Adolescence as a neurobiological critical period for the development of higher-order cognition

Repeated cocaine exposure and prolonged withdrawal induce spatial memory impairment and dysregulate the glutamatergic synapse composition in the dorsal hippocampus of male rats

Adolescents are particularly susceptible to various forms of gratification, among which psychostimulants. During adolescence the hippocampus, a brain area relevant to spatial memory domain, undergoes maturational processes, such as structural and molecular reorganization of the excitatory synapses. Our goal was to reveal putatively enduring spatial memory deficits and molecular correlates in male rats exposed to repeated cocaine after a period of withdrawal. Towards this goal, adolescent Sprague-Dawley male rats were exposed to chronic cocaine treatment (5 mg/kg/day, subcutaneously) for 15 days and, after 2 weeks of withdrawal, were subjected to spatial order object recognition (SOOR) test, a memory task based on the rat's ability to recognize objects displacement. Next, we investigated subcellular specific expression of markers of the glutamate synapse in the dorsal hippocampus. Our findings show that withdrawal from repeated cocaine exposure during adolescence is associated with spatial memory impairment. Such deficit was correlated to a reduced expression and retention of NMDA receptor subunits, GluN1, GluN2A and GluN2B, at both synaptic and extra-synaptic sites, an effect indicative of impaired NMDA receptor trafficking. Analysis of endocytosis markers (Rab family of monomeric GTPase) revealed that cocaine-withdrawn rats favor the degradative pathway (Rab7-Rab9) over the recycling pathway (Rab11). In contrast, saline-treated rats primarily activate the recycling pathway. Our findings, mislocalization of glutamatergic receptors together with sorting of NMDA receptor towards degradation, rather than recycling, may contribute to the understanding of the mechanisms underlying the spatial memory deficits in male rats with an adolescent history of cocaine.

Prevalence of anxiety, depression, and suicidality in adolescents with parental severe mental illness: a controlled study in China

BACKGROUND

Children of parents with mental illness (COPMI) have not received sufficient support in China despite their genetic and environmental risk of adverse mental health outcomes.

AIMS

This study was conducted for the first time in China to assess mental distress in adolescent COPMI compared with the population-based control (PBC) group of parents without mental disorders.

METHODS

A total of 1,114 participants including 558 COPMI and 556 PBC, aged 12-17, were recruited from the communities and assessed by self-report scales about anxiety, depression, and suicidality. Regression and mediation analyses were used to identify risk factors for mental distress.

RESULTS

The estimated prevalence of anxiety and depression in the COPMI group was significantly higher than in the PBC group (anxiety: 3.9% vs. 1.6%, depression: 5.9% vs. 3.4%). A history of parental mental illness was associated with the lack of family communication, which in turn had a significant (BootCI = (0.020 - 0.062)) indirect effect on the increased anxiety and depression levels of the adolescent offspring.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings emphasized the necessity to early identify mental distress in COPMI and provide timely and targeted intervention to improve family communication and mental health well-being for these high-risk adolescents.

Adolescent maturation of cortical excitation-inhibition ratio based on individualized biophysical network modeling

The excitation-inhibition ratio is a key functional property of cortical microcircuits which changes throughout an individual's lifespan. Adolescence is considered a critical period for maturation of excitation-inhibition ratio. This has primarily been observed in animal studies. However, there is limited human in vivo evidence for maturation of excitation-inhibition ratio at the individual level. Here, we developed an individualized in vivo marker of regional excitation-inhibition ratio in human adolescents, estimated using large-scale simulations of biophysical network models fitted to resting-state functional imaging data from both cross-sectional (n = 752) and longitudinal (n = 149) cohorts. In both datasets, we found a widespread decrease in excitation-inhibition ratio in association areas, paralleled by an increase or lack of change in sensorimotor areas. This developmental pattern was aligned with multiscale markers of sensorimotor-association differentiation. Although our main findings were robust across alternative modeling configurations, we observed local variations, highlighting the importance of methodological choices for future studies.

Dynorphinergic lateral hypothalamus to posterior ventral tegmental area pathway matures after adolescence in male rats

The highly plastic nature of the adolescent brain is well-known, and is thought to contribute to the unique susceptibility of adolescents to drugs of abuse. However, much investigation of adolescent plasticity has been focused on synaptic plasticity, as synapses are strengthened and pruned. Here, we show that dynorphin+ neurons in the lateral hypothalamus of adolescent male rats do not respond to low doses of intravenous combined nicotine + ethanol, while male adult lateral hypothalamus dynorphin+ neurons do. We also provide evidence that the dynorphinergic projection from the lateral hypothalamus to the posterior ventral tegmental area is not present in adolescent males, suggesting that axons are still extending during this time. Together, these results suggest a mechanism for the increased susceptibility of adolescent male rats to drug reward.

Sleep Time and Depression Symptoms as Predictors of Cognitive Development Among Adolescents: A Cross-Lagged Study From China

Sleep time and depression symptoms are important factors affecting cognitive development in adolescents. Based on the China Education Panel Survey (CEPS) database, this study used a two-wave cross-lagged model to examine the bidirectional relationship between sleep time, depression symptoms, and cognitive development. Descriptive statistics showed that Chinese adolescents' cognitive development increased significantly from 7th to 8th grade in junior high school, but unfortunately, their depression level and average sleep time per night demonstrated a slightly deteriorating trend. Correlation analysis showed that there was a relatively stable negative correlation between cognitive development, sleep time, and depression symptoms. Moreover, the cross-lagged model revealed that there was a bidirectional relationship between cognitive development and sleep time, a bidirectional relationship between depression symptoms and sleep time, and a unidirectional relationship between depression symptoms and cognitive development. Male adolescents in the subgroup were consistent with the total sample. Among female adolescents, only cognitive development and sleep time have a bidirectional relationship, while depression symptoms and cognitive development, and depression symptoms and sleep time have a unidirectional relationship. Therefore, it is of significance to take targeted action to promote cognitive development and healthy growth in adolescents worldwide.

Adolescent maturation of dorsolateral prefrontal cortex glutamate:GABA and cognitive function is supported by dopamine-related neurobiology

Developmental changes in prefrontal cortex (PFC) excitatory (glutamatergic, Glu) and inhibitory (gamma- aminobutryic acid, GABA) neurotransmitter balance (E:I) have been identified during human adolescence, potentially reflecting a critical period of plasticity that supports the maturation of PFC-dependent cognition. Animal models implicate increases in dopamine (DA) in regulating changes in PFC E:I during critical periods of development, however, mechanistic relationships between DA and E:I have not been studied in humans. Here, we used high field (7T) echo planar imaging (EPI) in combination with Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopic Imaging (MRSI) to assess the role of basal ganglia tissue iron-reflecting DA neurophysiology-in longitudinal trajectories of dorsolateral PFC Glu, GABA, and their relative levels (Glu:GABA) and working memory performance from adolescence to adulthood in 153 participants (ages 10-32 years old, 1-3 visits, 272 visits total). Using generalized additive mixed models (GAMMs) that capture linear and non-linear developmental processes, we show that basal ganglia tissue iron increases during adolescence, and Glu:GABA is biased towards heightened Glu relative to GABA early in adolescence, decreasing into adulthood. Critically, variation in basal ganglia tissue iron was linked to different age-related trajectories in Glu:GABA and working memory. Specifically, individuals with higher levels of tissue iron showed a greater degree of age-related declines in Glu and Glu:GABA, resulting in lower Glu relative to GABA (i.e., higher GABA relative to Glu) in young adulthood. Variation in tissue iron additionally moderated working memory trajectories, as higher levels of tissue iron were associated with steeper age-related improvements and better performance into adulthood. Our results provide novel evidence for a model of critical period plasticity whereby individual differences in DA may be involved in fine-tuning PFC E:I and PFC-dependent cognitive function at a critical transition from adolescence into adulthood.

Neurocognitive risks of asthma during childhood

The impact of chronic medical conditions on the developing brain has gained recent attention, but the neurocognitive risks associated with asthma, which has high prevalence in childhood, are still largely unknown. Recent findings have underscored that children with asthma may be at higher risk for developing cognitive difficulties. In this review, we examine the pathophysiology of asthma and its associations with brain and cognitive development based on rodent models and relatively scant research in humans. We also examine risk factors that may exacerbate asthma symptoms and neurocognitive outcomes, and we discuss why children may be particularly vulnerable to asthma-related neurocognitive consequences. We conclude by providing a framework for future research.

Prefrontal parvalbumin interneurons mediate CRHR1-dependent early-life stress-induced cognitive deficits in adolescent male mice

Cognitive impairment, a core symptom of psychiatric disorders, is frequently observed in adolescents exposed to early-life stress (ES). However, the underlying neural mechanisms are unclear, and therapeutic efficacy is limited. Targeting parvalbumin-expressing interneurons (PVIs) in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), we report that ES reduces mPFC PVI activity, which causally mediated ES-induced cognitive deficits in adolescent male mice through chemogenetic and optogenetic experiments. To understand the possible causes of PVI activity reduction following ES, we then demonstrated that ES upregulated corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) receptor 1 [CRHR1, mainly expressed in pyramidal neurons (PNs)] and reduced activity of local pyramidal neurons (PNs) and their excitatory inputs to PVIs. The subsequent genetic manipulation experiments (CRHR1 knockout, CRH overexpression, and chemogenetics) highlight that ES-induced PVI activity reduction may result from CRHR1 upregulation and PN activity downregulation and that PVIs play indispensable roles in CRHR1- or PN-mediated cognitive deficits induced by ES. These results suggest that ES-induced cognitive deficits could be attributed to the prefrontal CRHR1-PN-PVI pathway. Finally, treatment with antalarmin (a CRHR1 antagonist) and environmental enrichment successfully restored the PVI activity and cognitive deficits induced by ES. These findings reveal the neurobiological mechanisms underlying ES-induced cognitive deficits in adolescent male mice and highlight the therapeutic potentials of PVIs in stress-related cognitive deficits in adolescent individuals.

Gestational THC exposure perturbates hippocampal mitochondrial respiration in the memory-impaired adolescent progeny: Is there a role for mitochondrial CB1 receptor?

Mitochondria are central to cellular energy metabolism, contributing to synaptic transmission and plasticity. The mitochondrial membranes present the cannabinoid type-1 receptor (mito-CB1R), which has been functionally linked to neuronal energy supply and cognitive processing. Prenatal exposure to Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (pTHC) has been associated with cognitive impairments associated with molecular cellular and functional abnormalities in several brain regions, including the hippocampus. This study aims at assessing whether, besides the memory impairment, pTHC exposure may result in mitochondrial molecular and functional alterations in the hippocampus of the offspring. Moreover, the assessment of CB1R expression is also carried out as a proxy of CB1 signalling in pTHC-exposed offspring. THC (2 mg/Kg), or vehicle, was administered to the dams from gestational day (GD) 5 to GD20, and the offspring were tested for declarative memory using the Novel Object Recognition test in the L-maze. We also assessed: mitochondrial respiration by high-resolution respirometry; mitochondrial respiratory complex-I subunit NDUFS1 protein levels, and mito-CB1R expression by ELISA. Our results revealed: significant memory impairment in pTHC-exposed offspring; attenuated mitochondrial respiration in the hippocampus alongside a marked reduction in complex-I-subunit NDUFS1; a significant increase in mito-CB1R expression. This is the first evidence of pTHC exposure-induced impairment in memory processing in the offspring that suggests a functional link between an attenuation in mitochondrial bioenergetics and abnormal CB1R signalling in the hippocampus.

Physical activity and two-year change in adolescent well-being in nine countries

The benefits of physical activity (PA) for well-being are well known; however, studies examining longitudinal effects across diverse international samples in late adolescence are limited. This study advances prior work by combining a partial longitudinal design with a multinational sample to assess the predictive effect of PA on biennial change in older adolescents' well-being, while testing for sex differences. The sample included 903 adolescents (50.4% female) from nine countries, who completed The European Health and Behavior Survey at age 16 and the EPOCH Measure of Adolescent Well-Being at ages 16 and 18. Multilevel modeling estimated the average impact of PA on change in well-being, controlling for baseline well-being. To further interrogate the findings, an additional analysis tested the effect using relative difference scores of well-being to provide a direct measure of simple change. Meta-analytic techniques then captured the degree of cross-country consistency in the estimated effect. Results indicated that more PA at age 16 significantly predicted greater EPOCH well-being at age 18, controlling for prior well-being at age 16, and that adolescent sex did not moderate this effect. The relative difference score analysis confirmed these results. The meta-analysis revealed no significant heterogeneity in the predictive effect across countries. Findings extend previous research by demonstrating the cross-cultural consistency of PA benefits during a critical developmental transition period. They suggest that PA is a modifiable behavior that can be utilized globally to enhance adolescent well-being, though individual differences and context-specific factors should be considered in public health policies and interventions.

Effect of prolonged voluntary wheel running on oxidative stress and defence mechanisms in cortex and hippocampus of healthy female rats

Physical exercise promotes brain health and cognitive function possibly through mechanisms that include strengthened resistance to oxidative stress. However, limited research has explored the cumulative effects of regular voluntary exercise on both oxidative stress and defence mechanisms in hippocampus and cortex, two regions essential for cognitive function. Especially, adaptations in the young, healthy brain are insufficiently understood. This study investigates the impact of 8 weeks of voluntary wheel running on oxidative damage and counteracting defence mechanisms in the cortex and hippocampus of young, healthy female rats. To this end, we assessed oxidative damage to proteins and DNA, antioxidant defence, and DNA repair mechanisms, focusing on the base excision repair pathway. Our findings show that 8 weeks of voluntary exercise does not significantly modify oxidative damage or antioxidant defences in either cortical or hippocampal brain regions. Instead, the voluntary wheel running intervention led to a reduction in the levels of DNA polymerase β and mitochondrial apurinic/apyrimidinic endonuclease 1, key enzymes involved in base excision repair. Moreover, mitochondrial DNA copy number increased in the cortex, but decreased in the hippocampus, suggesting distinct regional adaptations. Collectively, these results indicate that the healthy young brain maintains redox homeostasis despite reduced DNA repair capacity. By analysing a comprehensive array of biomarkers in two brain regions, this study addresses gaps in our current knowledge on prolonged training and brain health and provides valuable insights into how regular exercise produces region-specific and shared responses in the healthy state.

Intrinsic Functional Connectivity Associated with γ‑Aminobutyric Acid and Glutamate/Glutamine in the Lateral Prefrontal Cortex and Internalizing Psychopathology in Adolescents

In this study, we systematically tested the hypothesis that during the critical developmental period of adolescence, on a macro scale, the concentrations of major excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters (glutamate/glutamine and γ‑aminobutyric acid [GABA]) in the dorsal and ventral lateral prefrontal cortex are associated with the brain's functional connectivity and an individual's psychopathology. Neurotransmitters were measured via magnetic resonance spectroscopy while functional connectivity was measured with resting-state fMRI (n = 121). Seed-based and network-based analyses revealed associations of neurotransmitter concentrations and functional connectivities between regions/networks that are connected to prefrontal cortices via structural connections that are thought to be under dynamic development during adolescence. These regions tend to be boundary areas between functional networks. Furthermore, several connectivities were found to be associated with individual's levels of internalizing psychopathology. These findings provide insights into specific neurochemical mechanisms underlying the brain's macroscale functional organization, its development during adolescence, and its potential associations with symptoms associated with internalizing psychopathology.

Longitudinal Development of Neurocognitive Functioning and Gray Matter Volume in Youths With Recurrent Psychosis Spectrum Symptoms

BACKGROUND AND HYPOTHESIS

Neurodevelopmental risk-factor models of psychosis highlight the importance of early developmental deviations in the emergence of psychosis. However, few longitudinal studies map neurodevelopment and neurocognitive trajectories across age in preclinical psychosis. We investigated longitudinal trajectories in neurocognition and brain volume in a community cohort of adolescents with recurrent psychosis spectrum (PS) symptoms, tracking their development into young adulthood compared to their typically developing (TD) peers.

STUDY DESIGN

Utilizing the Philadelphia Neurodevelopmental Cohort, we analyzed data of 231 youths aged 8-30 with at least one follow-up assessment, including 88 with PS.

STUDY RESULTS

Individuals with PS showed similar developmental trajectories but demonstrated significant impairments in executive functioning (t = -2.81, q = 0.010), memory (t = -2.34, q = 0.019), complex cognition (t = -3.72, q = 0.001), social cognition (t = -2.73, q = 0.010), motor (t = -2.50, q = 0.015), and general cognition (t = -3.20, q = 0.004). Lower cortical (t = -2.46, P = .014) and subcortical (t = -2.41, P = .016) gray matter volume in the recurrent PS group compared to the TD group were documented with age-related group differences becoming less pronounced by young adulthood. Further analyses revealed age-by-group interactions (qs < 0.05) observed in a few temporal and frontal regions, with differences between groups at earlier ages.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that recurrent PS symptoms are linked to early neurocognitive and brain structure deficits, highlighting the need for interventions to reduce psychosis risk and support healthy neurodevelopment.

Developmental dynamics of marmoset prefrontal cortical SST and PV interneuron networks highlight primate-specific features

The primate prefrontal cortex (PFC) undergoes protracted postnatal development, crucial for the emergence of cognitive control and executive function. Central to this maturation are inhibitory interneurons (INs), particularly parvalbumin-expressing (PV+) and somatostatin-expressing (SST+) subtypes, which regulate cortical circuit timing and plasticity. While rodent models have provided foundational insights into IN development, the trajectory of postmigratory maturation in primates remains largely uncharted. In this study, we characterized the expression of PV, SST, the chloride transporter KCC2, and the ion channels Kv3.1b and Nav1.1 across six PFC regions (areas 8aD, 8aV, 9, 46, 11 and 47L) in the postnatal marmoset. We report a prolonged maturation of PV+ INs into adolescence, accompanied by progressive upregulation of ion channels that support high-frequency firing. In contrast, SST+ INs show a postnatal decline in density, diverging from rodent developmental patterns. These findings reveal distinct, cell type-specific maturation dynamics in the primate PFC and offer a developmental framework for understanding how inhibitory circuit refinement may underlie vulnerability to neurodevelopmental disorders.

Independent, Multiplicative, and Cumulative Effects of Recent Stressful Life Events and Adverse Childhood Events on Depressive Symptoms among College Students: Moderation by the HPA-axis Multilocus Genetic Variation

Previous research has explored the effects of early and recent stress on depressive symptoms, yielding meaningful findings. However, no research has yet comprehensively verified and compared the independent, multiplicative (interactive), and cumulative (additive) effects of these stresses on depressive symptoms. Consequently, the mechanisms by which early and recent stress contribute to depressive symptoms, as well as the extent of individual differences in these processes, remain poorly understood. This study aimed to address this gap by simultaneously examining the independent, multiplicative, and cumulative effects of recent stressful life events and adverse childhood events on depressive symptoms in late adolescence. Additionally, it investigated the moderating role of multilocus genetic variations related to the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis within these models. A theory-driven multilocus genetic profile score (MGPS) was calculated using FKBP5 rs1360780, NR3C1 rs41423247, and CRHR1 rs110402 polymorphisms. The study recruited a sample of 1227 adolescents (Mage = 18.94 ± 0.70 years, 56.8% girls) from one vocational college, two general colleges and two universities. Results showed that both the independent and cumulative effects of recent stressful life events and adverse childhood events on depressive symptoms were significant, while the multiplicative effects were non-significant. Moreover, the independent effects model was more explanatory than the cumulative effects model, with recent stressful life events being the primary contributor. A significant moderating effect of MGPS on the association between recent stressful life events and depressive symptoms was also observed. Specifically, those with higher MGPS, i.e., with higher susceptibility, exhibited more depressive symptoms when exposed to higher levels of recent stressful life events but fewer symptoms when exposed to lower levels. These findings deepen the understanding of how early and recent stress, along with genetic factors, influence depressive symptoms. It also provides valuable insights for targeted interventions to reduce depressive symptoms among college students.

The First Digital Strategy-Based Method for Training of Executive Functions: Impact on Cognition and Behavioral and Emotional Regulation, and Academic Success in Children With and Without Psychosocial Risk

STap2Go is the first purely digital strategy-based method for the training of executive functions, making its evaluation relevant. This study assesses the effectiveness of this intervention in children with (at risk) and without (no-risk) psychosocial risk, which refers to socio-educational vulnerability, and examines whether its impact differs between groups. A total of 124 children (9-12 years old) were randomly assigned to either an experimental or an active control group. Individual assessments and family questionnaires were administered (FDT, WISC-V, RIST, BRIEF-2). Both groups received a 12-week intervention. The experimental group showed significant improvements in executive functions, processing speed, IQ, academic performance, and emotional and behavioral regulation compared to the controls. Notably, IQ, metacognition, and working memory continued improving at follow-up, suggesting lasting effects. While both groups benefited, the effects were more pronounced in at-risk children, particularly in BRIEF-2 (Inhibition, Metacognition, Behavioral Regulation) and academic performance in mathematics and language. Moreover, the psychosocial risk control group showed a trend toward deterioration over time. The far transfer achieved thanks to digital strategy-based training seems to have a greater effect on at-risk children, and can be used to compensate for their difficulties.

Activation of somatostatin neurons in the medial amygdala reverses long-term aggression and social deficits associated to early-life stress in male mice

Early postnatal development is a critical period for the configuration of neural networks that support social and affective-like behaviors. In this sense, children raised in stressful environments are at high risk to develop maladaptive behaviors immediately or later in life, including anti-social and aggressive behaviors. However, the neurobiological bases of such phenomena remain poorly understood. Here we showed that, at long-term, maternal separation with early weaning (MSEW) decreased the density of somatostatin-expressing (SST+) neurons in the basolateral amygdala (BLA) of females and males, while their activity was only reduced in the medial amygdala (MeA) of males. Interestingly, only MSEW males exhibited long-term behavioral effects, including reduced sociability and social novelty preference in the 3-chamber test (3CH), decreased social interest in the resident-intruder test (RI), and increased aggressivity in both the RI and the tube dominance test (TT). To test whether the manipulation of MeASST+ neurons was sufficient to reverse these negative behavioral outcomes, we expressed the chemogenetic excitatory receptor hM3Dq in MSEW adult males. We found that the activation of MeASST+ neurons ameliorated social interest in the RI test and reduced aggression traits in the TT and RI assays. Altogether, our results highlight a role for MeASST+ neurons in the regulation of aggressivity and social interest and point to the loss of activity of these neurons as a plausible etiological mechanism linking early life stress to these maladaptive behaviors in later life.

How Is the Digital Age Shaping Young Minds? A Rapid Systematic Review of Executive Functions in Children and Adolescents with Exposure to ICT

Objectives: This review assesses how daily exposure to Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) affects executive functions in children and adolescents and explores the roles of parents in mitigating potential negative impacts on cognitive development and emotional regulation. Methods: Following PRISMA guidelines, a systematic search was conducted from 2022 to 2024 using PubMed, Scopus, and Cochrane Library. The study criteria included cohort studies, randomized controlled trials (RCTs), quasi-RCTs, and systematic reviews. Data extraction and risk-of-bias assessments were performed using ROBIS and ROBINS-E tools. Due to the heterogeneity of the results, a narrative synthesis was carried out. Results: Ten studies were included for analysis, comprising a total of 231,117 children from nine countries on three continents. Most studies indicated that excessive ICT exposure negatively affects executive functions, particularly working memory, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, and attention. Adverse effects were linked to increased screen time, poor sleep quality, and multitasking. However, two studies found no significant association, highlighting the influence of contextual factors like socioeconomic status, parental mediation, and screen content type. Shared ICT use with parents or siblings appeared to reduce negative effects. Conclusions: Excessive ICT exposure is associated with impaired executive function development in children and adolescents. Parental supervision and structured ICT use may mitigate risks. Future research should investigate moderating factors, such as socioeconomic status and ICT content, to develop guidelines for healthy digital engagement in youth.

Machine learning-derived multimodal Neurobiological profiles of behavioral activation traits in adolescents

Behavioral activation (BA) traits mediate responses to positive reinforcement, and then to promote reward-seeking actions. However, few studies have investigated the neurobiological profiles of BA traits in adolescents based on multimodal neuroimaging and machine learning techniques. In this study, a total of 6626 adolescents with both valid multimodal magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and questionnaire data were included in the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development Study. Machine learning-based elastic net regression with 5-fold cross-validation (CV) was used to characterize the neurobiological profiles of BA traits using multimodal MRI data as predictors. Using 5-fold CV, the multi-region neurobiological profiles substantively predicted BA traits, and this finding was robust in an out-of-sample. Regarding specific regions, neurobiological profiles were enriched in the bilateral pallidum. Regarding functional networks, functional connectivity of the cingulo-opercular and the fronto-parietal networks with both the pallidum and nucleus accumbens, showed high beta weights. The relationships of the neurobiological profiles with BA traits were further supported by traditional univariate linear mixed effects models, in which many of the profiles identified as part of the neurobiological pattern showed significant univariate associations with BA traits, including the hub region pallidum. In summary, these findings revealed robust machine learning-derived neurobiological profiles of BA traits, those that comprised a key node the pallidum, which is involved in the motivational brain network. These findings suggested that the pallidum might play a vital role in developing BA traits in adolescents.

Age-dependent mechanisms of exercise in the treatment of depression: a comprehensive review of physiological and psychological pathways

Depression has become one of the most common mental disorders in the world. The rising incidence rate and disability rate pose a serious challenge to public health and socio-economic development. Traditional medication and psychotherapy are positive, but they often come with limitations such as side effects, poor compliance, and resource constraints, which highlights the urgent need for more proactive and sustainable non pharmacological interventions. We mainly explored the physiological and psychological mechanisms of exercise in alleviating depression in different age groups. In particular, we evaluated the characteristics and influencing factors of depression in each age group and compared the pathways through which exercise works, aiming to provide scientific basis for clinical practice and public health policies, and strengthen the application of non pharmacological treatment in depression management. It is worth noting that, in the context of a comprehensive search and analysis of recent literature, we have covered the epidemiology of depression, the impact of exercise on mental health, the characteristics of depression in different age groups, and the specific ways in which exercise alleviates depression through physiological and psychological mechanisms. Exercise alleviates symptoms of depression by regulating neurotransmitters, enhancing neuroplasticity, regulating hormone levels, reducing inflammatory responses through physiological pathways, as well as enhancing cognitive function, strengthening emotional regulation, triggering social interactions, and improving self-efficacy through psychological pathways. The differences in physiological and psychological mechanisms among different age groups determine the age dependent characteristics of exercise in mitigating depression. Teenagers, middle-aged people, and elderly people can improve depressive symptoms by enhancing neural progression, regulating stress responses, and strengthening social support, respectively.

Traditional Bullying Victimization and Cyberbullying Perpetration: the Role of Anger Rumination and Self-Control

Background

The transition from being a victim of traditional bullying to engaging in cyberbullying is an emerging area of research. However, not all adolescents who experience traditional bullying go on to perpetrate cyberbullying. Grounded in the General Aggression Model, this study investigates the longitudinal association between traditional bullying victimization and cyberbullying perpetration, focusing on the underlying mechanisms.

Methods

In a longitudinal design, 442 middle school students (49.80% female, Mage = 13.02, SD = 0.85) completed a survey including the Victim Scale, Anger Rumination Scale, Self-Control Scale, and Cyberbullying Scale at baseline enrollment and at six-month follow-up.

Results

Key findings include: (1) T1 Traditional bullying victimization did not directly predict later T2 cyberbullying perpetration; (2) T2 Anger rumination mediated the relationship between T1 traditional bullying victimization and T2 cyberbullying perpetration; (3) T1 Self-control moderated the link between T2 anger rumination and T2 cyberbullying perpetration, with stronger association observed in adolescents with lower self-control.

Conclusion

These results highlight crucial pathways from traditional bullying victimization to cyberbullying perpetration in adolescents.

The beautiful adolescent brain: An evolutionary developmental perspective

The adolescent brain has been characterized as a defective car, with no brakes or steering wheel-only an accelerator. This characterization has been used to explain the impulsive and risky behavior of this transient developmental period. But why do adolescents respond to the world the way they do? In this article, we consider adolescent-specific changes in the brain and behavior from a developmental evolutionary viewpoint in how they might be adaptive. We suggest ways in which the adolescent brain has evolved to explore and learn from new and changing environments as the adolescent gains independence from the caregiver and transitions into an adult. We highlight adolescent-specific changes in the brain and behavior in response to emotional and social cues that may facilitate learning to independently secure resources (e.g., food, water, and shelter) and to establish new social bonds beyond the family or pack for their own survival. Specifically, we focus on how rewards, social cues, and threats in the environment influence behavior and may serve an adaptive role for the adolescent.

Psychedelic Treatments in Adolescent Psychopharmacology: Considering Safety, Ethics, and Scientific Rigor

Interest in psychedelic therapies for adults is rapidly growing, with substances like 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine for posttraumatic stress disorder, psilocybin for treatment-resistant depression, and lysergic acid diethylamide for generalized anxiety disorder showing promise. However, research on these therapies in children and adolescents is limited, with no recent trials. Despite this lack of scientific exploration, adolescents may still experiment with these substances for both recreational and therapeutic purposes as accessibility continues to increase. This raises significant concerns, as adolescents are a vulnerable population requiring heightened caution and safety measures. Therefore, we advocate for structured, safe, and well-controlled exploration of psychedelic therapies in adolescents.

Development of the rodent prefrontal cortex: circuit formation, plasticity, and impacts of early life stress

The prefrontal cortex (PFC), located at the anterior region of the cerebral cortex, is a multimodal association cortex essential for higher-order brain functions, including decision-making, attentional control, memory processing, and regulation of social behavior. Structural, circuit-level, and functional abnormalities in the PFC are often associated with neurodevelopmental disorders. Here, we review recent findings on the postnatal development of the PFC, with a particular emphasis on rodent studies, to elucidate how its structural and circuit properties are established during critical developmental windows and how these processes influence adult behaviors. Recent evidence also highlights the lasting effects of early life stress on the PFC structure, connectivity, and function. We explore potential mechanisms underlying these stress-induced alterations, with a focus on epigenetic regulation and its implications for PFC maturation and neurodevelopmental disorders. By integrating these insights, this review provides an overview of the developmental processes shaping the PFC and their implications for brain health and disease.

Two Axes of White Matter Development

Despite decades of neuroimaging research, how white matter develops along the length of major tracts in humans remains unknown. Here, we identify fundamental patterns of white matter maturation by examining developmental variation along major, long-range cortico-cortical tracts in youth ages 5-23 years using diffusion MRI from three large-scale, cross-sectional datasets (total N = 2,710). Across datasets, we delineate two replicable axes of human white matter development. First, we find a deep-to-superficial axis, in which superficial tract regions near the cortical surface exhibit greater age-related change than deep tract regions. Second, we demonstrate that the development of superficial tract regions aligns with the cortical hierarchy defined by the sensorimotor-association axis, with tract ends adjacent to sensorimotor cortices maturing earlier than those adjacent to association cortices. These results reveal developmental variation along tracts that conventional tract-average analyses have previously obscured, challenging the implicit assumption that white matter tracts mature uniformly along their length. Such developmental variation along tracts may have functional implications, including mitigating ephaptic coupling in densely packed deep tract regions and tuning neural synchrony through hierarchical development in superficial tract regions - ultimately refining neural transmission in youth.

Time-frequency and functional connectivity analysis in drug-naive adolescents with depression based on electroencephalography using a visual cognitive task: A comparative study

BACKGROUND

Previous research studies have demonstrated cognitive deficits in adolescents with depression; however, the neuroelectrophysiological mechanisms underlying these deficits remain poorly understood. Utilizing electroencephalography (EEG) data collected during cognitive tasks, this study applies time-frequency analysis and functional connectivity (FC) techniques to explore the neuroelectrophysiological alterations associated with cognitive deficits in adolescents with depression.

METHODS

A total of 173 adolescents with depression and 126 healthy controls (HC) participated in the study, undergoing EEG while performing a visual oddball task. Delta, theta, and alpha power spectra, along with FC, were calculated and analyzed.

RESULTS

Adolescents with depression exhibited significantly reduced delta, theta, and alpha power at the Fz, Cz, C5, C6, Pz, P5, and P6 electrodes compared to the HC group. Notably, theta power at the F5 electrode and alpha power at the F5 and F6 electrodes were significantly lower in the depression group than in the HC group. Additionally, cortical FC in the frontal and central regions was markedly decreased in adolescents with depression compared to HC.

CONCLUSIONS

During cognitive tasks, adolescents with depression display distinct abnormalities in both high- and low-frequency brain oscillations, as well as reduced functional connectivity in the frontal, central, and parietal regions compared to HC. These findings offer valuable neuroelectrophysiological insights into the cognitive deficits associated with adolescent depression.

Reliable Multimodal Brain Signatures Predict Mental Health Outcomes in Children

BACKGROUND

Interindividual brain differences likely precede the emergence of mood and anxiety disorders; however, the specific brain alterations remain unclear. While many studies focus on a single imaging modality in isolation, recent advances in multimodal image analysis allow for a more comprehensive understanding of the complex neurobiology that underlies mental health.

METHODS

In a large population-based cohort of children from the ABCD (Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development) Study (N > 10,000), we applied data-driven linked independent component analysis to identify linked variations in cortical structure and white matter microstructure that together predict longitudinal behavioral and mental health symptoms. Brain differences were examined in a subsample of twins depending on the presence of at-risk behaviors.

RESULTS

Two multimodal brain signatures at ages 9 to 10 years predicted longitudinal mental health symptoms from 9 to 12 years, with small effect sizes. Cortical variations in association, limbic, and default mode regions linked with peripheral white matter microstructure together predicted higher depression and anxiety symptoms across 2 independent split-halves. The brain signature differed between depression and anxiety symptom trajectories and related to emotion regulation network functional connectivity. Linked variations of subcortical structures and projection tract microstructure variably predicted behavioral inhibition, sensation seeking, and psychosis symptom severity over time in male participants. These brain patterns were significantly different between pairs of twins discordant for self-injurious behavior.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrate reliable, multimodal brain patterns in childhood, before mood and anxiety disorders tend to emerge, that lay the foundation for long-term mental health outcomes and offer targets for early identification of children at risk.

Adolescent physical activity during school days: a comparative study before and after COVID-19 pandemic restrictions

Background

Physical activity (PA) during the school day is crucial for the health and well-being of adolescents. This study examines the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on youth PA patterns to better understand these changes and to provide guidelines for school programming.

Methods

Differences in PA within specific segments of the school day were examined before and after the pandemic using the Youth Activity Profile questionnaire. Participants included 956 boys and 1,317 girls from 21 high schools. The study involved 12 Czech and 9 Polish high schools before the pandemic and 9 Czech and 8 Polish high schools after the pandemic.

Results

Both Czech and Polish boys and girls exhibited significantly less transportation PA to and from school and reduced PA during the school day after the pandemic compared to before. Additionally, Czech and Polish boys were significantly less physically active during school breaks, and Czech boys and girls had notably less PA during physical education lessons. The pandemic disrupted the habit of regular PA on school days, particularly evident in the decline of PA to and from school.

Conclusion

The study confirms a significant difference in PA of Czech and Polish adolescents in various segments of the school day after students return to school following pandemic restrictions. Promoting achievement of the recommendations in the segments of the school day and in comprehensive school PA programs should be an important part of school health and education policy and public health promotion for adolescents.

Connectome-wide brain signature during fast-food advertisement exposure predicts BMI at 2 years

Food advertisements target adolescents, contributing to weight gain and obesity. However, whether brain connectivity during those food advertisements can predict weight gain is unknown. Here, 121 adolescents [14.1 ± 1.0 years; 50.4% female; body mass index (BMI): 23.4 ± 4.8; 71.9% White] completed both a baseline fMRI paradigm viewing advertisements (unhealthy fast food, healthier fast food, and nonfood) and an anthropometric assessment 2 years later. We used connectome-based predictive modeling to derive brain networks that were associated with BMI both at baseline and the 2-year follow-up. During exposure to unhealthy fast-food commercials, we identified a brain network comprising high-degree nodes in the hippocampus, parahippocampal gyrus, and fusiform gyrus rich with connections to prefrontal and occipital nodes that predicted lower BMI at the 2-year follow-up (r = 0.17; P = .031). A similar network was derived from baseline BMI (n = 168; r = 0.34; P < .001). Functional connectivity networks during exposure to the healthier fast food (P = .152) and nonfood commercials (P = .117) were not significant predictors of 2-year BMI. Key brain regions in our derived networks have been previously shown to encode aspects of memory formation, visual processing, and self-control. As such, the integration of these regions may reflect a mechanism of adolescents' ability to exert self-control toward obesogenic food stimuli.

Frontostriatal Networks Undergo Functional Specialization During Adolescence that Follows a Ventral-Dorsal Gradient: Developmental Trajectories and Longitudinal Associations

Seminal studies in animal neuroscience demonstrate that frontostriatal circuits exhibit a ventral-dorsal functional gradient to integrate neural functions related to reward processing and cognitive control. Prominent neurodevelopmental models posit that heightened reward-seeking and risk-taking during adolescence result from maturational imbalances between frontostriatal neural systems underlying reward processing and cognitive control. The present study investigated whether the development of ventral (VS) and dorsal (DS) striatal resting-state connectivity (rsFC) networks along this proposed functional gradient relates to putative imbalances between reward and executive systems posited by a dual neural systems theory of adolescent development. 163 participants aged 11-25 years (54% female, 90% white) underwent resting scans at baseline and biennially thereafter, yielding 339 scans across four assessment waves. We observed developmental increases in VS rsFC with brain areas implicated in reward processing (e.g., subgenual cingulate gyrus and medial orbitofrontal cortex) and concurrent decreases with areas implicated in executive function (e.g., ventrolateral and dorsolateral prefrontal cortices). DS rsFC exhibited the opposite pattern. More rapid developmental increases in VS rsFC with reward areas were associated with developmental improvements in reward-based decision making, whereas increases in DS rsFC with executive function areas were associated with improved executive function, though each network exhibited some crossover in function. Collectively, these findings suggest that typical adolescent neurodevelopment is characterized by a divergence in ventral and dorsal frontostriatal connectivity that may relate to developmental improvements in affective decision-making and executive function.Significance Statement Anatomical studies in nonhuman primates demonstrate that frontostriatal circuits are essential for integration of neural functions underlying reward processing and cognition, with human neuroimaging studies linking alterations in these circuits to psychopathology. The present study characterized the developmental trajectories of frontostriatal resting state networks from childhood to young adulthood. We demonstrate that ventral and dorsal aspects of the striatum exhibit distinct age-related changes that predicted developmental improvements in reward-related decision making and executive function. These results highlight that adolescence is characterized by distinct changes in frontostriatal networks that may relate to normative increases in risk-taking. Atypical developmental trajectories of frontostriatal networks may contribute to adolescent-onset psychopathology.

Person-centered analyses reveal that developmental adversity at moderate levels and neural threat/safety discrimination are associated with lower anxiety in early adulthood

Parsing heterogeneity in the nature of adversity exposure and neurobiological functioning may facilitate better understanding of how adversity shapes individual variation in risk for and resilience against anxiety. One putative mechanism linking adversity exposure with anxiety is disrupted threat and safety learning. Here, we applied a person-centered approach (latent profile analysis) to characterize patterns of adversity exposure at specific developmental stages and threat/safety discrimination in corticolimbic circuitry in 120 young adults. We then compared how the resultant profiles differed in anxiety symptoms. Three latent profiles emerged: (1) a group with lower lifetime adversity, higher neural activation to threat, and lower neural activation to safety; (2) a group with moderate adversity during middle childhood and adolescence, lower neural activation to threat, and higher neural activation to safety; and (3) a group with higher lifetime adversity exposure and minimal neural activation to both threat and safety. Individuals in the second profile had lower anxiety than the other profiles. These findings demonstrate how variability in within-person combinations of adversity exposure and neural threat/safety discrimination can differentially relate to anxiety, and suggest that for some individuals, moderate adversity exposure during middle childhood and adolescence could be associated with processes that foster resilience to future anxiety.

Age- and sex-dependent participation of the endocannabinoid system in locomotion and risk assessment of an ADHD rat model

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder affecting individuals across age groups. Impairments in executive function characterize ADHD and are often associated with elevated levels of risk-taking behaviors. The endocannabinoid system plays a crucial role in modulating prefrontal cortex circuits. Here, we assessed the effects of acute pharmacological manipulation of cannabinoid CB1 and CB2 receptors on locomotion and risk assessment/anxiety-like behaviors in an ADHD animal model during adolescence and adulthood. Further, we investigated the protein levels and gene expression of endocannabinoid system components (CB1, CB2, FAAH, MAGL) in the prefrontal cortex at both ages. During adolescence, activation of cannabinoid receptors aggravated the hyperactivity and risky behaviors of the ADHD model. These behavioral traits were more evident in female rats. In adulthood, manipulation of cannabinoid receptors did not alter hyperactivity but worsened risk assessment. Overall, gene expression levels of receptors and enzymes of the endocannabinoid system were increased in the ADHD model. Our findings suggest that the endocannabinoid system may operate differently in ADHD, and manipulating this system, especially in adolescents, could exacerbate deficits in inhibitory control.

Sex and Region-Specific Differences in Microglial Morphology and Function Across Development

Microglia are exceptionally dynamic resident innate immune cells within the central nervous system, existing on a continuum of morphologies and functions throughout their lifespan. They play vital roles in response to injuries and infections, clearing cellular debris, and maintaining neural homeostasis throughout development. Emerging research suggests that microglia are strongly influenced by biological factors, including sex, developmental stage, and their local environment. This review synthesizes findings on sex differences in microglial morphology and function in key brain regions, including the frontal cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, and cerebellum, across the lifespan. Where available, we examine how gonadal hormones influence these microglial characteristics. Additionally, we highlight the limitations of relying solely on morphology to infer function and underscore the need for comprehensive, multimodal approaches to guide future research. Ultimately, this review aims to advance the dialogue on these spatiotemporally heterogeneous cells and their implications for sex differences in brain function and vulnerability to neurological and psychiatric disorders.

Gonad-derived steroid hormones mediate a sex difference in the maturation of auditory encoding in the cochlea from adolescence to early adulthood in C57BL/6J mice

Sexually mature females of multiple mammalian species were previously reported to have increased peripheral auditory sensitivity, often measured as higher auditory brainstem response (ABR) wave I amplitude compared to males. Here, we determined potential hormonal and genetic (i.e., XX- vs. XY-linked genes) contributions to this sex difference by recording ABRs in gonadally intact and gonadectomized female and male wildtype (WT) and four core genotypes (FCG) C57BL/6J mice. WT females at postnatal day 38 (P38) and P65, and FCG mice with ovaries at P65 had higher wave I amplitude than males, and the difference was absent in gonadectomized mice. Furthermore, in WT mice, we addressed the initiation and duration of the sex difference in wave amplitude from pre-pubescence (P25) through maturation from post-pubescent late adolescence to early adulthood (P38, P65, and P95) in both the cochlea and cochlear nucleus. In both female and male mice, wave I amplitude decreased by 50 % from P25 to P95. However, the amplitude in females was 22 % and 11 % higher than males at P38 and P65, respectively. In gonadectomized mice, there was no sex difference in wave I amplitude at any age tested, due to a decrease in gonadectomized females. In contrast, we found that wave II amplitude remains relatively constant over these ages in both sham and gonadectomized WT female and male mice. Together, the data suggest that gonad-derived hormones differentially refine the maturation of wave I, but not wave II, amplitude between late adolescence and early adulthood.

Timing of adverse childhood experiences and depressive, anxiety, comorbid symptoms among Chinese female nurses: A life course perspective

BACKGROUND

Nurses demonstrate a greater vulnerability to developing depressive and anxiety symptoms compared to the general population. Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) are known risk factors for mental health issues, but impact of timing of these experiences remains unclear.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate associations between timing of ACEs and depressive, anxiety, comorbid symptoms.

PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING

Using convenience sampling, a cross-sectional study was conducted. The sample was 1966 female nurses from seven hospitals in Zhejiang Province, China.

METHODS

Nurses completed a questionnaire assessing sociodemographic characteristics, ACEs, depressive and anxiety symptoms. Timing of ACEs was categorized as childhood, adolescence, and both periods. Comorbid symptoms referred to simultaneous presence of both depressive and anxiety symptoms. Multivariable logistic regression was used to examine associations between ACEs timing and mental health outcomes, presented as Odds Ratios (ORs) with 95 % Confidence Intervals (CIs).

RESULTS

A total of 429 (21.82 %) participants experienced ACEs in both periods. ACEs occurring only in childhood, only in adolescence, and in both periods were all associated with increased depressive, anxiety, and comorbid symptoms. An increasing trend in number of ACEs from childhood to adolescence was linked to higher symptoms in adulthood. Familial ACEs in both periods were strongly linked to higher depressive (OR = 1.85, 95 % CI [1.14, 3.01]), anxiety (OR = 2.55, 95 % CI [1.41, 4.60]), and comorbid symptoms (OR = 2.92, 95 % CI [1.50, 5.70]).

CONCLUSIONS

The timing of ACEs influenced the development of mental health issues. It is imperative to provide targeted psychological support based on timing of ACEs to improve mental health in this population.

Trajectories of working memory and decision making abilities along juvenile development in mice

Rodents commonly serve as model organisms for the investigation of human mental disorders by capitalizing on behavioral commonalities. However, our understanding of the developmental dynamics of complex cognitive abilities in rodents remains incomplete. In this study, we examined spatial working memory as well as odor-and texture-based decision making in mice using a delayed non-match to sample task and a two-choice set-shifting task, respectively. Mice were investigated during different stages of development: pre-juvenile, juvenile, and young adult age. We show that, while working memory abilities in mice improve with age, decision making performance peaks during juvenile age by showing a sex-independent trajectory. Moreover, cFos expression, as a first proxy for neuronal activity, shows distinct age-and brain area-specific changes that relate to task-specific behavioral performance. The distinct developmental trajectories of working memory and decision making in rodents resemble those previously reported for humans.

Resting-State Cortical Network and Subcortical Hyperconnectivity in Youth With Generalized Anxiety Disorder in the ABCD Study

BACKGROUND

Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) frequently emerges during childhood or adolescence, yet few studies have examined functional connectivity differences in youth with GAD. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) studies of adults with GAD have implicated multiple brain regions; however, frequent examination of individual brain seed regions and/or networks has limited a holistic view of GAD-associated differences. The current study therefore used resting-state fMRI data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study to investigate connectivity in youths with GAD across multiple cortical networks and subcortical regions implicated in adult GAD, considering diagnosis changes across 2 assessment periods.

METHODS

In 164 youths with GAD and 3158 healthy control participants, within- and between-network connectivity for 6 cortical networks and 6 subcortical regions was assessed using linear mixed-effect models. Changes in GAD-associated connectivity between baseline and 2-year follow-up were then compared for participants with continuous GAD, GAD at baseline and not follow-up (GAD remitters), and GAD at follow-up and not baseline (GAD converters) versus control participants.

RESULTS

Youths with GAD showed greater within-ventral attention network (VAN) connectivity and hyperconnectivity between the amygdala and cingulo-opercular network and between striatal regions and the cingulo-opercular, default mode, and salience networks (false discovery rate p < .05). Within-VAN connectivity decreased for GAD remitters between baseline and follow-up. Sensitivity analyses revealed that these hyperconnectivity patterns were not observed in youths with major depressive disorder (n = 19), separation anxiety (n = 33), or social anxiety disorder (n = 111) who did not have GAD.

CONCLUSIONS

Results indicate that GAD in childhood and adolescence is associated with altered subcortical to cortical network connectivity and that within-VAN hyperconnectivity, in particular, is associated with clinically significant GAD-specific symptoms.

Moral emotions and auditory verbal hallucinations in schizophrenia

Adolescence and early adulthood are characterized by the development of cognitive and social skills necessary for autonomous functioning in adult roles. As classically described by Erik Erikson, this developmental process involves forging a meaningful sense of identity, comprising a worldview, set of moral values, and occupational aspirations. This may require individuals questioning or defying the expectations and norms they have learned within the social context of their upbringing; simultaneously they remain acutely sensitive to the judgment of their peers. This developmental period encompasses the age range in which schizophrenia and other psychotic illnesses are most likely to present. As early as 1914 Sigmund Freud postulated a connection between auditory hallucinations and the formation of an independent moral perspective, which served as the basis for his concept of the superego. However, the connection between processes of identity formation and development of psychosis has not been extensively investigated with the current technologies and knowledge base of biological psychiatry, possibly due to the challenges inherent in operationalizing and measuring aspects of personal and moral identity. In this theoretical review we aim to identify areas of overlap between normative developmental processes in the transition to adulthood, the experience of moral emotions, and the phenomenology of hallucinations in schizophrenia, to build a conceptual framework for novel approaches to the study of psychosis.

Validity and reliability of the executive function scale in Cuban university student

Introduction

Executive functions are higher cognitive skills involved in planning, organization, decision-making, impulse control, and working memory. It is essential to have tools that allow for the accurate and reliable assessment of this construct in university students. This study aims to evaluate the validity and reliability of the Executive Functions Scale for University Students (UEF-1) in the Cuban population.

Methods

A cross-sectional study was conducted in which an online survey was administered to 1,092 Cuban university students representing 14 of the country's 16 provinces. Descriptive analyses, confirmatory factor analyses, and Pearson correlation analyses were used to assess the psychometric properties of the scale.

Results

Significant correlations were obtained between the scale factors, and the original seven-factor structure was confirmed. The scale demonstrated good internal consistency and overall reliability (α = 0.91, ω = 0.91).

Conclusion

The study provided evidence that the UEF-1 is a reliable and valid tool for assessing executive functions in Cuban university students. This measure provides a comprehensive understanding of the cognitive abilities and functioning of Cuban university students, allowing for the identification of specific areas of executive functioning that may benefit from additional support or intervention.

Shared Patterns of Cognitive Control Behavior and Electrophysiological Markers in Adolescence

Behavioral parameters obtained from cognitive control tasks have been linked to electrophysiological markers. Yet, most previous research has investigated only a few specific behavioral parameters at a time. An integrated approach with simultaneous consideration of multiple aspects of behavior may better elucidate the development and function of cognitive control. Here, we aimed to identify shared patterns between cognitive control behavior and electrophysiological markers using stop-signal task data and EEG recordings from an adolescent sample (n = 193, aged 11-25 years). We extracted behavioral variables covering various aspects of RT, accuracy, inhibition, and decision-making processes, as well as amplitude and latency of the ERPs N1, N2, and P3. To identify shared patterns between the two sets of variables, we employed a principal component analysis and a canonical correlation analysis. First, we replicated previously reported associations between various cognitive control behavioral parameters. Next, results from the canonical correlation analysis showed that overall good task performance was associated with fast and strong neural processing. Furthermore, the canonical correlation was affected by age, indicating that the association varies depending on age. The present study suggests that although distributional and computational methods can be applied to extract specific behavioral parameters, they might not capture specific patterns of cognitive control or electrophysiological brain activity in adolescents.

Influence of social determinants of health and adversity on computerized neurocognitive assessment

Introduction: Social determinants of health and adversity, including poverty, maltreatment, and neighborhood deprivation, are individual-level factors that may significantly affect baseline neurocognitive testing and management that have yet to be thoroughly explored within the computerized neurocognitive assessment.Objectives: Examine individual-level experiences of poverty, abuse, neighborhood deprivation, and social mobility on computerized cognitive testing.Methods: The sample included 3,845 student-athletes who completed a baseline Immediate Post-Concussion Assessment and Cognitive Testing (ImPACT) and were enrolled in the Child-Household Integrated Longitudinal Data database. Multivariable linear regressions were used to assess independent variables of Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program enrollment, abuse or neglect cases, Area Deprivation Index scores, and other demographic factors on four baseline ImPACT composite scores: verbal and visual memory, visuomotor, and reaction time.Results: Individual-level factors of persistent poverty and neighborhood deprivation were associated with lower composite scores; however, upward social mobility was not significantly associated with cognitive performance. The effects of mother's race on computerized cognitive testing performance were attenuated when accounting for measures of adversity.Conclusion: Findings highlight the importance of social determinants of health in computerized neurocognitive testing to ensure more culturally sensitive and precise understanding of athletic baselines.

Cognitive Remediation for Adolescents With Mental Health Disorders: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

INTRODUCTION

The effects of cognitive remediation therapy (CRT) in adults with mental health disorders have been widely documented, but its effects in adolescents with mental health disorders remain poorly understood. This review aims to (1) determine the effects of CRT on cognition, symptoms and functioning for adolescents with mental health disorders and (2) evaluate the methodological quality of studies on CRT.

METHODS

A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted of randomised controlled trials of CRT involving adolescents with mental health disorders. Searches were conducted in databases for studies pertaining to CRT effects on cognition, social functioning and clinical symptoms. Methodological quality was assessed using the Clinical Trials Assessment Measure.

RESULTS

Fourteen studies (N = 14) were included, with 11 independent samples (k = 11, 592 participants). Participants had various mental health disorders. CRT showed a small significant effect on cognition (g = 0.14, p = 0.02), particularly on processing speed, working memory and episodic memory. No significant effects were found for clinical symptoms (g = 0.04, p = 0.58) and social functioning (g = 0.06, p = 0.39). Methodological quality of included studies was variable, ranging from poor to good quality.

CONCLUSION

Included studies showed a small significant effect of CRT on cognition, and non-significant effects on clinical symptoms and social functioning in adolescents with mental health disorders. The lack of effects may be partly explained by limitations in the methodology of included studies. A critical analysis of current studies is presented and recommendations of core techniques to consider for future CRT studies are discussed.

Executive functions in adolescence: A longitudinal study comparing evaluations before and after the COVID-19 pandemic

The change in the educational model derived from the COVID-19 pandemic might have an impact on cognitive development, particularly on Executive Functions (EFs). The aim of this study was to explore cognitive performance in adolescents at two time points (12 and 14 years of age), before and after the pandemic restrictions. We also analyzed possible sex differences in the results. We evaluated EFs using the Neuropsychological Battery of Executive Functions and Frontal Lobes (BANFE-2), which includes four cognitive indices corresponding to specific cognitive functions and associated prefrontal areas: Orbitofrontal Cortex (OC index -OCI-), Anterior Prefrontal Cortex (APCI), Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex (DCI), and Prefrontal cortex as an index of global EFs (EFI). The ANOVA conducted to compare the evaluations before and after the pandemic revealed no significant pre-post-pandemic differences in any sex and in any BANFE-2 index, except for the OCI, in which post-pandemic performance was impaired in boys (pre and post mean score = 96.61 vs. 66.53), but not in girls (pre and post mean score = 93.55 vs. 95.0). Our findings are thus compatible with the idea of a different vulnerability to change in the educational model between sexes, and they also reveal which specific EFs may have been affected during the pandemic.

Windows of Opportunity: How Age and Sex Shape the Influence of Prenatal Depression on the Child Brain

Maternal prenatal depression can affect child brain and behavioral development. Specifically, altered limbic network structure and function is a likely mechanism through which prenatal depression impacts the life-long mental health of exposed children. While developmental trajectories are influenced by many factors that exacerbate risk or promote resiliency, the role of child age and sex in the relationship between prenatal depression and the child brain remains unclear. Here, we review studies of associations between prenatal depression and brain structure and function, with a focus on the role of age and sex in these relationships. After exposure to maternal prenatal depression, altered amygdala, hippocampal, and frontal cortical structure, as well as changes in functional and structural connectivity within the limbic network, are evident during the fetal, infant, preschool, childhood, and adolescent stages of development. Sex appears to play a key role in this relationship, with evidence of differential findings particularly in infants, with males showing smaller and females larger hippocampal and amygdala volumes following prenatal depression. Longitudinal studies in this area have only begun to emerge within the last 5 years and will be key to understanding critical windows of opportunity. Future research focused on the role of age and sex in this relationship is essential to further inform screening, policy, and interventions for children exposed to prenatal depression, interrupt the intergenerational transmission of depression, and ultimately support healthy brain development.

Task-Rest Reconfiguration Efficiency of the Reward Network Across Adolescence and Its Association With Early Life Stress and Depressive Symptoms

OBJECTIVE

Adolescents face significant changes in many domains of their daily lives that require them to flexibly adapt to changing environmental demands. To shift efficiently among various goals, adolescents must reconfigure their brains, disengaging from previous tasks and engaging in new activities.

METHOD

To examine this reconfiguration, we obtained resting-state and task-based functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans in a community sample of 164 youths. We assessed the similarity of functional connectivity (FC) of the reward network between resting state and a reward-processing state, indexing the degree of reward network reconfiguration required to meet task demands. Given research documenting relations among reward network function, early life stress (ELS), and adolescent depression, we examined the association of reconfiguration efficiency with age across adolescence, the moderating effect of ELS on this association, and the relation between reconfiguration efficiency and depressive symptoms.

RESULTS

We found that older adolescents showed greater reconfiguration efficiency than younger adolescents and, furthermore, that this age-related association was moderated by the experience of ELS.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that reconfiguration efficiency of the reward network increases over adolescence, a developmental pattern that is attenuated in adolescents exposed to severe ELS. In addition, even after controlling for the effects of age and exposure to ELS, adolescents with higher levels of depressive symptoms exhibited greater reconfiguration efficiency, suggesting that they have brain states at rest that are more strongly optimized for reward processing than do asymptomatic youth.

PLAIN LANGUAGE SUMMARY

Adolescents face significant changes in many domains of their lives which requires them to flexibly adapt and reconfigure their brains to disengage from previous tasks and engage in new activities. In this study of a sample of 164 youth aged 9 to 20, the authors found an age-related increase in the reconfiguration efficiency of the reward network, which was pronounced in older adolescents exposed to severe early life stress. In addition, the study findings indicate that adolescents with higher levels of depressive symptoms showed greater reconfiguration efficiency, suggesting that their brains may be more optimized for processing rewards even at rest compared to their peers without any symptoms.

DIVERSITY & INCLUSION STATEMENT

We worked to ensure race, ethnic, and/or other types of diversity in the recruitment of human participants. We worked to ensure sex and gender balance in the recruitment of human participants. We worked to ensure that the study questionnaires were prepared in an inclusive way. One or more of the authors of this paper self-identifies as a member of one or more historically underrepresented racial and/or ethnic groups in science.

Could sleep be a brain/cognitive/neural reserve-builder factor? A systematic review on the cognitive effects of sleep modulation in animal models

The brain/cognitive/neural reserve concept suggests that lifelong experiences, from early life through adulthood, make the brain more resilient to neuronal damage. Modifiable lifestyle factors, such as sleep, can support the development and enhance such a reserve, helping to counteract age- or disease-related brain changes and their impact on cognition. Sleep plays a crucial role in cognitive functioning, and disruptions or disorders may increase neurodegenerative risks. This systematic review aims to explore how functional and disturbed sleep impacts cognitive functions and neuromorphological mechanisms in rodents, aiming to better understand its role in brain/cognitive/neural reserve development. This systematic review, registered on PROSPERO (ID: CRD42023423901) and conducted according to PRISMA-P guidelines, searched PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Embase databases for studies up to June 2022, with terms related to sleep, rodents, and cognitive functions. Of the 28,666 articles identified, 142 met the inclusion criteria. Main results showed significant cognitive decline after sleep deprivation, especially in memory performance. These findings supports the importance of sleep as a critical factor in modulating brain/cognitive/neural reserve.

Problematic Media Use and Anxiety Symptoms in Adolescents: The Role of Age and Gender

BACKGROUND

Adolescence is a critical biopsychosocial adjustment period, with increased susceptibility to problematic media use (PMU) and associated risk-taking behaviors. The aim of the present study consisted of identifying the relationship between PMU (i.e., videogames, mobile phones, internet, and television) and anxiety in adolescents, considering the moderating effect of gender and age.

METHODS

A descriptive study using a national survey was conducted on a sample of 4034 participants.

RESULTS

Significant gender mean differences were found in PMU and anxiety, with large and moderate effect sizes for PMU (videogames) in males (d = 0.86) and anxiety in females (d = 0.67). Additionally, a direct positive relationship between age and anxiety was observed. Furthermore, PMU significantly predicted anxiety after controlling for age and gender in all cases. Gender had a significant and stronger moderating effect on PMU (television) and anxiety for the male subgroup. The moderating effect of age on PMU and anxiety was statistically significant and more pronounced at younger ages.

CONCLUSIONS

This research demonstrates the association between PMU and anxiety in adolescents, highlighting the need to further explore other moderating factors influencing mental health symptoms beyond age and gender. It is important to emphasize that mental health is a shared responsibility and not solely the domain of mental health professionals. Therefore, initiatives should be promoted to engage educators, parents, and policymakers in addressing this collective challenge.

Heterochronous laminar maturation in the human prefrontal cortex

The human prefrontal cortex (PFC) exhibits markedly protracted developmental plasticity, yet whether reductions in plasticity occur synchronously across prefrontal cortical layers is unclear. Animal studies have shown that intracortical myelin consolidates neural circuits to close periods of plasticity. Here, we use quantitative myelin imaging collected from youth (ages 10-32 years) at ultra-high field (7T) to investigate whether deep and superficial PFC layers exhibit different timeframes of plasticity. We find that myelin matures along a deep-to-superficial axis in the PFC; this axis of maturational timing is expressed to a different extent in cytoarchitecturally distinct regions along the frontal cortical hierarchy. By integrating myelin mapping with electroencephalogram and cognitive phenotyping, we provide evidence that deep and superficial prefrontal myelin dissociably impact timescales of neural activity, task learning rates, and cognitive processing speed. Heterochronous maturation across deep and superficial layers is an underrecognized mechanism through which association cortex balances cognitively-relevant increases in circuit stability and efficiency with extended neuroplasticity.

Relationship Between Stressful Life Events and Depression Among Adolescents: The Mediating Roles of Subcomponents of Executive Function

Stressful life events are important risk factors in the development of adolescent depression. Executive function is significant in the stress-depression link. However, it is not clear whether there is a specific effect for subcomponents of executive function (working memory, inhibition, and shifting). Therefore, the present study recruited 213 adolescents (mean age (Mage) = 15.19 years, SD = 1.27, range = 12.00-18.00 years, and 53.00% girls) and measured their perceived stress using the questionnaire of the Adolescent Self-Rating Life Events Checklist, working memory ability by two-back tasks, inhibition ability by Stroop tasks, and shifting ability by Wisconsin Card-Sorting tasks. Results showed that stressful life events positively correlated with adolescents' depression, while stressful life events negatively linked with working memory and inhibition. Depression was negatively associated with working memory and inhibition. No significant correlation was found between shifting and either stressful life events or depression. Mediation analyses revealed that working memory and inhibition mediated the link between stressful life events and adolescent depression, while shifting did not show a mediating effect. Our findings provide further evidence for the precise effect of executive function in the stress-depression link, implicating that different subcomponents should be considered to provide targeted intervention to alleviate adolescents' depressive symptoms.

Neural activity responsiveness by maturation of inhibition underlying critical period plasticity

Introduction

Neural circuits develop during critical periods (CPs) and exhibit heightened plasticity to adapt to the surrounding environment. Accumulating evidence indicates that the maturation of inhibitory circuits, such as gamma-aminobutyric acid and parvalbumin-positive interneurons, plays a crucial role in CPs and contributes to generating gamma oscillations. A previous theory of the CP mechanism suggested that the maturation of inhibition suppresses internally driven spontaneous activity and enables synaptic plasticity to respond to external stimuli. However, the neural response to external stimuli and neuronal oscillations at the neural population level during CPs has not yet been fully clarified. In the present study, we aimed to investigate neuronal activity responsiveness with respect to the maturation of inhibition at gamma-band frequencies.

Method

We calculated inter-trial phase coherence (ITPC), which quantifies event-related phase modulations across trials, using a biologically plausible spiking neural network that generates gamma oscillations through interactions between excitatory and inhibitory neurons.

Results

Our results demonstrated that the neuronal response coherence to external periodic inputs exhibits an inverted U-shape with respect to the maturation of inhibition. Additionally, the peak of this profile was consistent with the moderate suppression of the gamma-band spontaneous activity.

Discussion

This finding suggests that the neuronal population's highly reproducible response to increased inhibition may lead to heightened synaptic plasticity. Our computational model can help elucidate the underlying mechanisms that maximize synaptic plasticity at the neuronal population level during CPs.