Distinct cytokine profiles associated with COVID-19 severity and mortality

Combination of exhaled volatile organic compounds with serum biomarkers predicts respiratory infection severity

OBJECTIVE

During respiratory infections, host-pathogen interaction alters metabolism, leading to changes in the composition of expired volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and soluble immunomodulators. This study aims to identify VOC and blood biomarker signatures to develop machine learning-based prognostic models capable of distinguishing infections with similar symptoms.

METHODS

Twenty-one VOCs and fifteen serum biomarkers were quantified in samples from 86 COVID-19 patients, 75 patients with non-COVID-19 respiratory infections, and 72 healthy donors. The populations were categorized into severity subgroups based on their oxygen support requirements. Descriptive and statistical analyses were conducted to assess group differentiation. Additionally, machine learning classifiers were developed to predict disease severity in both COVID-19 and non-COVID-19 patients.

RESULTS

VOC and biomarker profiles differed significantly among groups. Random Forest models demonstrated the best performance for severity prediction. The COVID-19 model achieved 93% accuracy, 100% sensitivity, and 89% specificity, identifying IL-6, IL-8, thrombomodulin, and toluene as key severity predictors. In non-COVID-19 patients, the model reached 89% accuracy, 100% sensitivity, and 67% specificity, with CXCL10 and methyl-isobutyl-ketone as key markers.

CONCLUSION

VOCs and serum biomarkers differentiated HD, COVID-19, and non-COVID-19 patients, and enabled the development of high-performance severity prediction models. While promising, these findings require validation in larger independent cohorts.

Cytokine profiles dynamics in COVID-19 patients: a longitudinal analysis of disease severity and outcomes

The outcome of the immune response depends on the content and magnitude of inflammatory mediators, the right time to start, and the duration of inflammatory responses. Patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) represent diverse disease severity. Understanding differences in immune responses in individuals with different disease severity levels can help elucidate disease mechanisms. Here, we serially analyzed the cytokine profiles of 809 patients with mild to critical COVID-19. The cytokine profile revealed an overall increase in IL-1β, IL-1Ra, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-2, IL-8, and IL-18 and impaired production of IFN-α and -β. Only an early rise in IL-1Ra, IL-6, and IL-2 levels was linked to worse disease outcomes. On the other hand, long-term rises in IL-1β, IL-1Ra, TNF-α, IL-6, IL-2, IL-8, and IL-18 levels were linked to worse disease outcomes. Principal component analysis identified a component, including IL-1β, TNF-α, IFN-α, and IL-12, that was associated with disease severity. Spearman analysis revealed that the correlation of IL-1β and IFN-α was entirely different between mild and critical patients. Therefore, the ratio of IL-1β to IFN-α seemed to be a suitable criterion for distinguishing critical patients from mild ones. The higher levels of the IL-1β to IFN-α ratio correlated with improved outcomes. These data point to an imbalance of IL-1β/IFNα, contributing to hyperinflammation in COVID-19.

Lessons Learned From Clinical Trials of Immunotherapeutics for COVID-19

The COVID-19 pandemic caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus was arguably one of the worst public health disasters of the last 100 years. As many infectious disease experts were focused on influenza, MERS, ZIKA, or Ebola as potential pandemic-causing agents, SARS-CoV-2 appeared to come from nowhere and spread rapidly. As with any zoonotic agent, the initial pathogen was able to transmit to a new host (humans), but it was poorly adapted to the immune environment of the new host and resulted in a maladapted immune response. As the host-pathogen interaction evolved, subsequent variants of SARS-CoV-2 became less pathogenic and acquired immunity in the host provided protection, at least partial protection, to new variants. As the host-pathogen interaction has changed since the beginning of the pandemic, it is possible the clinical results discussed here may not be applicable today as they were at the start of the pandemic. With this caveat in mind, we present an overview of the immune response of severe COVID-19 from a clinical research perspective and examine clinical trials utilizing immunomodulating agents to further elucidate the importance of hyperinflammation as a factor contributing to severe COVID-19 disease.

Prospective Variation of Cytokine Trends during COVID-19: A Progressive Approach from Disease Onset until Outcome

COVID-19 is characterized by pronounced hypercytokinemia. The cytokine switch, marked by an imbalance between pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokines, emerged as a focal point of investigation throughout the COVID-19 pandemic. However, the kinetics and temporal dynamics of cytokine release remain contradictory, making the development of new therapeutics difficult, especially in severe cases. This study collected serum samples from SARS-CoV-2 infected patients at 72 h intervals and monitored them for various cytokines at each timepoint until hospital discharge or death. Cytokine levels were analyzed based on time since symptom onset and patient outcomes. All cytokines studied prospectively were strong predictors of mortality, particularly IL-4 (AUC = 0.98) and IL-1β (AUC = 0.96). First-timepoint evaluations showed elevated cytokine levels in the mortality group (p < 0.001). Interestingly, IFN-γ levels decreased over time in the death group but increased in the survival group. Patients who died exhibited sustained levels of IL-1β and IL-4 and increased IL-6 levels over time. These findings suggest cytokine elevation is crucial in predicting COVID-19 mortality. The dynamic interplay between IFN-γ and IL-4 highlights the balance between Th1/Th2 immune responses and underscores IFN-γ as a powerful indicator of immune dysregulation throughout the infection.

Specific and Non-specific Aspects and Future Challenges of ICU Care Among COVID-19 Patients with Obesity: A Narrative Review

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Since the end of 2019, the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has infected nearly 800 million people and caused almost seven million deaths. Obesity was quickly identified as a risk factor for severe COVID-19, ICU admission, acute respiratory distress syndrome, organ support including mechanical ventilation and prolonged length of stay. The relationship among obesity; COVID-19; and respiratory, thrombotic, and renal complications upon admission to the ICU is unclear.

RECENT FINDINGS

The predominant effect of a hyperinflammatory status or a cytokine storm has been suggested in patients with obesity, but more recent studies have challenged this hypothesis. Numerous studies have also shown increased mortality among critically ill patients with obesity and COVID-19, casting doubt on the obesity paradox, with survival advantages with overweight and mild obesity being reported in other ICU syndromes. Finally, it is now clear that the increase in the global prevalence of overweight and obesity is a major public health issue that must be accompanied by a transformation of our ICUs, both in terms of equipment and human resources. Research must also focus more on these patients to improve their care. In this review, we focused on the central role of obesity in critically ill patients during this pandemic, highlighting its specificities during their stay in the ICU, identifying the lessons we have learned, and identifying areas for future research as well as the future challenges for ICU activity.

Biochemical implication of acetylcholine, histamine, IL-18, and interferon-alpha as diagnostic biomarkers in hepatitis C virus, coronavirus disease 2019, and dual hepatitis C virus-coronavirus disease 2019 patients

Globally, hepatitis C virus (HCV) and coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) are the most common causes of death due to the lack of early predictive and diagnostic tools. Therefore, research for a new biomarker is crucial. Inflammatory biomarkers are critical central players in the pathogenesis of viral infections. IL-18, produced by macrophages in early viral infections, triggers inflammatory biomarkers and interferon production, crucial for viral host defense. Finding out IL-18 function can help understand COVID-19 pathophysiology and predict disease prognosis. Histamine and its receptors regulate allergic lung responses, with H1 receptor inhibition potentially reducing inflammation in severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE-2) receptors on cholangiocytes suggest liver involvement in SARS-CoV-2 infection. The current study presents the potential impact of circulating acetylcholine, histamine, IL-18, and interferon-Alpha as diagnostic tools in HCV, COVID-19, and dual HCV-COVID-19 pathogenesis. The current study was a prospective cross-section conducted on 188 participants classified into the following four groups: Group 1 COVID-19 (n = 47), Group 2 HCV (n = 47), and Group 3 HCV-COVID-19 patients (n = 47), besides the healthy control Group 4 (n = 47). The levels of acetylcholine, histamine, IL-18, and interferon-alpha were assayed using the ELISA method. Liver and kidney functions within all groups showed a marked alteration compared to the healthy control group. Our statistical analysis found that individuals with dual infection with HCV-COVID-19 had high ferritin levels compared to other biomarkers while those with COVID-19 infection had high levels of D-Dimer. The histamine, acetylcholine, and IL-18 biomarkers in both COVID-19 and dual HCV-COVID-19 groups have shown discriminatory power, making them potential diagnostic tests for infection. These three biomarkers showed satisfactory performance in identifying HCV infection. The IFN-Alpha test performed well in the HCV-COVID-19 group and was fair in the COVID-19 group, but it had little discriminative value in the HCV group. Moreover, our findings highlighted the pivotal role of acetylcholine, histamine, IL-18, and interferon-Alpha in HCV, COVID-19, and dual HCV-COVID-19 infection. Circulating levels of acetylcholine, histamine, IL-18, and interferon-Alpha can be potential early indicators for HCV, COVID-19, and dual HCV-COVID-19 infection. We acknowledge that further large multicenter experimental studies are needed to further investigate the role biomarkers play in influencing the likelihood of infection to confirm and extend our observations and to better understand and ultimately prevent or treat these diseases.

Development and validation of a scoring system to predict the mortality of hospitalized patients with SARS-CoV-2 Omicron: a nationwide, multicentre study

BACKGROUND

The Omicron variant broke out in China at the end of 2022, causing a considerable number of severe cases and even deaths. The study aimed to identify risk factors for death in patients hospitalized with SARS-CoV-2 Omicron infection and to establish a scoring system for predicting mortality.

METHODS

1817 patients were enrolled at eight hospitals in China from December 2022 to May 2023, including 815 patients in the training group and 1002 patients in the validation group. Forty-six clinical and laboratory features were screened using LASSO regression and multivariable logistic regression.

RESULTS

In the training set, 730 patients were discharged and 85 patients died. In the validation set, 918 patients were discharged and 84 patients died. LASSO regression identified age, levels of interleukin (IL) -6, blood urea nitrogen (BUN), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and D-dimer; neutrophil count, neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) as associated with mortality. Multivariable logistic regression analysis showed that older age, IL-6, BUN, LDH and D-dimer were significant independent risk factors. Based on these variables, a scoring system was developed with a sensitivity of 83.6% and a specificity of 83.5% in the training group, and a sensitivity of 79.8% and a sensitivity of 83.0% in the validation group.

CONCLUSIONS

A scoring system based on age, IL-6, BUN, LDH and D-dime can help clinicians identify patients with poor prognosis early.

Alveolar cytokines and interferon autoantibodies in COVID-19 ARDS

Background

Type I interferon (IFN-I) and IFN autoantibodies play a crucial role in controlling SARS-CoV-2 infection. The levels of these mediators have only rarely been studied in the alveolar compartment in patients with COVID-19 acute respiratory distress syndrome (CARDS) but have not been compared across different ARDS etiologies, and the potential effect of dexamethasone (DXM) on these mediators is not known.

Methods

We assessed the integrity of the alveolo-capillary membrane, interleukins, type I, II, and III IFNs, and IFN autoantibodies by studying the epithelial lining fluid (ELF) volumes, alveolar concentration of protein, and ELF-corrected concentrations of cytokines in two patient subgroups and controls.

Results

A total of 16 patients with CARDS (four without and 12 with DXM treatment), eight with non-CARDS, and 15 healthy controls were included. The highest ELF volumes and protein levels were observed in CARDS. Systemic and ELF-corrected alveolar concentrations of interleukin (IL)-6 appeared to be particularly low in patients with CARDS receiving DXM, whereas alveolar levels of IL-8 were high regardless of DXM treatment. Alveolar levels of IFNs were similar between CARDS and non-CARDS patients, and IFNα and IFNω autoantibody levels were higher in patients with CARDS and non-CARDS than in healthy controls.

Conclusions

Patients with CARDS exhibited greater alveolo-capillary barrier disruption with compartmentalization of IL-8, regardless of DXM treatment, whereas systemic and alveolar levels of IL-6 were lower in the DXM-treated subgroup. IFN-I autoantibodies were higher in the BALF of CARDS patients, independent of DXM, whereas IFN autoantibodies in plasma were similar to those in controls.

Determinants of pressure injury development in patients with COVID-19

OBJECTIVE

Pressure injuries (PIs) often develop in critically ill patients due to immobility, and underlying comorbidities that decrease tissue perfusion and wound healing capacity. This study sought to provide epidemiological data on determinants and current managements practices of PI in patients with COVID-19.

METHOD

A US national insurance-based database consisting of patients with coronavirus or COVID-19 diagnoses was used for data collection. Patients were filtered by International Classification of Diseases (ICD) codes corresponding to coronavirus or COVID-19 diagnosis between 2019-2020. Diagnosis of PI following COVID-19 diagnosis was queried. Demographic data and comorbidity information was compared. Logistic regression analysis was used to determine predictors for both PI development and likelihood of operative debridement.

RESULTS

A total of 1,477,851 patients with COVID-19 were identified. Of these, 15,613 (1.06%) subsequently developed a PI, and 8074 (51.7%) of these patients had an intensive care unit (ICU) admission. The average and median time between diagnosis of COVID-19 and PI was 39.4 and 26 days, respectively. PI was more likely to occur in patients with COVID-19 with: diabetes (odds ratio (OR): 1.39, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.29-1.49; p<0.001); coronary artery disease (OR: 1.11, 95% CI: 1.04-1.18, p=0.002), hypertension (OR: 1.43, 95% CI: 1.26-1.64; p<0.001); chronic kidney disease (OR: 1.18, 95% CI: 1.10-1.26; p<0.001); depression (OR: 1.45, 95% CI 1.36-1.54; p<0.001); and long-term non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug use (OR: 1.21, 95% CI: 1.05-1.40; p=0.007). They were also more likely in critically ill patients admitted to the ICU (OR: 1.40, 95% CI: 1.31-1.48; p<0.001); and patients requiring vasopressors (OR:1.25, 95% CI: 1.13-1.38; p<0.001), intubation (OR: 1.21, 95% CI 1.07-1.39; p=0.004), or with a diagnosis of sepsis (OR: 2.38, 95% CI 2.22-2.55; p<0.001). ICU admission, sepsis, buttock and lower back PI along with increasing Charlson Comorbidity Index (CCI) (OR: 1.04, 95% CI 1.00-1.08; p=0.043) was associated with surgical debridement. The vast majority of patients with COVID-19 did not undergo operative debridement or wound coverage.

CONCLUSION

PIs are widely prevalent in patients with COVID-19, especially in those who are critically ill, yet the vast majority do not undergo operative procedures.

DECLARATION OF INTEREST

The authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.

CCL18, CHI3L1, ANG2, IL-6 systemic levels are associated with the extent of lung damage and radiomic features in SARS-CoV-2 infection

OBJECTIVE AND DESIGN

We aimed to identify cytokines whose concentrations are related to lung damage, radiomic features, and clinical outcomes in COVID-19 patients.

MATERIAL OR SUBJECTS

Two hundred twenty-six patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection and chest computed tomography (CT) images were enrolled.

METHODS

CCL18, CHI3L1/YKL-40, GAL3, ANG2, IP-10, IL-10, TNFα, IL-6, soluble gp130, soluble IL-6R were quantified in plasma samples using Luminex assays. The Mann-Whitney U test, the Kruskal-Wallis test, correlation and regression analyses were performed. Mediation analyses were used to investigate the possible causal relationships between cytokines, lung damage, and outcomes. AVIEW lung cancer screening software, pyradiomics, and XGBoost classifier were used for radiomic feature analyses.

RESULTS

CCL18, CHI3L1, and ANG2 systemic levels mainly reflected the extent of lung injury. Increased levels of every cytokine, but particularly of IL-6, were associated with the three outcomes: hospitalization, mechanical ventilation, and death. Soluble IL-6R showed a slight protective effect on death. The effect of age on COVID-19 outcomes was partially mediated by cytokine levels, while CT scores considerably mediated the effect of cytokine levels on outcomes. Radiomic-feature-based models confirmed the association between lung imaging characteristics and CCL18 and CHI3L1.

CONCLUSION

Data suggest a causal link between cytokines (risk factor), lung damage (mediator), and COVID-19 outcomes.

High incidence of immune-mediated inflammatory diseases in sepsis survivors: A nationwide exposed-nonexposed epidemiological study

OBJECTIVE

Sepsis is characterized by an excessive release of inflammatory cytokines. Cytokine dysregulation is pivotal to the pathophysiology of immune-mediated inflammatory diseases (IMIDs). We aimed to analyze the incidence of IMIDs in patients who survived sepsis.

METHODS

We performed a matched-cohort study using the National Medico-Administrative Hospital database in order to analyze the association between sepsis and incident IMIDs in 2020 in France. Sepsis was defined by the combination of at least one infection diagnosis code and one organ failure code. Patients with a first sepsis diagnosed in 2020 were randomly matched with patients admitted during the same period for acute myocardial infarction (AMI) with an exact matching procedure using age, gender, and comorbidities as matching variables. The main outcome was an IMID diagnosis in a 9-month follow-up period starting the first day of hospitalization for sepsis or AMI.

RESULTS

In France, the incidence rate of IMIDs after a sepsis in 2020-analyzed in 62,257 patients-was of 7956 (95% confidence interval [95% CI] 7392-8520) per 100,000 patient-years. As compared to the AMI population, we observed an increased risk for IMIDs of 2.80 (hazard ratio [HR]; 95% CI [2.22-3.54]) starting from day 16 after admission in the sepsis population. The risk of IMIDs onset in sepsis survivors depended on the type of IMIDs and was higher for immune thrombocytopenia (5.51 [1.97-15.4]), autoimmune hemolytic anemia (HR 4.83 [1.45-16.1]), and antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibody-associated vasculitis (4.66 [2.05-10.6]). Association between sepsis and IMIDs onset appeared well balanced across pathogen categories.

CONCLUSION

Our study shows a high incidence of IMIDs among sepsis survivors.

Role of interferons in the antiviral battle: from virus-host crosstalk to prophylactic and therapeutic potential in SARS-CoV-2 infection

Mammalians sense antigenic messages from infectious agents that penetrate the respiratory and digestive epithelium, as well as signals from damaged host cells through membrane and cytosolic receptors. The transduction of these signals triggers a personalized response, depending on the nature of the stimulus and the host's genetics, physiological condition, and comorbidities. Interferons (IFNs) are the primary effectors of the innate immune response, and their synthesis is activated in most cells within a few hours after pathogen invasion. IFNs are primarily synthesized in infected cells, but their anti-infective effect is extended to the neighboring cells by autocrine and paracrine action. The emergence of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic in 2019 was a stark reminder of the potential threat posed by newly emerging viruses. This pandemic has also triggered an overwhelming influx of research studies aiming to unveil the mechanisms of protective versus pathogenic host immune responses induced by SARS-CoV-2. The purpose of this review is to describe the role of IFNs as vital players in the battle against SARS-CoV-2 infection. We will briefly characterize and classify IFNs, present the inductors of IFN synthesis, their sensors, and signaling pathways, and then discuss the role of IFNs in controlling the evolution of SARS-CoV-2 infection and its clinical outcome. Finally, we will present the perspectives and controversies regarding the prophylactic and therapeutic potential of IFNs in SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Variability of Replicates of Intraocular Inflammatory Biomarkers in Ocular Fluid Samples Analyzed with Multiplex Assays

Purpose

Certain factors such as instrumental and sample processing errors may contribute to variability of ocular biofluid samples when they are run as replicates with multiplex assays. There is a paucity of literature on the variability of replicates in multiplex assays. This study aims to evaluate whether there is significant variability in replicate analyses of multiplex assays.

Methods

A total of 152 human ocular biofluid samples (51 aqueous humor and 101 vitreous) were collected and assayed for 27 cytokine biomarker concentrations (pg/mL). Samples were evaluated as replicates (duplicate analysis) at four different time points. Statistical methods including paired samples t-test, 3-way ANOVA, intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC; <0.5-0.75=poor-moderate, 0.75->0.90 =good-excellent reliability), and coefficients of variation (CV) were employed to evaluate for statistical significance, with Bonferroni corrected P=0.002.

Results

Among the 4104 biomarker replicate assays for aqueous humor and vitreous, two analytes (PDGF-BB and IL-7) had a statistically significant difference between the sampled concentrations of the replicates in vitreous samples (mean (diff)=2.05, P<0.001, mean (diff)=1.56, P<0.001, respectively). Majority of the ICC values fell within the good-excellent range (86% of samples) with a minority falling in the poor-moderate range (14% of samples). More variability was noted in the vitreous humour, with five analytes (IL-2, IL-10, IL-12(p70), IL-13, IL-17) demonstrating an average ICC of less than 0.5. The CV calculated for each set of replicates suggested that 93% of replicates had an acceptable level of quantitative assay variability (CV<20%).

Conclusion

This study demonstrates that the analysis of most biomarkers in ocular fluids may not require the use of replicates. However, certain analytes such as PDGF-BB and IL-7 may require the use of replicates to ensure reliable results. Caution should be taken when applying these findings to other laboratory settings as our study was conducted by an experienced technician using a standardized protocol. In less standardized settings, replicates may be required in order to ensure accuracy of results. These findings may guide researchers with the design of their studies on ophthalmic biomarker analysis.

Predictive values of immune indicators on respiratory failure in the early phase of COVID-19 due to Delta and precedent variants

Background

Immune response indicators in the early phase of COVID-19, including interferon and neutralizing responses against SARS-CoV-2, which predict hypoxemia remains unclear.

Methods

This prospective observational study recruited patients hospitalized with COVID-19 (before emergence of omicron variant). As the immune indicators, we assessed the serum levels of IFN-I/III, IL-6, CXCL10 and VEGF, using an ELISA at within 5 days after the onset of symptoms, and serum neutralizing responses using a pseudovirus assay. We also assessed SARS-CoV-2 viral load by qPCR using nasal-swab specimens and serum, to assess the association of indicators and viral distribution.

Results

The study enrolled 117 patients with COVID-19, of which 28 patients developed hypoxemia. None received vaccine before admission. Serum IFN-I levels (IFN-α and IFN-β), IL-6, CXCL10, LDH and CRP were significantly higher in patients who developed hypoxemia. A significant association with nasopharyngeal viral load was observed only for IFN-I. The serum levels of IFN-α, IL-6, CXCL10 were significantly associated with the presence of RNAemia. Multivariable analysis showed higher odds ratio of IFN-α, with cut-off value of 107 pg/ml, in regard to hypoxemia (Odds ratio [OR]=17.5; 95% confidence interval [CI], 4.7-85; p<0.001), compared to those of IL-6, >17.9 pg/ml (OR=10.5; 95% CI, 2.9-46; p<0.001).

Conclusions

This study demonstrated that serum IFN-α levels in the early phase of SARS-CoV-2 infection strongly predict hypoxemic respiratory failure in a manner different from that of the other indicators including IL-6 or humoral immune response, and instead sensitively reflect innate immune response against SARS-CoV-2 invasion.

Severe COVID-19 classified by simple covid risk index is associated with higher levels of advanced oxidation protein products and 8-hydroxy 2 deoxyguanosine

SARS-CoV-2 has become one of the most important and challenging medical research topics in recent years. The presence of endothelial dysfunction, immune thrombosis, and oxidative stress contributes to complications and requires more extended hospitalisation of patients. In this article, we focused on analysing the impact of oxidative stress on the severity of COVID-19 infection. The study group consisted of 72 patients with laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV enrolled. The patients were divided into moderate and severe diseases according to the SCRI (Simple Covid Risk Index, including lymphocyte/D-dimer ratio). Using the ELISA kit, we determined the level of AOPP and 8-OHdG. Patients with severe COVID-19 had higher levels of both AOPP (P < 0.05) and 8-OHdG (P < 0.05) compared to patients with moderate disease. Albumin levels were significantly lower (P < 0.001), although fibrinogen (P < 0.01), D-dimer (P < 0.001), and TF (P < 0.05) levels were higher in severe patients than in moderate course. AOPP/Alb was also higher among severe patients (P < 0.05). Our data suggest a potential role for AOPP and 8-OHdG in predicting the outcome of SARS-CoV-2 patients. Elevated AOPP levels were associated with increased Dimer-D, TF, and vWF activity levels.

Early Cytokine Signatures of Hospitalized Mild and Severe COVID-19 Patients: A Prospective Observational Study

Background

The severe manifestation of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is known to be mediated by several cytokines and chemokines. The study aimed to compare the early cytokine profile of mild and severe COVID-19 patients to that with COVID-19-like symptoms and tested negative for Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus-2 in the Reverse-Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) test.

Methods

This was a prospective, observational study on COVID-19 patients admitted to King Khalid University Hospital, King Saud University Medical City from June to November 2020. Clinical and biochemical data were collected from hospital charts. Blood samples were collected at the time of hospital admission to measure cytokines. A Cytokine and Growth Factor High-Sensitivity Array was used to quantitatively measure cytokines.

Results

The study included 202 RT-PCR-positive individuals and 61 RT-PCR-negative individuals. C-Reactive protein (CRP) and Interleukin-10 (IL-10) levels were found significantly elevated in the RT-PCR positive group compared to the RT-PCR negative group (p=0.001). Patients with severe COVID-19 had significantly longer median hospital stays than those with mild COVID-19 cases (7 vs 6 days). They also had higher CRP and Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) levels and lower Interleukin-4 (IL-4) levels compared to the mild cases. CRP, interleukin-6, IL-10, VEGF, and Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein-1 (MCP-1) levels were significantly elevated in men and IL-10 was significantly higher and interleukin-8 was significantly lower in women compared to negative controls. Elevated Interferon-ɣ (IFN-γ) and IL-10 levels were seen in mild COVID-19 cases and elevated level of MCP-1 was seen in severe COVID-19 cases when categorized according to the length of stay in the hospital.

Conclusion

CRP and IL-10 levels were elevated in the RT-PCR positive group. People with severe COVID-19 had higher CRP and VEGF levels and lower IL-4 levels. Elevated IFN-γ and IL-10 levels were seen in mild COVID-19 cases and elevated level of MCP-1 was seen in severe COVID-19 cases when categorized according to the length of stay in the hospital.

Identification of natural killer markers associated with fatal outcome in COVID-19 patients

Introduction

Increasing evidence has shown that coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) severity is driven by a dysregulated immunological response. Previous studies have demonstrated that natural killer (NK) cell dysfunction underpins severe illness in COVID-19 patients, but have lacked an in-depth analysis of NK cell markers as a driver of death in the most critically ill patients.

Methods

We enrolled 50 non-vaccinated hospitalized patients infected with the initial virus or the alpha variant of SARS-CoV-2 with moderate or severe illness, to evaluate phenotypic and functional features of NK cells.

Results

Here, we show that, consistent with previous studies, evolution NK cells from COVID-19 patients are more activated, with the decreased activation of natural cytotoxicity receptors and impaired cytotoxicity and IFN-γ production, in association with disease regardless of the SARS-CoV-2 strain. Fatality was observed in 6 of 17 patients with severe disease; NK cells from all of these patients displayed a peculiar phenotype of an activated memory-like phenotype associated with massive TNF-α production.

Discussion

These data suggest that fatal COVID-19 infection is driven by an uncoordinated inflammatory response in part mediated by a specific subset of activated NK cells.

COVID-19 Severity Shifts the Cytokine Milieu Toward a Proinflammatory State in Egyptian Patients: A Cross-Sectional Study

Despite extensive research to decipher the immunological basis of coronavirus disease (COVID-19), limited evidence on immunological correlates of COVID-19 severity from MENA region and Egypt was reported. In a single-center cross-sectional study, we have analyzed 25 cytokines that are related to immunopathologic lung injury, cytokine storm, and coagulopathy in plasma samples from 78 hospitalized Egyptian COVID-19 patients in Tanta University Quarantine Hospital and 21 healthy control volunteers between April 2020 and September 2020. The enrolled patients were divided into 4 categories based on disease severity, namely mild, moderate, severe, and critically ill. Interestingly, interleukin (IL)-1-α, IL-2Rα, IL-6, IL-8, IL-18, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), FGF1, CCL2, and CXC10 levels were significantly altered in severe and/or critically ill patients. Moreover, principal component analysis (PCA) demonstrated that severe and critically ill COVID-19 patients cluster based on specific cytokine signatures that distinguish them from mild and moderate COVID-19 patients. Specifically, levels of IL-2Rα, IL-6, IL-10, IL-18, TNF-α, FGF1, and CXCL10 largely contribute to the observed differences between early and late stages of COVID-19 disease. Our PCA showed that the described immunological markers positively correlate with high D-dimer and C-reactive protein levels and inversely correlate with lymphocyte counts in severe and critically ill patients. These data suggest a disordered immune regulation, particularly in severe and critically ill Egyptian COVID-19 patients, manifested as overactivated innate immune and dysregulated T-helper1 responses. Additionally, our study emphasizes the importance of cytokine profiling to identify potentially predictive immunological signatures of COVID-19 disease severity.

Heparin, Low Molecular Weight Heparin, and Non-Anticoagulant Derivatives for the Treatment of Inflammatory Lung Disease

Unfractionated heparin has multiple pharmacological activities beyond anticoagulation. These anti-inflammatory, anti-microbial, and mucoactive activities are shared in part by low molecular weight and non-anticoagulant heparin derivatives. Anti-inflammatory activities include inhibition of chemokine activity and cytokine synthesis, inhibitory effects on the mechanisms of adhesion and diapedesis involved in neutrophil recruitment, inhibition of heparanase activity, inhibition of the proteases of the coagulation and complement cascades, inhibition of neutrophil elastase activity, neutralisation of toxic basic histones, and inhibition of HMGB1 activity. This review considers the potential for heparin and its derivatives to treat inflammatory lung disease, including COVID-19, ALI, ARDS, cystic fibrosis, asthma, and COPD via the inhaled route.

Immunologic Profile of Severe COVID-19 Patients in Alborz Province, Iran

Background: The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has prompted researchers to look for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pathogenicity in depth. Immune system dysregulation was one of the major mechanisms in its pathogenesis. The evidence regarding the levels of interferons (IFNs) and pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines in COVID-19 patients is not well-established. Objectives: Therefore, this study evaluated the expression level of type-I, II, III IFNs, along with interleukin-1 (IL-1), interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-10 (IL-10), and FOXP3 genes in patients with severe COVID-19 to provide additional insights regarding the regulation of these cytokines during COVID-19 infection. Methods: Peripheral blood mononuclear cells were isolated from two groups, including severe COVID-19 patients and healthy controls. Ribonucleic acid was extracted to evaluate the expression level of IFN-a, IFN-b, IFN-g, IFN-la, IL-1, IL-6, IL-10, and FOXP3 genes using real-time polymerase chain reaction. The correlations between the expression levels of these genes were also assessed. Results: A total of 40 samples were divided into two groups, with each group consisting of 20 samples. When comparing the severe COVID-19 group to the controls, the expression levels of IFN-g, tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), IL-6, and IL-10 genes were significantly higher in the severe COVID-19 group. The two groups had no significant differences in IFN-a, IFN-b, IFN-la, IL-1, and FOXP3 expression. The correlation analysis revealed a negative correlation between type I and type III IFNs (i.e., IFN-a and IFN-la) and pro-inflammatory cytokines (i.e., IL-1 and IL-10). Conclusions: This study suggests the possible upregulation of IFN-g, IL-6, IL-10, and TNF-α during SARS-CoV-2 pathogenicity. The preliminary findings of this study and those reported previously show that the levels of IFNs and pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines are not uniformly expressed among all COVID-19 patients and might differ as the disease progresses to the severe stage.

Identification of Parameters Representative of Immune Dysfunction in Patients with Severe and Fatal COVID-19 Infection: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

Abnormal immunological indicators associated with disease severity and mortality in patients with COVID-19 have been reported in several observational studies. However, there are marked heterogeneities in patient characteristics and research methodologies in these studies. We aimed to provide an updated synthesis of the association between immune-related indicators and COVID-19 prognosis. We conducted an electronic search of PubMed, Scopus, Ovid, Willey, Web of Science, Cochrane library, and CNKI for studies reporting immunological and/or immune-related parameters, including hematological, inflammatory, coagulation, and biochemical variables, tested on hospital admission of COVID-19 patients with different severities and outcomes. A total of 145 studies were included in the current meta-analysis, with 26 immunological, 11 hematological, 5 inflammatory, 4 coagulation, and 10 biochemical variables reported. Of them, levels of cytokines, including IL-1β, IL-1Ra, IL-2R, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-18, TNF-α, IFN-γ, IgA, IgG, and CD4+ T/CD8+ T cell ratio, WBC, neutrophil, platelet, ESR, CRP, ferritin, SAA, D-dimer, FIB, and LDH were significantly increased in severely ill patients or non-survivors. Moreover, non-severely ill patients or survivors presented significantly higher counts of lymphocytes, monocytes, lymphocyte/monocyte ratio, eosinophils, CD3+ T,CD4+T and CD8+T cells, B cells, and NK cells. The currently updated meta-analysis primarily identified a hypercytokinemia profile with the severity and mortality of COVID-19 containing IL-1β, IL-1Ra, IL-2R, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, IL-18, TNF-α, and IFN-γ. Impaired innate and adaptive immune responses, reflected by decreased eosinophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, B cells, NK cells, T cells, and their subtype CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, and augmented inflammation, coagulation dysfunction, and nonpulmonary organ injury, were marked features of patients with poor prognosis. Therefore, parameters of immune response dysfunction combined with inflammatory, coagulated, or nonpulmonary organ injury indicators may be more sensitive to predict severe patients and those non-survivors.

Early plasma interferon-β levels as a predictive marker of COVID-19 severe clinical events in adult patients

We assessed relationships between early peripheral blood type I interferons (IFN) levels, clinical new early warning scores (NEWS), and clinical outcomes in hospitalized coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19) adult patients. Early IFN-β levels were lower among patients who further required intensive care unit (ICU) admission than those measured in patients who did not require an ICU admission during severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 infection. IFN-β levels were inversely correlated with NEWS only in the subgroup of patients who further required ICU admission. To assess whether peripheral blood IFN-β levels could be a potential relevant biomarker to predict further need for ICU admission, we performed receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analyses that showed for all study patients an area under ROC curve of 0.77 growing to 0.86 (p = 0.003) when the analysis was restricted to a subset of patients with NEWS ≥5 at the time of hospital admission. Overall, our findings indicated that early peripheral blood IFN-β levels might be a relevant predictive marker of further need for an ICU admission in hospitalized COVID-19 adult patients, specifically when clinical score (NEWS) was graded as upper than 5 at the time of hospital admission.

Prevalence of new-onset atrial fibrillation in hospitalized patients with community-acquired pneumonia: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) is a common lower respiratory tract infection, often complicated by cardiovascular events, including cardiac arrhythmias. New-onset atrial fibrillation (newAF) has been associated with increased mortality in CAP patients, especially in those critically ill; however, limited data on the prevalence of newAF in patients with CAP are available. We aim to estimate the pooled prevalence of newAF and its impact on adverse outcomes in patients with CAP, through a systematic review and meta-analysis. MEDLINE and EMBASE were systematically searched from inception to 27 January 2022. All studies reporting the prevalence of newAF in CAP patients were included and all-cause mortality was extracted when available. The pooled prevalence of newAF, 95% Confidence Intervals (CI), and 95% Prediction Intervals (PI) were computed. The inconsistency index (I2) was calculated to measure heterogeneity. Subgroup analyses were also performed. A protocol for this study was registered on PROSPERO (CRD42022307422). Among 7,655 records retrieved, 10 studies were included, with a total of 280,589 CAP patients. Pooled prevalence of newAF in CAP patients was 7.6% (95% CI 6.4-9.0%, 95% PI 4.3-13.1%, I2 = 95%). Subgroup analyses showed no significant differences according to geographical location or study design. Patients with newAF had a higher risk of mortality among the studies included in the systematic review. NewAF is a common complication, occurring in 7.6% of CAP patients, with prediction intervals suggesting an even higher burden. CAP patients who develop newAF during hospitalization may be at higher risk of mortality in both short- and long-term follow-up.

GENETIC VARIANTS AND SERUM PROFILES OF CYTOKINES IN COVID-19 SEVERITY

ABSTRACT

Background: Patients with severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) are at an increased risk of acute respiratory distress syndrome and mortality. This is due to the increased levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines that amplify downstream pathways that are controlled by immune regulators. Objective: This study aimed to investigate the association between cytokine genetic variants, cytokine serum levels/profiles, and disease severity in critically and noncritically ill COVID-19 patients. Methods: This cross-sectional study recruited 646 participants who tested positive for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 from six collection sites across the United Arab Emirates. Medical files were accessed to retrieve clinical data. Blood samples were collected from all participants. Patients were divided into two clinical groups, noncritical (n = 453) and critical (n = 193), according to World Health Organization classification guidelines for COVID-19 patients. Cytokine analyses were conducted on serum of a subset of the cohort, specifically on 426 participants (noncritical, 264; critical, 162). Candidate gene analyses of 33 cytokine-related genes (2,836 variants) were extracted from a genome-wide association study to identify genetic variants with pleiotropic effects on a specific cytokine and the severity of COVID-19 disease. Results: Age, body mass index (BMI), and pre-existing medical conditions were found to be significant risk factors that contribute to COVID-19 disease severity. After correcting for age, sex, and BMI, IP-10 ( P < 0.001), IFN ( P = 0.001), IL-6 ( P < 0.001), and CXCL-16 ( P < 0.001) serum levels were significantly higher among critical COVID-19 cases, when compared with noncritically ill patients. To investigate if the genetic variants involved in the serum cytokine levels are associated with COVID-19 severity, we studied several genes. Single nucleotide polymorphisms in IL6 (rs1554606; odd ratio (OR) G = 0.67 [0.66, 0.68]; P = 0.017), IFNG (rs2069718; OR G = 0.63 [0.62, 0.64]; P = 0.001), MIP (rs799187; OR A = 1.69 [1.66, 1.72]; P = 0.034), and CXCL16 (rs8071286; OR A = 1.42 [1.41, 1.44]; P = 0.018) were found to be associated with critically ill patients. Polymorphisms in the CXCL10 , CCL2 , IL1 , CCL7 , and TNF genes were not associated with the COVID-19 critical phenotype. The genotypes of IL-6 (gene, IL6 [7p15.3]) and CXCL-16 (gene, CXCL16 [17p13.2]) were significantly associated with the serum levels of the respective cytokine in critical cases of COVID-19. Conclusion: Data obtained from measuring cytokine levels and genetic variant analyses suggest that IL-6 and CXCL-16 could potentially be used as potential biomarkers for monitoring disease progression of COVID-19 patients. The findings in this study suggest that specific cytokine gene variants correlate with serum levels of the specific cytokine. These genetic variants could be of assistance in the early identification of high-risk patients on admission to the clinic to improve the management of COVID-19 patients and other infectious diseases.

Age and Comorbidities Predict COVID-19 Outcome, Regardless of Innate Immune Response Severity: A Single Institutional Cohort Study

The COVID-19 pandemic has claimed over eight hundred thousand lives in the United States alone, with older individuals and those with comorbidities being at higher risk of severe disease and death. Although severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2-induced hyperinflammation is one of the mechanisms underlying the high mortality, the association between age and innate immune responses in COVID-19 mortality remains unclear.

DESIGN

Flow cytometry of fresh blood and multiplexed inflammatory chemokine measurements of sera were performed on samples collected longitudinally from our cohort. Aggregate impact of comorbid conditions was calculated with the Charlson Comorbidity Index, and association between patient factors and outcomes was calculated via Cox proportional hazard analysis and repeated measures analysis of variance.

SETTING

A cohort of severely ill COVID-19 patients requiring ICU admission was followed prospectively.

PATIENTS

In total, 67 patients (46 male, age 59 ± 14 yr) were included in the study.

INTERVENTIONS

None.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

Mortality in our cohort was 41.8%. We identified older age (hazard ratio [HR] 1.09 [95% CI 1.07-1.11]; p = 0.001), higher comorbidity index (HR 1.24 [95% CI 1.14-1.35]; p = 0.039), and hyponatremia (HR 0.90 [95% CI 0.82-0.99]; p = 0.026) to each independently increase risk for death in COVID-19. We also found that neutrophilia (R = 0.2; p = 0.017), chemokine C-C motif ligand (CCL) 2 (R = 0.3; p = 0.043), and C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 9 (CXCL9) (R = 0.3; p = 0.050) were weakly but significantly correlated with mortality. Older age was associated with lower monocyte (R = -0.2; p = 0.006) and cluster of differentiation (CD) 16+ cell counts (R = -0.2; p = 0.002) and increased CCL11 concentration (R = 0.3; p = 0.050). Similarly, younger patients (< 65 yr) demonstrated a rise in CD4 (b-coefficient = 0.02; p = 0.036) and CD8 (0.01; p = 0.001) counts, as well as CCL20 (b-coefficient = 6.8; p = 0.036) during their ICU stay. This CD8 count rise was also associated with survival (b-coefficient = 0.01; p = 0.023).

CONCLUSIONS

Age, comorbidities, and hyponatremia independently predict mortality in severe COVID-19. Neutrophilia and higher CCL2 and CXCL9 levels are also associated with higher mortality, while independent of age.

Defective activation and regulation of type I interferon immunity is associated with increasing COVID-19 severity

Host immunity to infection with SARS-CoV-2 is highly variable, dictating diverse clinical outcomes ranging from asymptomatic to severe disease and death. We previously reported reduced type I interferon in severe COVID-19 patients preceded clinical worsening. Further studies identified genetic mutations in loci of the TLR3- or TLR7-dependent interferon-I pathways, or neutralizing interferon-I autoantibodies as risk factors for development of COVID-19 pneumonia. Here we show in patient cohorts with different severities of COVID-19, that baseline plasma interferon α measures differ according to the immunoassay used, timing of sampling, the interferon α subtype measured, and the presence of autoantibodies. We also show a consistently reduced induction of interferon-I proteins in hospitalized COVID-19 patients upon immune stimulation, that is not associated with detectable neutralizing autoantibodies against interferon α or interferon ω. Intracellular proteomic analysis shows increased monocyte numbers in hospitalized COVID-19 patients but impaired interferon-I response after stimulation. We confirm this by ex vivo whole blood stimulation with interferon-I which induces transcriptomic responses associated with inflammation in hospitalized COVID-19 patients, that is not seen in controls or non-hospitalized moderate cases. These results may explain the dichotomy of the poor clinical response to interferon-I based treatments in late stage COVID-19, despite the importance of interferon-I in early acute infection and may guide alternative therapeutic strategies.

Cytokine levels as predictors of mortality in critically ill patients with severe COVID-19 pneumonia: Case-control study nested within a cohort in Colombia

Background

High levels of different cytokines have been associated in COVID-19 as predictors of mortality; however, not all studies have found this association and its role to cause multi-organ failure and death has not been fully defined. This study aimed to investigate the association of the levels of 10 cytokines with mortality in patients with COVID-19 admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU).

Materials and methods

This is a case-control study nested within a cohort of patients with COVID-19 who were on mechanical ventilation and were not hospitalized for more than 48 h across nine ICUs in Medellín, Colombia. Serum samples were collected upon admission to the ICU and 7 days later and used to measure cytokine levels.

Results

Upon admission, no differences in mortality between the cytokine levels were observed when comparisons were made quantitatively. However, in the multivariate analysis, patients with median IL-1β levels <1.365 pg/ml showed an increase in mortality (OR = 3.1; 1.24<7.71; p = 0.015). On day 7 in the ICU, IL-1β median levels were lower (0.34 vs. 2.41 pg/ml, p = 0.042) and IL-10 higher (2.08 vs. 1.05 pg/ml, p = 0.009) in patients who died. However, in the multivariate analysis, only IL-12p70 was associated with mortality (OR = 0.23; 0.07<0.73; p = 0.012). The mean difference in the levels between day 1 and day 7 decreased in both IFN-γ (3.939 pg/ml, p < 0.039) and in IL-18 (16.312 pg/ml, p < 0.014) in the patients who died. A low IL-1β/IL-10 ratio was associated with mortality on both day 1 and day 7, while an IL-1β/IL-10 ratio below the cut-off on day 7 was associated with decreased survival. The lowest TNFα/IL-10 ratio was associated with mortality only on day 7.

Conclusion

At the time of admission, patients with median IL-1β levels lower than 1.365 pg/ml had increased mortality. An IL-1β/IL-10 ratio <2 at day 7 and IL-12p70 levels >1.666 pg/ml was associated with decreased survival.

Time evolution of cytokine profiles associated with mortality in COVID-19 hospitalized patients

Background

High cytokine levels have been associated with severe COVID-19 disease. Although many cytokine studies have been performed, not many of them include combinatorial analysis of cytokine profiles through time. In this study we investigate the association of certain cytokine profiles and its evolution, and mortality in SARS-CoV2 infection in hospitalized patients.

Methods

Serum concentration of 45 cytokines was determined in 28 controls at day of admission and in 108 patients with COVID-19 disease at first, third and sixth day of admission. A principal component analysis (PCA) was performed to characterize cytokine profiles through time associated with mortality and survival in hospitalized patients.

Results

At day of admission non-survivors present significantly higher levels of IL-1α and VEGFA (PC3) but not through follow up. However, the combination of HGF, MCP-1, IL-18, eotaxine, and SCF (PC2) are significantly higher in non-survivors at all three time-points presenting an increased trend in this group through time. On the other hand, BDNF, IL-12 and IL-15 (PC1) are significantly reduced in non-survivors at all time points with a decreasing trend through time, though a protective factor. The combined mortality prediction accuracy of PC3 at day 1 and PC1 and PC2 at day 6 is 89.00% (p<0.001).

Conclusions

Hypercytokinemia is a hallmark of COVID-19 but relevant differences between survivors and non-survivors can be early observed. Combinatorial analysis of serum cytokines and chemokines can contribute to mortality risk assessment and optimize therapeutic strategies. Three clusters of cytokines have been identified as independent markers or risk factors of COVID mortality.

Bioinformatics and systems biology approach to identify the pathogenetic link of Long COVID and Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome

Background

The COVID-19 pandemic, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is a global crisis. Although many people recover from COVID-19 infection, they are likely to develop persistent symptoms similar to those of myalgic encephalomyelitis/chronic fatigue syndrome (ME/CFS) after discharge. Those constellations of symptoms persist for months after infection, called Long COVID, which may lead to considerable financial burden and healthcare challenges. However, the mechanisms underlying Long COVID and ME/CFS remain unclear.

Methods

We collected the genes associated with Long COVID and ME/CFS in databases by restricted screening conditions and clinical sample datasets with limited filters. The common genes for Long COVID and ME/CFS were finally obtained by taking the intersection. We performed several advanced bioinformatics analyses based on common genes, including gene ontology and pathway enrichment analyses, protein-protein interaction (PPI) analysis, transcription factor (TF)-gene interaction network analysis, transcription factor-miRNA co-regulatory network analysis, and candidate drug analysis prediction.

Results

We found nine common genes between Long COVID and ME/CFS and gained a piece of detailed information on their biological functions and signaling pathways through enrichment analysis. Five hub proteins (IL-6, IL-1B, CD8A, TP53, and CXCL8) were collected by the PPI network. The TF-gene and TF-miRNA coregulatory networks were demonstrated by NetworkAnalyst. In the end, 10 potential chemical compounds were predicted.

Conclusion

This study revealed common gene interaction networks of Long COVID and ME/CFS and predicted potential therapeutic drugs for clinical practice. Our findings help to identify the potential biological mechanism between Long COVID and ME/CFS. However, more laboratory and multicenter evidence is required to explore greater mechanistic insight before clinical application in the future.

Dénutrition et COVID-19

L’infection par le severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), ou maladie à coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19), est une pathologie associée à un risque élevé de dénutrition. La prévalence de la dénutrition chez les personnes hospitalisées pour COVID-19 s’élève à 40 %, et jusqu’à plus de 70 % dans les unités de soins intensifs. Les mécanismes expliquant la dénutrition sont multiples, associant baisse des ingesta, augmentation des pertes énergétiques et augmentation des besoins énergétiques. La dénutrition est associée à la sévérité de la COVID-19. Son dépistage et sa prise en charge en sont donc une priorité. Le dépistage de la dénutrition repose sur les critères de la Haute Autorité de santé (HAS), associant un critère phénotypique (perte de poids, indice de masse corporelle bas, perte de masse et/ou de force musculaire), et un critère étiologique (toujours présent dans la COVID-19). La prise en charge suit les recommandations de la Société Francophone de Nutrition Clinique et Métabolisme (SFNCM) publiées en mai 2020, reposant sur une alimentation adaptée au statut nutritionnel (enrichissement, compléments nutritionnels oraux, nutrition artificielle), la prévention du syndrome de renutrition inappropriée, et la kinésithérapie de renforcement musculaire. La prise en charge nutritionnelle doit également se poursuivre à distance de la phase aiguë de la COVID-19 pour lutter contre la sarcopénie.

Impact of Innate Immunity, Endothelial Damage, and Metabolic Biomarkers on COVID-19 Severity and Mortality

In this study, abnormal levels of myeloid activation, endothelial damage, and innate immune markers were associated with severe coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), while higher levels of metabolic biomarkers (irisin, leptin) demonstrated a protective effect. These data support a model for COVID-19 immunopathogenesis linking robust inflammation and endothelial damage in metabolically predisposed individuals.

Interferon induction, evasion, and paradoxical roles during SARS-CoV-2 infection

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the causative agent of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), has caused millions of deaths in the past two years. Although initially little was understood about this virus, recent research has significantly advanced and landed interferons (IFNs) in the spotlight. While Type I and III IFN have long been known as central to antiviral immunity, in the case of COVID-19 their role was initially controversial. However, the protective function of IFN is now well supported by the identification of human deficiencies in IFN responses as a predictor of disease severity. Here, we will review the cell types and pathways that lead to IFN production as well as the importance of IFN timing and location for disease outcome. We will further discuss the mechanisms that SARS-CoV-2 uses to evade IFN responses, and the current efforts to implement IFNs as therapeutics in the treatment of COVID-19. It is essential to understand the relationships between SARS-CoV-2 and IFN to better inform treatments that exploit IFN functions to alleviate COVID-19.

Phenotypic Heterogeneity of Fulminant COVID-19--Related Myocarditis in Adults

Background

Adults who have been infected with SARS-CoV-2 can develop a multisystem inflammatory syndrome (MIS-A), including fulminant myocarditis. Yet, several patients fail to meet MIS-A criteria, suggesting the existence of distinct phenotypes in fulminant COVID-19–related myocarditis.

Objectives

This study sought to compare the characteristics and clinical outcome between patients with fulminant COVID-19–related myocarditis fulfilling MIS-A criteria (MIS-A⁺) or not (MIS-A⁻).

Methods

A monocentric retrospective analysis of consecutive fulminant COVID-19–related myocarditis in a 26-bed intensive care unit (ICU).

Results

Between March 2020 and June 2021, 38 patients required ICU admission (male 66%; mean age 32 ± 15 years) for suspected fulminant COVID-19–related myocarditis. In-ICU treatment for organ failure included dobutamine 79%, norepinephrine 60%, mechanical ventilation 50%, venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation 42%, and renal replacement therapy 29%. In-hospital mortality was 13%. Twenty-five patients (66%) met the MIS-A criteria. MIS-A⁻ patients compared with MIS-A⁺ patients were characterized by a shorter delay between COVID-19 symptoms onset and myocarditis, a lower left ventricular ejection fraction, and a higher rate of in-ICU organ failure, and were more likely to require mechanical circulatory support with venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (92% vs 16%; P < 0.0001). In-hospital mortality was higher in MIS-A⁻ patients (31% vs 4%). MIS-A⁺ had higher circulating levels of interleukin (IL)-22, IL-17, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), whereas MIS-A⁻ had higher interferon-α2 (IFN-α2) and IL-8 levels. RNA polymerase III autoantibodies were present in 7 of 13 MIS-A⁻ patients (54%) but in none of the MIS-A⁺ patients.

Conclusion

MIS-A⁺ and MIS-A⁻ fulminant COVID-19–related myocarditis patients have 2 distinct phenotypes with different clinical presentations, prognosis, and immunological profiles. Differentiating these 2 phenotypes is relevant for patients’ management and further understanding of their pathophysiology.

Identification of bronchoalveolar and blood immune-inflammatory biomarker signature associated with poor 28-day outcome in critically ill COVID-19 patients

The local immune-inflammatory response elicited by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection is still poorly described, as well as the extent to which its characteristics may be associated with the outcome of critical Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). In this prospective monocenter study, all consecutive COVID-19 critically ill patients admitted from February to December 2020 and explored by fiberoptic bronchoscopy with bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) were included. Biological assays, including digital ELISA cytokine profiling and targeted eicosanoid metabolomic analysis, were performed on paired blood and BAL fluid (BALF). Clinical outcome was assessed through the World Health Organization 10-point Clinical Progression Scale (WHO-CPS) at the 28th day (D28) following the admission to intensive care unit. A D28-WHO-CPS value higher than 5 defined a poor outcome. Seventy-six patients were included, 45 (59%) had a poor day-28 outcome. As compared to their counterparts, patients with D28-WHO-CPS > 5 exhibited a neutrophil-predominant bronchoalveolar phenotype, with a higher BALF neutrophil/lymphocyte ratio, a blunted local type I interferon response, a decompartimentalized immune-inflammatory response illustrated by lower BALF/blood ratio of concentrations of IL-6 (1.68 [0.30-4.41] vs. 9.53 [2.56-19.1]; p = 0.001), IL-10, IL-5, IL-22 and IFN-γ, and a biological profile of vascular endothelial injury illustrated by a higher blood concentration of VEGF and higher blood and/or BALF concentrations of several vasoactive eicosanoids. In critically ill COVID-19 patients, we identified bronchoalveolar and blood immune-inflammatory biomarker signature associated with poor 28-day outcome.

Memory CD4+ T-Cell Lymphocytic Angiopathy in Fatal Forms of COVID-19 Pulmonary Infection

The immunopathological pulmonary mechanisms leading to Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19)-related death in adults remain poorly understood. Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) and peripheral blood sampling were performed in 74 steroid and non-steroid-treated intensive care unit (ICU) patients (23-75 years; 44 survivors). Peripheral effector SARS-CoV-2-specific T cells were detected in 34/58 cases, mainly directed against the S1 portion of the spike protein. The BAL lymphocytosis consisted of T cells, while the mean CD4/CD8 ratio was 1.80 in non-steroid- treated patients and 1.14 in steroid-treated patients. Moreover, strong BAL SARS-CoV-2 specific T-cell responses were detected in 4/4 surviving and 3/3 non-surviving patients. Serum IFN-γ and IL-6 levels were decreased in steroid-treated patients when compared to non-steroid treated patients. In the lung samples from 3 (1 non-ICU and 2 ICU) additional deceased cases, a lymphocytic memory CD4 T-cell angiopathy colocalizing with SARS-CoV-2 was also observed. Taken together, these data show that disease severity occurs despite strong antiviral CD4 T cell-specific responses migrating to the lung, which could suggest a pathogenic role for perivascular memory CD4 T cells upon fatal COVID-19 pneumonia.

Association of tumor necrosis factor alpha ‐308 single nucleotide polymorphism with SARS CoV‐2 infection in an Iraqi Kurdish population

Uncovering risk factors playing roles in the severity of Coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid‐19) are important for understanding pathoimmunology of the disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS CoV‐2). Genetic variations in innate immune genes have been found to be associated with Covid‐19 infections. A single‐nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in a promoter region of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF‐α) gene, TNF‐α −308G>A, increases expression of TNF‐α protein against infectious diseases leading to immune dysregulations and organ damage. This study aims to discover associations between TNF‐α −308G>A SNP and Covid‐19 infection. Polymerase chain reaction‐restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR‐RFLP) was used for genotyping a general Kurdish population and Covid‐19 patients. The homozygous mutant (AA) genotype was found to be rare in the current studied population. Interestingly, the heterozygous (GA) genotype was significantly (p value = 0.0342) higher in the Covid‐19 patients than the general population. This suggests that TNF‐α −308G>A SNP might be associated with Covid‐19 infections. Further studies with larger sample sizes focusing on different ethnic populations are recommended.

Resistin and IL-15 as Predictors of Invasive Mechanical Ventilation in COVID-19 Pneumonia Irrespective of the Presence of Obesity and Metabolic Syndrome

The cytokine signature present in COVID-19 could provide information on the pathogenic mechanisms of the disease and could identify possible prognostic biomarkers and possible therapeutic targets. In this longitudinal work, we studied the clinical and biochemical parameters and circulating cytokine levels of 146 patients at the time of admission for COVID-19 and 4–6 weeks later. The main objective of this study was to determine whether basal cytokines could be early prognostic biomarkers of COVID-19, and also to analyze the impact of comorbidities, such as obesity or metabolic syndrome (MS), in the cytokine profile. The levels of most inflammatory cytokines were elevated on admission in relation to the level that was reached 4–6 weeks later, except for IL-1β, which was lower on admission; these levels were irrespective of the presence of obesity or MS since the cytokine storm masks these inflammatory processes. Among the cytokines analyzed, those that correlated with a worse prognosis of COVID-19 were resistin, IL-6, IL-8, IL-15, MCP-1 and TNF-α. Specifically, resistin and IL-15 are the best early predictors of requiring invasive ventilation. Therefore, resistin and IL-15 should be included in the personalized treatment decision algorithm of patients with COVID-19.

Cytokine profiles in the detection of severe lung involvement in hospitalized patients with COVID-19: The IL-8/IL-32 axis

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is an infectious respiratory disorder caused by a new coronavirus called SARS-CoV-2. The pathophysiology of severe COVID-19 is associated with a "cytokine storm". IL-32 is a key modulator in the pathogenesis of various clinical conditions and is mostly induced by IL-8. IL-32 modulates important inflammatory pathways (including TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1b), contributing to the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases. Il-32 was never evaluated before in COVID-19 patients stratifying as mild-moderate and severe patients. A total of 64 COVID-19 patients, 27 healthy controls were consecutively enrolled in the study. Serum concentrations of biomarkers including IL-1β, IL-10, IFN-γ, TNF-α and IL-6 were quantified by bead-based multiplex analysis and Serum concentration of IL-8 and IL-32 were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits. Interestingly, among the blood parameters, neutrophil and lymphocyte counts were significantly lower in severe COVID-19 patients than in the other, on the contrary, CRP was significantly higher in severe patients than in other groups. The cytokines that best distinguished controls from COVID-19 patients were IL-8 and IL-32, while IL-6 resulted the better variables for discriminate severe group. The best model performance for severe group was obtained by the combination of IL-32, IL-6, IFN-γ, and CRP serum concentration showing an AUC = 0.83. A cut off of 15 pg/ml of IL-6 greatly discriminate survivor from death patients. New insights related to the cytokine storm in COVID-19 patients, highlighting different severity of disease infection.

Comparative Analysis of Circulating Levels of SARS-CoV-2 Antibodies and Inflammatory Mediators in Healthcare Workers and COVID-19 Patients

Advances in knowledge of the pathophysiology of COVID-19 have been acquired; however, the host factors that could explain the mild and severe forms of the disease are not fully understood. Thus, we proposed to evaluate anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies and the inflammatory response of different groups of individuals, including healthcare workers (HCW), sick and dead COVID-19 patients and also recovered patients to contribute to this knowledge gap. Our objective is to relate the clinical evolution of these individuals with the level of detection and functionality of specific antibodies and with the production of inflammatory mediators. As main findings, IgA and IgG anti-SARS-CoV-2 were detected in asymptomatic HCW. IFN-γ and TNF-α levels were higher in symptomatic HCWs than patients with COVID-19 and those who died. Patients who died had higher levels of IL-6, IL-10, and CCL2/MCP-1. We found an imbalance between antiviral and pro-inflammatory mediators in the groups, in which IFN-γ and TNF-α seem to be more associated with protection and IL-6 and CCL2/MCP-1 with pathology. Our work is pioneering the Brazilian population and corroborates data from people from other countries.

Decreased serum levels of angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE)2 and enhanced cytokine levels with severity of COVID-19: normalisation upon disease recovery

Background

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Circulating soluble angiotensin-converting enzyme (sACE2)2, the main receptor for SARS-CoV-2, together with components of the renin-angiotensin system promote infection and disease severity.

Objective

This pilot study followed the time-course of sACE2 levels in relation to systemic cytokines in severe and moderate COVID-19 patients treated with remdesivir/dexamethasone in combination.

Methods

Peripheral blood was obtained upon admission from 30 patients (12 with moderate disease and 18 with severe disease) and 14 patients with PCR-confirmed mild COVID-19. Severe and moderate patients were treated with remdesivir (200mg/first day and 100mg/day for the remaining days) and dexamethasone (100mg/day). 6 healthy control subjects (HC) were also enrolled. Serum interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-8 and sACE2 levels were measured by ELISA at baseline and during treatment in severe and moderate patients and at baseline in mild and HCs.

Results

Baseline sACE2 levels were lower in severe (p = 0.0005) and moderate (p = 0.0022) patients than in patients with mild COVID-19 and in HC (p = 0.0023 and p = 0.0012 respectively). Treatment significantly increased sACE2 levels in patients with moderate disease (p = 0.0156) but only 50% of patients with severe disease showed enhanced levels compared to baseline. Systemic IL-6 and IL-8 levels were higher in all patient groups compared with HC and were not significantly affected over time or by remdesivir/dexamethasone treatment for 5 days.

Conclusion

Serum sACE2 levels increase in severe COVID-19 patients as they recover over time whilst circulating cytokines are unaffected. Future studies should link these results to clinical outcomes.

Measurement of Interleukin-6 Levels in COVID: Illuminative or Illogical?

How to cite this article: Hegde A. Measurement of Interleukin-6 Levels in COVID: Illuminative or Illogical? Indian J Crit Care Med 2022;26(1):9–10.

Advances in clinical outcomes: what we have learned during the COVID-19 pandemic

Our understanding of risk factors and interventions influencing outcomes from coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has continued to evolve, revealing advances emerging from hypotheses formed at the start of the pandemic. Epidemiologic studies have shown that asthma control, rather than a diagnosis of asthma, is a determinant of COVID-19 severity. Clinical outcomes in patients with primary immunodeficiencies, even in those with impaired cellular immunity, are variable. IL-6 has emerged as a reliable biomarker of COVID-19 severity, and large clinical trials have shown the potential for improving outcomes through inhibition of IL-6 signaling in some patients. Studies of genetic risk factors for severe COVID-19 have also revealed the importance of interferon homeostasis in the defense against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2. Because COVID-19 vaccines constitute the primary tool for ending this pandemic, strategies have been developed to address potential allergic and immune-mediated reactions. Here, we discuss advances in our understanding of COVID-19 risk factors and outcomes within the context of allergic and immunologic mechanisms.

Cytokine storm in the pathophysiology of COVID-19: Possible functional disturbances of miRNAs

SARS-CoV-2, as the causative agent of COVID-19, is an enveloped positives-sense single-stranded RNA virus that belongs to the Beta-CoVs sub-family. A sophisticated hyper-inflammatory reaction named cytokine storm is occurred in patients with severe/critical COVID-19, following an imbalance in immune-inflammatory processes and inhibition of antiviral responses by SARS-CoV-2, which leads to pulmonary failure, ARDS, and death. The miRNAs are small non-coding RNAs with an average length of 22 nucleotides which play various roles as one of the main modulators of genes expression and maintenance of immune system homeostasis. Recent evidence has shown that Homo sapiens (hsa)-miRNAs have the potential to work in three pivotal areas including targeting the virus genome, regulating the inflammatory signaling pathways, and reinforcing the production/signaling of IFNs-I. However, it seems that several SARS-CoV-2-induced interfering agents such as viral (v)-miRNAs, cytokine content, competing endogenous RNAs (ceRNAs), etc. preclude efficient function of hsa-miRNAs in severe/critical COVID-19. This subsequently leads to increased virus replication, intense inflammatory processes, and secondary complications development. In this review article, we provide an overview of hsa-miRNAs roles in viral genome targeting, inflammatory pathways modulation, and IFNs responses amplification in severe/critical COVID-19 accompanied by probable interventional factors and their function. Identification and monitoring of these interventional elements can help us in designing the miRNAs-based therapy for the reduction of complications/mortality rate in patients with severe/critical forms of the disease.

A catalogue of tools and variables from crisis and routine care to support decision-making about allocation of intensive care beds and ventilator treatment during pandemics: Scoping review

PURPOSE

This scoping review sought to identify objective factors to assist clinicians and policy-makers in making consistent, objective and ethically sound decisions about resource allocation when healthcare rationing is inevitable.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Review of guidelines and tools used in ICUs, hospital wards and emergency departments on how to best allocate intensive care beds and ventilators either during routine care or developed during previous epidemics, and association with patient outcomes during and after hospitalisation.

RESULTS

Eighty publications from 20 countries reporting accuracy or validity of prognostic tools/algorithms, or significant correlation between prognostic variables and clinical outcomes met our eligibility criteria: twelve pandemic guidelines/triage protocols/consensus statements, twenty-two pandemic algorithms, and 46 prognostic tools/variables from non-crisis situations. Prognostic indicators presented here can be combined to create locally-relevant triage algorithms for clinicians and policy makers deciding about allocation of ICU beds and ventilators during a pandemic. No consensus was found on the ethical issues to incorporate in the decision to admit or triage out of intensive care.

CONCLUSIONS

This review provides a unique reference intended as a discussion starter for clinicians and policy makers to consider formalising an objective a locally-relevant triage consensus document that enhances confidence in decision-making during healthcare rationing of critical care and ventilator resources.

Monoclonal antibody-mediated neutralization of SARS-CoV-2 in an IRF9-deficient child

We describe an unvaccinated child at risk for life-threatening COVID-19 due to an inherited deficiency of IRF9, which governs ISGF-3-dependent responses to type I and III interferons (IFN). She was admitted, with a high nasal SARS-CoV-2 load on day 1 of upper respiratory tract infection. She was viremic on day 2 and received casirivimab and imdevimab. Her clinical manifestations and viremia disappeared on days 3 and 4, respectively. Circulating SARS-CoV-2 virus induced the expression of IFN-stimulated genes in leukocytes on day 1, whereas the secretion of blood type I IFNs, which peaked on day 4, did not. Antibody-mediated SARS-CoV-2 neutralization is, therefore, sufficient to overcome a deficiency of antiviral IFNs.

Artificial Intelligence Predicts Severity of COVID-19 Based on Correlation of Exaggerated Monocyte Activation, Excessive Organ Damage and Hyperinflammatory Syndrome: A Prospective Clinical Study

Background

Prediction of the severity of COVID-19 at its onset is important for providing adequate and timely management to reduce mortality.

Objective

To study the prognostic value of damage parameters and cytokines as predictors of severity of COVID-19 using an extensive immunologic profiling and unbiased artificial intelligence methods.

Methods

Sixty hospitalized COVID-19 patients (30 moderate and 30 severe) and 17 healthy controls were included in the study. The damage indicators high mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), extensive biochemical analyses, a panel of 47 cytokines and chemokines were analyzed at weeks 1, 2 and 7 along with clinical complaints and CT scans of the lungs. Unbiased artificial intelligence (AI) methods (logistic regression and Support Vector Machine and Random Forest algorithms) were applied to investigate the contribution of each parameter to prediction of the severity of the disease.

Results

On admission, the severely ill patients had significantly higher levels of LDH, IL-6, monokine induced by gamma interferon (MIG), D-dimer, fibrinogen, glucose than the patients with moderate disease. The levels of macrophage derived cytokine (MDC) were lower in severely ill patients. Based on artificial intelligence analysis, eight parameters (creatinine, glucose, monocyte number, fibrinogen, MDC, MIG, C-reactive protein (CRP) and IL-6 have been identified that could predict with an accuracy of 83−87% whether the patient will develop severe disease.

Conclusion

This study identifies the prognostic factors and provides a methodology for making prediction for COVID-19 patients based on widely accepted biomarkers that can be measured in most conventional clinical laboratories worldwide.

Elevated Neopterin Levels Predict Fatal Outcome in SARS-CoV-2-Infected Patients

Highlights

Innate immune activation during Covid-19 infection is associated with pernicious clinical outcome.

Background

Coronavirus disease 2019 (Covid-19) is a worldwide threat that has already caused more than 3 000 000 deaths. It is characterized by different patterns of disease evolution depending on host factors among which old-age and pre-existing comorbidities play a detrimental role. Previous coronavirus epidemics, notably SARS-CoV, were associated with increased serum neopterin levels, which can be interpreted as a sign of acute innate immunity in response to viral infection. Here we hypothesize that neopterin may serve as a biomarker of SARS-CoV-2 viral infection and Covid-19 disease severity.

Methods

We measured neopterin blood levels by ELISA. Seric concentration was quantified from 256 healthy donors and 374 Covid-19 patients at hospital admission. Enrolled Covid-19 patients were all symptomatic and displayed a large spectrum of comorbidities. Patients were followed until disease resolution or death.

Results

Severe and critically ill SARS-CoV-2 infected patients were characterized by a profound exacerbation of immune activation characterized by elevated neopterin blood levels. Systemic neopterin levels above 19nM stratified healthy individuals from Covid-19 patients with 87% specificity and 100% sensitivity. Moreover, systemic neopterin levels above 53nM differentiated non-survivors from survivors with 64% specificity and 100% sensitivity.

Conclusion

We propose that neopterin concentration measured at arrival to hospital is a hallmark of severe Covid-19 and identifies a high-risk population of pernicious clinical outcome with a need for special medical care.