is an important economical activity worldwide and is an integral part of the food chain system. However, their processing results in solid waste generation whose disposal and management is a serious concern. Proteins, amino acids, lipids with high amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), carotenoids, and minerals are abundant in the discards, effluents, and by-catch of seafood processing waste. As a result, it causes nutritional loss and poses major environmental risks. To solve the issues, it is critical that the waste be exposed to secondary processing and valorization for recovery of value added products. Although chemical waste treatment technologies are available, the majority of these procedures have inherent flaws. Biological solutions, on the other hand, are safe, efficacious, and ecologically friendly while maintaining the intrinsic bioactivities after waste conversion. Microbial fermentation or the actions of exogenously introduced enzymes on waste components are used in most bioconversion processes. Algal biotechnology has recently developed unique technologies for biotransformation of nutrients, which may be employed as a feedstock for the recovery of important chemicals as well as biofuel. Bioconversion methods combined with a bio-refinery strategy offer the potential to enable environmentally-friendly and cost-effective seafood waste management. The refinement of these wastes through sustainable bioprocessing interventions can give rise to various circular bioeconomies within the seafood processing sector. Moreover, a techno-economic perspective on the developed solid waste processing lines and its subsequent environmental impact could facilitate commercialization. This review aims to provide a comprehensive view and critical analysis of the recent updates in seafood waste processing in terms of bioconversion processes and byproduct development. Various case studies on circular bioeconomy formulated on seafood processing waste along with techno-economic feasibility for the possible development of sustainable seafood biorefineries have also been discussed.

Astaxanthin from Crustaceans and Their Byproducts: A Bioactive Metabolite Candidate for Therapeutic Application

In recent years, the food, pharma, and cosmetic industries have shown considerable interest in bioactive molecules of marine origin that show high potential for application as nutraceuticals and therapeutic agents. Astaxanthin, a lipid-soluble and orange-reddish-colored carotenoid pigment, is one of the most investigated pigments. Natural astaxanthin is mainly produced from microalgae, and it shows much stronger antioxidant properties than its synthetic counterpart. This paper aims to summarize and discuss the important aspects and recent findings associated with the possible use of crustacean byproducts as a source of astaxanthin. In the last five years of research on the crustaceans and their byproducts as a source of natural astaxanthin, there are many new findings regarding the astaxanthin content in different species and new green extraction protocols for its extraction. However, there is a lack of information on the amounts of astaxanthin currently obtained from the byproducts as well as on the cost-effectiveness of the astaxanthin production from the byproducts. Improvement in these areas would most certainly contribute to the reduction of waste and reuse in the crustacean processing industry. Successful exploitation of byproducts for recovery of this valuable compound would have both environmental and social benefits. Finally, astaxanthin’s strong biological activity and prominent health benefits have been discussed in the paper.

Comparative Study of Astaxanthin, Cholesterol, Fatty Acid Profiles, and Quality Indices Between Shrimp Oil Extracted From Hepatopancreas and Cephalothorax

Shrimp oil from two different portions of Pacific white shrimp including cephalothorax and hepatopancreas was extracted using the mixture of hexane/isopropanol (1:1). The extracted oils from the cephalothorax (CPO) and hepatopancreas (HPO) were characterized for astaxanthin content, cholesterol levels, and fatty acid profiles. Nutrition indices of CPO and HPO were also compared. CPO had lower extraction yield (3.2 ± 0.1%, wet weight basis) than HPO (11.1 ± 0.5%, wet weight basis). High-performance liquid chromatography results indicated that the astaxanthin content in HPO was higher, compared to that of CPO. Nevertheless, the cholesterol level in HPO was 70% lower than that of CPO. Fatty acid profiles of HPO and CPO demonstrated that the polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) content in HPO was higher than that of CPO. The amount of docosahexaenoic acid in the former was ~2 times higher than that of the latter. HPO contained 42.76 ± 0.36% PUFA, whereas PUFA content of CPO was 35.27 ± 0.19%. On the other hand, saturated fatty acids (SFA) were more pronounced in CPO (38.44 ± 0.26%) than HPO (30.82 ± 0.55%). Based on nutrition indices, namely, atherogenicity index, thrombogenicity index, hypocholesterolemic/hypercholesterolemic (h/H) ratio, and PUFA/SFA ratio, HPO possessed higher health benefit than CPO. The oxidation status of CPO and HPO measured in terms of peroxide value, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, anisidine value, and conjugated dienes indicated that higher primary oxidation products were present in CPO, whereas HPO exhibited more secondary oxidation compounds. Fourier transform infrared spectra further substantiated the presence of oxidation products in CPO and HPO. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry identification showed the enhanced levels of phospholipids and glycolipids in the ethanolic fraction of CPO. Overall, HPO with a higher yield was more beneficial in terms of health benefits than CPO.

Bioprocessing of Shrimp Waste Using Novel Industrial By-Products: Effects on Nutrients and Lipophilic Antioxidants

The production of marine foods is on the rise, and shrimp is one of the most widely consumed. As a result, a considerable amount of shrimp waste is generated, becoming a hazardous problem. Shrimp waste is a rich source of added-value components such as proteins, lipids, chitin, minerals, and carotenoids; however, new bioprocesses are needed to obtain these components. This work aimed to characterize the chemical and nutraceutical constituents from the liquor of shrimp waste recovered during a lactic acid fermentation process using the novel substrate sources whey and molasses. Our results showed that the lyophilized liquor is a rich source of proteins (25.40 ± 0.67%), carbohydrates (38.92 ± 0.19%), minerals (calcium and potassium), saturated fatty acids (palmitic, stearic, myristic and lauric acids), unsaturated fatty acids (oleic acid, linoleic, and palmitoleic acids), and astaxanthin (0.50 ± 0.02 µg astaxanthin/g). Moreover, fermentation is a bioprocess that allowed us to obtain antioxidants such as carotenoids with an antioxidant capacity of 154.43 ± 4.73 µM Trolox equivalent/g evaluated by the ABTS method. Our study showed that liquor from shrimp waste fermentation could be a source of nutraceutical constituents with pharmaceutical applications. However, further studies are needed to separate these added-value components from the liquor matrix.

Extraction and characterization of Argentine red shrimp (Pleoticus muelleri) phospholipids as raw material for liposome production

Phospholipids rich in omega-3 fatty acids from Argentine red shrimp waste were explored as a source to produce food-grade liposomes. Partially purified phospholipids (PL-AS), hexane-soluble (HxSE) and acetone-soluble (Ac-SE) lipid co-extracts, were characterized in terms of extraction yield (2.0%, 1.46% and 4.51%, respectively), chemical composition (fatty acids, tocopherols, sterols, astaxanthin) and thermal stability. Based on lipid fractionation, PL-AS presented 85% phospholipids, while neutral lipids were mostly present in HxSE (75%) and free FA in AcSE (34%), the latter suggesting significant fat hydrolysis. Palmitic, oleic, eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and docosahexaenoic (DHA) acids predominated in the phospholipid fraction of PL-AS, mainly constituted by phosphatidylcholine (PC) (96%). The most abundant phospholipid was identified at m/z 760.59, composed of PC, with C16:0/C18:1 as the most probable FA combination. Unilamellar spherical liposomes were successfully made of PL-AS (≈140 nm, 0.248 PDI, -68.5 mV ζ potential), showing high stability for 28 days at 4 °C.

Anticancer Potential of Lipophilic Constituents of Eleven Shellfish Species Commonly Consumed in Korea

The present study was aimed to investigate the composition and contents and the major lipophilic compounds, including the sterols, fatty acids, and tocols of shellfish species. Moreover, to explore the antitumor activity of these lipophilic constituents, their cytotoxicity potentials were determined against five different human cancer cells, including colon carcinoma (HCT116), epithelial melanoma (A2058), glioblastoma multiforme (T98G), lung carcinoma (A549), and adenocarcinoma (HeLa). The results show a significant variation in the contents and composition of lipophilic constituents among the studied species. The highest omega-3 (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) were recorded from arrow squid and pacific oysters, accounting for 53.2% and 53.0% of their total fatty acids, respectively. However, the highest cholesterol content was also recorded in arrow squid (154.4 mg/100 g; 92.6% of total sterols). In contrast, in the Japanese littleneck, Yesso scallop, and common orient clam, cholesterol was just 17.1%, 18.3%, and 18.9% of total sterols, respectively, making them the richest source of non-cholesterol sterols (NCS). Lipids extracted from shellfish species showed ABTS+•- and DPPH•-scavenging activities. In the cytotoxicity analysis, lipids extracted from the Argentine red shrimp showed the highest cytotoxicity against glioblastoma multiforme T98G cells, with an IC50 value of 12.3 µg/mL. The composition and cytotoxicity data reported herein may help explore the nutritional and anticancer potentials of shellfish species.

Dietary astaxanthin: an excellent carotenoid with multiple health benefits

Astaxanthin is a carotenoid widely found in marine organisms and microorganisms. With extensive use in nutraceuticals, cosmetics, and animal feed, astaxanthin will have the largest share in the global market for carotenoids in the near future. Owing to its unique molecular features, astaxanthin has excellent antioxidant activity and holds promise for use in biochemical studies. This review focuses on the observed health benefits of dietary astaxanthin, as well as its underlying bioactivity mechanisms. Recent studies have increased our understanding of the role of isomerization and esterification in the structure-function relationship of dietary astaxanthin. Gut microbiota may involve the fate of astaxanthin during digestion and absorption; thus, further knowledge is needed to establish accurate recommendations for dietary intake of both healthy and special populations. Associated with the regulation of redox balance and multiple biological mechanisms, astaxanthin is proposed to affect oxidative stress, inflammation, cell death, and lipid metabolism in humans, thus exerting benefits for skin condition, eye health, cardiovascular system, neurological function, exercise performance, and immune response. Additionally, preclinical trials predict its potential effects such as intestinal flora regulation and anti-diabetic activity. Therefore, astaxanthin is worthy of further investigation for boosting human health, and wide applications in the food industry.

Innovative Non-Thermal Technologies for Recovery and Valorization of Value-Added Products from Crustacean Processing By-Products-An Opportunity for a Circular Economy Approach

The crustacean processing industry has experienced significant growth over recent decades resulting in the production of a great number of by-products. Crustacean by-products contain several valuable components such as proteins, lipids, and carotenoids, especially astaxanthin and chitin. When isolated, these valuable compounds are characterized by bioactivities such as anti-microbial, antioxidant, and anti-cancer ones, and that could be used as nutraceutical ingredients or additives in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries. Different innovative non-thermal technologies have appeared as promising, safe, and efficient tools to recover these valuable compounds. This review aims at providing a summary of the main compounds that can be extracted from crustacean by-products, and of the results obtained by applying the main innovative non-thermal processes for recovering such high-value products. Moreover, from the perspective of the circular economy approach, specific case studies on some current applications of the recovered compounds in the seafood industry are presented. The extraction of valuable components from crustacean by-products, combined with the development of novel technological strategies aimed at their recovery and purification, will allow for important results related to the long-term sustainability of the seafood industry to be obtained. Furthermore, the reuse of extracted components in seafood products is an interesting strategy to increase the value of the seafood sector overall. However, to date, there are limited industrial applications for this promising approach.

Docosahexaenoic acid-acylated astaxanthin ester exhibits superior performance over non-esterified astaxanthin in preventing behavioral deficits coupled with apoptosis in MPTP-induced mice with Parkinson's disease

Non-esterified astaxanthin (AST) has been reported to exhibit protective effects from Parkinson's disease (PD). Notably, DHA-acylated astaxanthin ester (DHA-AST) is widely distributed in the seafood. However, whether DHA-AST has an effect on PD, and the differences between DHA-AST, non-esterified AST and the combination of non-esterified AST (AST) with DHA (DHA + AST) is unclear. In the present study, mice with PD, induced by 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP), were employed to investigate the effects of DHA-AST, AST and DHA + AST on Parkinson's disease. The rotarod test results showed that DHA-AST significantly suppressed the PD development in MPTP-induced mice, and was better than the effects of AST and DHA + AST. Further mechanistic studies indicated that all three astaxanthin supplements could inhibit oxidative stress in the brain. It was noted that DHA-AST had the best ability to suppress the apoptosis of dopaminergic neurons via the mitochondria-mediated pathway and JNK and P38 MAPK pathway in the brain among the three treated groups. DHA-AST was superior to AST in preventing behavioral deficits coupled with apoptosis rather than oxidative stress, and might provide a valuable reference for the prevention and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases.

Development of Functional Acid Curd Cheese (Tvarog) with Antioxidant Activity Containing Astaxanthin from Shrimp Shells Preliminary Experiment

The food industry is looking for natural additives to improve acid curd cheese (tvarog), while shrimp by-products are being wasted. The concentrated astaxanthin lipid preparation (ALP) was recovered from shrimp shells and added (0%, 0.25%, 0.5% and 1%) to tvarogs stored up to 4 weeks at 5 ± 1 °C. The addition of ALP increased the lipid content and decreased the moisture in cheese. Water activity, acidity and hardness of tvarogs differed significantly between cheese variants. The cheeses with ALP had more stable and lower pH after 4 weeks of storage, and higher titratable acidity immediately after ALP addition. The 0–0.5% ALP samples had the same level and changes in lipid oxidation, while the 1% ALP cheese had more stable thiobarbituric acid values during storage. This may be due to several times greater antioxidant activity (DPPH assay) in the cheese with the highest ALP addition. The addition of astaxanthin had create popular salmon colour and improved objective colour parameters of the cheeses. The best sensory features had 0.5% ALP sample. A higher addition of astaxanthin preparation caused a foreign aftertaste. The use of astaxanthin from shrimp shells to acid curd cheeses enables the creation of new functional properties that are increasingly popular with consumers.

Sustainable sources for antioxidant and antimicrobial compounds used in meat and seafood products

The contribution of food in promotion of health has become of most importance. The challenges that lie before the global food supply chain, such as climate changes, food contamination, and antimicrobial resistance may compromise food safety at international scale. Compounds with strong antimicrobial and antioxidant activity can be extracted from different natural and sustainable sources and may contribute to extend the shelf life of meat and seafood products, enhance food safety and enrich foods with additional biologically active and functional ingredients. This chapter describes the use of bioprotective cultures, essential oils, plant extracts, seaweed extracts and grape pomace compounds in production of value-added meat and seafood products with improved shelf life and safety, following the requests from the market and consumers.

Recent Advances in Marine-Based Nutraceuticals and Their Health Benefits

The oceans have been the Earth's most valuable source of food. They have now also become a valuable and versatile source of bioactive compounds. The significance of marine organisms as a natural source of new substances that may contribute to the food sector and the overall health of humans are expanding. This review is an update on the recent studies of functional seafood compounds (chitin and chitosan, pigments from algae, fish lipids and omega-3 fatty acids, essential amino acids and bioactive proteins/peptides, polysaccharides, phenolic compounds, and minerals) focusing on their potential use as nutraceuticals and health benefits.

GC-MS-Based Metabolomics Analysis of Prawn Shell Waste Co-Fermentation by Lactobacillus plantarum and Bacillus subtilis

GC-MS-based metabolomics were used to investigate metabolic changes in prawn shell waste during fermentation. Microbial strains Lactobacillus plantarum and Bacillus subtilis were co-fermented in a shake flask comprising of 5% (w/v) prawn shell waste and 20% (w/v) glucose as a carbon source. Analysis of the prawn shell waste fermentation showed a total of 376 metabolites detected in the culture supernatant, including 14 amino acids, 106 organic acids, and 90 antimicrobial molecules. Results show that the liquid fraction of the co-fermentation is promising for harvesting valuable metabolites for probiotics application.

Red Shrimp Are a Rich Source of Nutritionally Vital Lipophilic Compounds: A Comparative Study among Edible Flesh and Processing Waste

This study was aimed at comparatively analyzing the sterols, tocopherols and fatty acids from edible flesh and processing waste obtained from three shrimp species, utilizing rapid liquid chromatography (LC)-atmospheric-pressure chemical ionization (APCI)-tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Results revealed the presence of significantly (p < 0.05) high proportions of health-beneficial omega-3 (n3) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) in Argentine red shrimp (34.3% in waste and 38.2% in the flesh), compared to black tiger shrimp (16.5–24.2%) and whiteleg shrimp (13.2–22.6%). Among sterols, cholesterol was found most dominant, accounting in the range 349.4 (white shrimp flesh) to 559.3 µg/g fresh weight (FW) (black shrimp waste). Surprisingly, waste was found to contain a substantially higher amount of α-tocopherol, for instance, 21.7 µg/g FW in edible flesh and 35.3 µg/g FW in the waste of black tiger shrimp. The correlation analysis indicated that shrimp with low total contents of lipids might have higher proportions of health-beneficial long-chain (LC)-n3-PUFAs eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). The fat quality indices, including the high ratios of hypocholesterolemic (h)/hypercholesterolemic (H) fatty acids, and lowest values of the atherogenic index (AI) and thrombogenic index (TI) indicated the health-beneficial potential associated with fat intake from red shrimp. Overall, a significant amount of health-beneficial compounds in edible flesh of studied shrimp confers its extraordinary nutritional benefits. Moreover, considering the richness of processing waste with these compounds, their valorization can be prompted.

Recent Advances in Astaxanthin Micro/Nanoencapsulation to Improve Its Stability and Functionality as a Food Ingredient

Astaxanthin is a carotenoid produced by different organisms and microorganisms such as microalgae, bacteria, yeasts, protists, and plants, and it is also accumulated in aquatic animals such as fish and crustaceans. Astaxanthin and astaxanthin-containing lipid extracts obtained from these sources present an intense red color and a remarkable antioxidant activity, providing great potential to be employed as food ingredients with both technological and bioactive functions. However, their use is hindered by: their instability in the presence of high temperatures, acidic pH, oxygen or light; their low water solubility, bioaccessibility and bioavailability; their intense odor/flavor. The present paper reviews recent advances in the micro/nanoencapsulation of astaxanthin and astaxanthin-containing lipid extracts, developed to improve their stability, bioactivity and technological functionality for use as food ingredients. The use of diverse micro/nanoencapsulation techniques using wall materials of a different nature to improve water solubility and dispersibility in foods, masking undesirable odor and flavor, is firstly discussed, followed by a discussion of the importance of the encapsulation to retard astaxanthin release, protecting it from degradation in the gastrointestinal tract. The nanoencapsulation of astaxanthin to improve its bioaccessibility, bioavailability and bioactivity is further reviewed. Finally, the main limitations and future trends on the topic are discussed.

Smart Method for Carotenoids Characterization in Haematococcus pluvialis red phase and Evaluation of Astaxanthin Thermal Stability

Haematococcus pluvialis microalgae is a promising source of astaxanthin, an excellent antioxidant carotenoid. H. pluvialis, as well as other species, could find more extensive applications as healthy food for a variegated carotenoids composition in addition to astaxanthin. Official method has not currently been used for this purpose. The objective of this work was to propose a method to characterize carotenoids in H. pluvialis after the comparison between spectrophotometric and liquid chromatography analysis. In addition, in order to improve the use of astaxanthin in the food industry, thermal stability was investigated. In this context, the effect of temperature at 40-80 °C, over a 16 h storage period was tested on astaxanthin produced by H. pluvialis. A further test was carried out at room temperature (20 °C) for seven days. A decrease in the astaxanthin concentration was observed at all tested temperatures with a decrease >50% of all-trans isomer at 80 °C after 16 h and an increase of 9-cis and 13-cis isomers. In conclusion, the obtained results showed the importance of evaluating the degradation effect of temperature on astaxanthin used as a food additive for a future greater enhancement of this bioproduct in the food field.

Aquaculture and by-products: Challenges and opportunities in the use of alternative protein sources and bioactive compounds

There is a growing concern about chronic diseases such as obesity, diabetes, hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, cancer and cardiovascular diseases resulting from profound changes in the western lifestyle. Aquaculture by-products are generated in large quantities and they can be profitably recycled through their bioactive compounds used for health or food supplements. Improving waste utilization in the field of aquaculture is essential for a sustainable industry to prevent or minimize the environmental impact. In this sense fish by-products are a great source of protein and omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids which are particularly studied on Atlantic salmon or rainbow trout. Fish protein hydrolysate (FPH) obtained from chemical, enzymatical and microbial hydrolysis of processing by-products are being used as a source of amino acids and peptides with high digestibility, fast absorption and important biological activities. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and docosahexaenoic (DHA) from fish discards have been reported to decrease postprandial triacylglycerol levels, reduction of blood pressure, platelet aggregation and the inflammatory response. Crustacean by-products can also be used to produce chitosan with antioxidant and antimicrobial activity for food and pharmaceutical industries and carotenoids with important biological activity. Seaweeds are rich in bioactive compounds such as alginate, carrageenan, agar, carotenoids and polyphenols with different biological activities such as antioxidant, anticancer, antidiabetic, antimicrobial or anti-inflammatory activity. Finally, regarding harvest microalgae, during the past decades, they were mainly used in the healthy food market, with >75% of the annual microalgal biomass production, used for the manufacture of powders, tablets, capsules or pills. We will report and discuss the present and future role of aquaculture by-products as sources of biomolecules for the design and development of functional foods/beverages. This chapter will focus on the main bioactive compounds from aquaculture by-products as functional compounds in food and their applications in biomedicine for the prevention and treatment of diseases.

Comparison of Lipids Extracted by Different Methods from Chinese Mitten Crab (Eriocheir sinensis) Hepatopancreas

The effects of four different extraction methods (Folch, Soxhlet, two-step, and enzyme-assisted aqueous extraction) on the yields, lipid class, fatty acids (FAs) composition, minor components (including carotenoid, cholesterol), and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances values of lipids in the hepatopancreas of Chinese mitten crab (Eriocheir sinensis) were investigated. The C16:0, C18:1, and C18:2 were identified to be the dominant FAs in crab lipids, and the FAs were present in the form of triglycerides. The Soxhlet and enzyme-assisted extraction were more suitable for crab lipids extraction, showing higher extraction rates and oxidative stability. Especially, the lipid extracted by enzyme-assisted extraction has high carotenoids content. The components of crab lipids extracted by enzyme-assisted aqueous extraction were further identified using untargeted metabolomics methods. The polyunsaturated fatty acid, sterols, amino acids, products of lipid β-oxidation and ATP degradation, phosphatidyl ethanolamine, and astaxanthin were founded in crab oil. PRACTICAL APPLICATION: The Chinese mitten crab (Eriocheir sinensis) is a popular aquatic food in China. The hepatopancreas is the major lipid storage organ of crab, and the distinctive flavor of crab is mainly from it. To compare the different extraction methods on yield, composition and properties of crab lipids can be helpful for lipids production from crab hepatopancreas. Meanwhile, the crab hepatopancreas lipids are rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids and astaxanthin, and have potential to be as a functional component and a crab flavor additive in food industry.

Impact of pretreatment and atmosphere on quality of lipids extracted from cephalothorax of Pacific white shrimp by ultrasonic assisted process

Impacts of different pretreatment conditions and atmosphere on yield and oxidative stability of lipids from Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) cephalothorax using ultrasonic assisted extraction (UAE) process were studied. Cephalothorax was subjected to vacuum-microwave (VM) heating prior to UAE using a mixture of isopropanol/n-hexane (1:1) as solvent. Nitrogen gas was flushed at two flow rates; low (2.15 l/min) and high (4.35 l/min) into the system during ultrasonication. Vacuum-microwave heating resulted in the increase of lipid yield and highest yield was observed in the samples extracted by a combination of VM and UAE. Tannic acid (TA) was incorporated into cephalothorax at three different levels (0.05, 0.1 and 0.2%) in combination with VM, followed by nitrogen flushing. Nitrogen flushing during ultrasonication process resulted in the increased oxidative stability of lipids as confirmed by low PV, TBARS and FFA. Furthermore, astaxanthin content in the lipid was found to be increased by aforementioned treatments.

Safe and Complete Extraction of Astaxanthin from Haematococcus pluvialis by Efficient Mechanical Disruption of Cyst Cell Wall

Haematococcus pluvialis(H. pluvialis) can naturally accumulate high amounts of astaxanthin – a powerful antioxidant. However, complete recovery of astaxanthin from the cysts ofH. pluvialisis challenging because of the presence of a robust acetolysis resistant cell wall. Herein, a simple and effective planetary ball-milling pretreatment was developed to rupture the cells to attain an almost complete recovery of astaxanthin fromH. pluvialis, using a supercritical CO2and conventional organic solvent-based extraction. An optimized pretreatment using planetary ball mill under very mild conditions (150 rpm, 60 min) allowed the recovery of 31.4 mg/g dry weight of astaxanthin fromH. pluvialis, while slightly harsh milling (500 rpm) was found to be detrimental toward astaxanthin. The extracts in acetone exhibited higher antioxidant activity in 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl assay than those in dichloromethane. These mild conditions were safe and highly effective for the complete extraction of astaxanthin along with the others extractables. This study opens a new avenue for the efficient recovery of valuable thermolabile ketocarotenoid species from microalgae, which can be applied to the development of economically viable biorefineries.