Modulation by colostrum-acquired maternal antibodies of systemic and mucosal antibody responses to rotavirus in calves experimentally challenged with bovine rotavirus

Equine Rotavirus A under the One Health Lens: Potential Impacts on Public Health

Group A rotaviruses are a well-known cause of viral gastroenteritis in infants and children, as well as in many mammalian species and birds, affecting them at a young age. This group of viruses has a double-stranded, segmented RNA genome with high genetic diversity linked to point mutations, recombination, and, importantly, reassortment. While initial molecular investigations undertaken in the 1900s suggested host range restriction among group A rotaviruses based on the fact that different gene segments were distributed among different animal species, recent molecular surveillance and genome constellation genotyping studies conducted by the Rotavirus Classification Working Group (RCWG) have shown that animal rotaviruses serve as a source of diversification of human rotavirus A, highlighting their zoonotic potential. Rotaviruses occurring in various animal species have been linked with contributing genetic material to human rotaviruses, including horses, with the most recent identification of equine-like G3 rotavirus A infecting children. The goal of this article is to review relevant information related to rotavirus structure/genomic organization, epidemiology (with a focus on human and equine rotavirus A), evolution, inter-species transmission, and the potential zoonotic role of equine and other animal rotaviruses. Diagnostics, surveillance and the current status of human and livestock vaccines against RVA are also reviewed.

Molecular Epidemiology of Rotavirus A in Calves: Evolutionary Analysis of a Bovine G8P[11] Strain and Spatio-Temporal Dynamics of G6 Lineages in the Americas

Rotavirus A (RVA) causes diarrhea in calves and frequently possesses the G6 and P[5]/P[11] genotypes, whereas G8 is less common. We aimed to compare RVA infections and G/P genotypes in beef and dairy calves from major livestock regions of Argentina, elucidate the evolutionary origin of a G8 strain and analyze the G8 lineages, infer the phylogenetic relationship of RVA field strains, and investigate the evolution and spatio-temporal dynamics of the main G6 lineages in American countries. Fecal samples (n = 422) from diarrheic (beef, 104; dairy, 137) and non-diarrheic (beef, 78; dairy, 103) calves were analyzed by ELISA and semi-nested multiplex RT-PCR. Sequencing, phylogenetic, phylodynamic, and phylogeographic analyses were performed. RVA infections were more frequent in beef (22.0%) than in dairy (14.2%) calves. Prevalent genotypes and G6 lineages were G6(IV)P[5] in beef (90.9%) and G6(III)P[11] (41.2%) or mixed genotypes (23.5%) in dairy calves. The only G8 strain was phylogenetically related to bovine and artiodactyl bovine-like strains. Re-analyses inside the G8 genotype identified G8(I) to G8(VIII) lineages. Of all G6 strains characterized, the G6(IV)P[5](I) strains from "Cuenca del Salado" (Argentina) and Uruguay clustered together. According to farm location, a clustering pattern for G6(IV)P[5] strains of beef farms was observed. Both G6 lineage strains together revealed an evolutionary rate of 1.24 × 10-3 substitutions/site/year, and the time to the most recent common ancestor was dated in 1853. The most probable ancestral locations were Argentina in 1981 for G6(III) strains and the USA in 1940 for G6(IV) strains. The highest migration rates for both G6 lineages together were from Argentina to Brazil and Uruguay. Altogether, the epidemiology, genetic diversity, and phylogeny of RVA in calves can differ according to the production system and farm location. We provide novel knowledge about the evolutionary origin of a bovine G8P[11] strain. Finally, bovine G6 strains from American countries would have originated in the USA nearly a century before its first description.

Development of an IgY-Based Treatment to Control Bovine Coronavirus Diarrhea in Dairy Calves

Bovine Coronavirus (BCoV) is a major pathogen associated with neonatal calf diarrhea. Standard practice dictates that to prevent BCoV diarrhea, dams should be immunized in the last stage of pregnancy to increase BCoV-specific antibody (Ab) titers in serum and colostrum. For the prevention to be effective, calves need to suck maternal colostrum within the first six to twelve hours of life before gut closure to ensure a good level of passive immunity. The high rate of maternal Ab transfer failure resulting from this process posed the need to develop alternative local passive immunity strategies to strengthen the prevention and treatment of BCoV diarrhea. Immunoglobulin Y technology represents a promising tool to address this gap. In this study, 200 laying hens were immunized with BCoV to obtain spray-dried egg powder enriched in specific IgY Abs to BCoV on a large production scale. To ensure batch-to-batch product consistency, a potency assay was statistically validated. With a sample size of 241, the BCoV-specific IgY ELISA showed a sensitivity and specificity of 97.7% and 98.2%, respectively. ELISA IgY Abs to BCoV correlated with virus-neutralizing Ab titers (Pearson correlation, R2 = 0.92, p < 0.001). Most importantly, a pilot efficacy study in newborn calves showed a significant delay and shorter duration of BCoV-associated diarrhea and shedding in IgY-treated colostrum-deprived calves. Calves were treated with milk supplemented with egg powder (final IgY Ab titer to BCoV ELISA = 512; VN = 32) for 14 days as a passive treatment before a challenge with BCoV and were compared to calves fed milk with no supplementation. This is the first study with proof of efficacy of a product based on egg powder manufactured at a scale that successfully prevents BCoV-associated neonatal calf diarrhea.

Efficacy of prepartum vaccination against neonatal calf diarrhea in Nelore dams as a prevention measure

Background

Neonatal calf diarrhea (NCD) is the leading cause of calf morbidity and mortality in beef cattle. Cow’s vaccination in last stage of pregnancy is one of the most important measures to mitigate the risk of NCD outbreaks. The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of prepartum single dose vaccination against NCD, especially Bovine Rotavirus type A (BoRVA) and Bovine Coronavirus (BCoV), in Nelore dams and offspring. A total of 117 pregnant cows (n = 81) and heifers (n = 36) were distributed in two groups, vaccinated (VAC: cows = 40; heifers = 19) and non-vaccinated (NVAC: cows = 41; heifers = 17). Vaccination occurred between 60 to 50 days before the expected calving date with a single dose of a water-in-oil (W/O) vaccine, and NVAC group received a dose of saline solution 0.9%. Blood samples were collected before vaccination and 30 days after to evaluate the antibody (Ab) response. Specific IgG1 Abs against BoRVA and BCoV were measured by using an Enzyme Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay (ELISA). Calves’ births were monitored, and the transference of passive immunity was evaluated. Diarrhea was monitored in the first 30 days of age, and fecal samples were collected for identification of the etiological agent.

Results

Higher titers of IgG1 Ab against BoRVA and BCoV was observed in the VAC group than NVAC group in the cow (P < 0.0001) and total dams categories (P < 0.0001). The titer of specific IgG1 Abs in the calves’ serum reflected the dams response, observing higher IgG1 Ab titers for BoRVA (P < 0.0016) and BCoV (P < 0.0095) in the offspring born to VAC cows and higher IgG1 Ab titers for BoRVA(P < 0.0171) and BCoV (P < 0.0200) in the offspring born to VAC total dams. The general incidence of diarrhea observed was 18.6% (11/59) and 29.3% (17/58) in the calves born to the VAC and NVAC group, respectively.

Conclusions

Prepartum vaccination with a single dose of the vaccine tested increased the titers of IgG1 Ab against BCoV and BoRVA, and it could be used as a preventive strategy to decrease the NCD occurrence in Nelore calves.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12917-022-03391-5.

Effect of passive antibodies derived from rotavirus-like particles on neonatal calf diarrhea caused by rotavirus in an oral challenge model

Our objective was to evaluate the efficacy of bovine rotavirus antigen-specific passive antibody for reducing the duration of diarrhea induced by oral challenge with bovine rotavirus in a neonatal calf model. The bovine rotavirus-specific passive antibodies were produced before the study by hyperimmunization of pregnant cows during the dry period with an adjuvanted vaccine containing recombinantly-expressed rotavirus virus-like particles. Eighty-three calves were cleanly collected at birth and randomly assigned to 1 of 3 groups as follows: (1) control group that was colostrum deprived and fed milk replacer for first feeding, (2) group that was colostrum deprived and fed milk replacer mixed with antirotavirus antibodies for first feeding, or (3) group that was fed colostrum replacer mixed with antirotavirus antibodies and a product approved by the US Department of Agriculture containing antibodies against Escherichia coli K99 and bovine coronavirus for first feeding. One of the 3 treatments was administered within 6 h of birth to each calf, followed by oral challenge with bovine rotavirus 3 h later. Calves were observed through 7 d of age and scored according to a standardized scale for clinical signs of diarrhea, change in appetite, depression, and dehydration. Twice daily, measurements of rectal temperature and collection of feces were performed. Fecal samples were assessed for infectious agents commonly associated with diarrhea, and bovine rotavirus shedding was quantified. There were 24 of 28 (86%) calves in the control group that received no antibodies that had signs of severe diarrhea, whereas 57% of the calves that received antirotavirus in milk replacer experienced severe diarrhea, and 7% of calves that received colostrum replacer mixed with antigen-specific bovine rotavirus antibodies showed signs of severe diarrhea. Calves that received colostrum replacer mixed with antigen-specific bovine rotavirus antibodies had a mean duration of 0.9 d of diarrhea compared with 2.7 d in the control group. Calves in the group that was colostrum deprived and fed milk replacer with antirotavirus antibodies had a mean duration of diarrhea of 1.7 d. Rotavirus peak fecal shedding was 3.5 d in the group with milk replacer only, 5.5 d in the milk replacer with antibody group, and 6.5 d in calves in the colostrum replacer group. When bovine rotavirus antigen-specific antibody was fed in milk replacer to colostrum-deprived calves or in conjunction with colostrum replacer that also contained supplemental antibodies against Escherichia coli K99 and bovine coronavirus, those calves were observed to have reduced the onset, duration, and severity of diarrhea when compared with milk replacer placebo.

Viral Enteritis in Cattle: To Well Known Viruses and Beyond

Livestock products supply about 13 percent of energy and 28 percent of protein in diets consumed worldwide. Diarrhea is a leading cause of sickness and death of beef and dairy calves in their first month of life and also affecting adult cattle, resulting in large economic losses and a negative impact on animal welfare. Despite the usual multifactorial origin, viruses are generally involved, being among the most important causes of diarrhea. There are several viruses that have been confirmed as etiological agents (i.e., rotavirus and coronavirus), and some viruses that are not yet confirmed as etiological agents. This review summarizes the viruses that have been detected in the enteric tract of cattle and tries to deepen and gather knowledge about them.

The Specific Immune Response after Vaccination against Neonatal Calf Diarrhoea Differs between Apparent Similar Vaccines in a Case Study

Simple Summary

Neonatal calf diarrhoea (NCD) is a complex, multifactorial disease involving pathogens but also environmental, nutritional and management factors. Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC), rotavirus (BoRV) and coronavirus (BoCV) are the main enteric pathogens involved. NCD is a major health challenge that impacts on farm profitability, calf welfare and antimicrobial usage. Thus, a key part of prevention is optimisation of preventive programs for NCD such as vaccinating cows to increase passive immunity transfer for their offspring during the neonatal period. In this study, it was demonstrated that dam vaccination against NCD is an excellent tool to increase specific immunity; how different vaccines differ in their specific immune response and, consequently, in the amount of specific passive transfer of antibodies to their calves. One of the most relevant findings is the importance of inducing a specific immune response for the three NCD pathogens.

Abstract

Neonatal calf diarrhoea (NCD) is a major health challenge with a negative impact on farm profitability, calf welfare and antimicrobial use. Neonatal calves are particularly sensitive to enteric infections. Thus, a key point for prevention is minimising infectious pressure and maximising specific immune responses. An amount of 120 dams not previously vaccinated against NCD were randomly allocated to one of three study groups: negative control versus two vaccinated groups (A and B). In the control group, the average level of antibodies was significantly low for both BoCV and ETEC (15.6 and 13.9% in the colostrum samples, respectively), demonstrating the importance of dam vaccination. Indeed, the level of specific immunity was significantly increased for BoCV and ETEC with dam vaccination using both one-shot vaccines versus the control group. Moreover, the statistical analysis revealed a significantly higher level of antibodies for BoCV and ETEC in colostrum samples in vaccine A versus vaccine B and the control group. In accordance, the calf serum demonstrated a significantly higher level and greater homogeneity of antibodies against BoCV and ETEC in the Vaccine A group versus other experimental groups (p < 0.05). In conclusion, this study demonstrated a different specific immune response for the pathogens depending on the vaccine used to control NCD in cows.

Causes of neonatal calf diarrhea and mortality in pasture-based dairy herds in Uruguay: a farm-matched case-control study

Neonatal calf diarrhea (NCD) and mortality cause significant losses to the dairy industry. The preweaning dairy calf mortality risk in Uruguay is high (15.2%); however, causes for these losses are largely unknown. This study aimed to assess whether various pathogens were associated with NCD and death in Uruguayan dairy calves and whether these infections, diarrhea, or deaths were associated with the failure of transfer of passive immunity (FTPI). Contemporary diarrheic (n = 264,) and non-diarrheic (n = 271) 1- to 30-day-old calves from 27 farms were sampled. Feces were analyzed by antigen-capture ELISA for Cryptosporidium spp., rotavirus, bovine coronavirus, and Escherichia coli F5+, RT-PCR for bovine astrovirus (BoAstV), and bacterial cultures for Salmonella enterica. Blood/serum was analyzed by RT-PCR or antigen-capture ELISA for bovine viral diarrhea virus (BVDV). Serum of ≤ 8-day-old calves (n = 95) was assessed by refractometry to determine the concention of serum total proteins (STP) as an indicator of FTPI. Whether the sampled calves died before weaning was recorded. At least one pathogen was detected in 65.4% of the calves, and this percentage was significantly higher in diarrheic (83.7%) versus non-diarrheic (47.6%) calves. Unlike the other pathogens, Cryptosporidium spp. and rotavirus were associated with NCD. Diarrheic calves, calves infected with any of the pathogens, and calves infected with rotavirus had significantly lower concentrations of STP. Diarrheic calves had higher chances of dying before weaning than non-diarrheic calves. Diarrheic calves infected with S. enterica were at increased risk of mortality. Controlling NCD, salmonellosis, cryptosporidiosis, and rotavirus infections, and improving colostrum management practices would help to reduce calf morbi-mortality in dairy farms in Uruguay.

Influence of individual or group housing of newborn calves on rotavirus and coronavirus infection during the first 2 months of life

Bovine rotavirus A (RVA) and bovine coronavirus (CoV) are the two main viral enteropathogens associated with neonatal calf diarrhea. The aim of the present work was to study the impact of group and individual housing systems in the epidemiology of RVA and CoV infection. Eleven calves reared in individual housing (FA) and nine calves in group housing (FB) were monitored during the first 7 weeks of life. Stool and serum samples were screened for RVA and CoV antigens by ELISA. IgG1 antibodies (Ab) to both antigens were also measured. From the 160 fecal samples collected, the proportion of positive samples to RVA and CoV was significantly higher in FB (23.6%) than in FA (9%) (p = 0.03). The geometric mean of colostral IgG1 Ab titers to CoV and RVA in FA (IgG1 anti-CoV 1024 and anti-RVA 1782.9) was lower than in FB (IgG1 anti-CoV 10,321.2 and anti-RVA 4096) at birth. Calves less than 2 weeks of life from FB had a higher risk of being infected by RVA (OR = 4.9; p = 0.01) and CoV (OR = 17.15; p = 0.01) than calves from FA. The obtained results showed that there was higher RVA and CoV shedding in group-housed calves than in individual-housed animals.

A new passive immune strategy based on IgY antibodies as a key element to control neonatal calf diarrhea in dairy farms

Background

Neonatal diarrhea remains one of the main causes of morbi-mortality in dairy calves under artificial rearing. It is often caused by infectious agents of viral, bacterial, or parasitic origin. Cows vaccination and colostrum intake by calves during the first 6 h of life are critical strategies to prevent severe diarrhea but these are still insufficient. Here we report the field evaluation of a product based on IgY antibodies against group A rotavirus (RVA), coronavirus (CoV), enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, and Salmonella sp. This product, named IgY DNT, has been designed as a complementary passive immunization strategy to prevent neonatal calf diarrhea. The quality of the product depends on the titers of specific IgY antibodies to each antigen evaluated by ELISA. In the case of the viral antigens, ELISA antibody (Ab) titers are correlated with protection against infection in calves experimentally challenged with RVA and CoV (Bok M, et al., Passive immunity to control bovine coronavirus diarrhea in a dairy herd in Argentina, 2017), (Vega C, et al., Vet Immunol Immunopathol, 142:156–69, 2011), (Vega C, et al., Res Vet Sci, 103:1–10, 2015). To evaluate the efficiency in dairy farms, thirty newborn Holstein calves were randomly assigned to IgY DNT or control groups and treatment initiated after colostrum intake and gut closure. Calves in the IgY DNT group received 20 g of the oral passive treatment in 2 L of milk twice a day during the first 2 weeks of life. Animals were followed until 3 weeks of age and diarrhea due to natural exposure to infectious agents was recorded during all the experimental time.

Results

Results demonstrate that the oral administration of IgY DNT during the first 2 weeks of life to newborn calves caused a delay in diarrhea onset and significantly reduced its severity and duration compared with untreated calves. Animals treated with IgY DNT showed a trend towards a delay in RVA infection with significantly shorter duration and virus shedding compared to control calves.

Conclusions

This indicates that IgY DNT is an effective product to complement current preventive strategies against neonatal calf diarrhea in dairy farms. Furthermore, to our knowledge, this is the only biological product available for the prevention of virus-associated neonatal calf diarrhea.

Phylogenetic Analyses of Rotavirus A from Cattle in Uruguay Reveal the Circulation of Common and Uncommon Genotypes and Suggest Interspecies Transmission

Uruguay is one of the main exporters of beef and dairy products, and cattle production is one of the main economic sectors in this country. Rotavirus A (RVA) is the main pathogen associated with neonatal calf diarrhea (NCD), a syndrome that leads to significant economic losses to the livestock industry. The aims of this study are to determine the frequency of RVA infections, and to analyze the genetic diversity of RVA strains in calves in Uruguay. A total of 833 samples from dairy and beef calves were analyzed through RT-qPCR and sequencing. RVA was detected in 57.0% of the samples. The frequency of detection was significantly higher in dairy (59.5%) than beef (28.4%) calves (p < 0.001), while it did not differ significantly among calves born in herds that were vaccinated (64.0%) or not vaccinated (66.7%) against NCD. The frequency of RVA detection and the viral load were significantly higher in samples from diarrheic (72.1%, 7.99 log₁₀ genome copies/mL of feces) than non-diarrheic (59.9%, 7.35 log₁₀ genome copies/mL of feces) calves (p < 0.005 and p = 0.007, respectively). The observed G-types (VP7) were G6 (77.6%), G10 (20.7%), and G24 (1.7%), while the P-types were P[5] (28.4%), P[11] (70.7%), and P[33] (0.9%). The G-type and P-type combinations were G6P[11] (40.4%), G6P[5] (38.6%), G10P[11] (19.3%), and the uncommon genotype G24P[33] (1.8%). VP6 and NSP1-5 genotyping were performed to better characterize some strains. The phylogenetic analyses suggested interspecies transmission, including transmission between animals and humans.

Short communication: Effect of feeding pooled and nonpooled high-quality colostrum on passive transfer of immunity, morbidity, and mortality in dairy calves

Pooling colostrum is commonly practiced on Irish dairy farms. Pooling can result in dilution when colostrums with high and low IgG concentrations are mixed, thereby predisposing calves to failure of passive immunity. The objectives of this study were to compare IgG concentrations in colostrum from individual cows with colostrum pooled from several cows, and assess serum IgG concentrations, morbidity, and mortality among calves fed colostrum from their own dam, from a different cow, or pooled from several cows. We hypothesized that pooling colostrum reduces IgG concentration due to dilution compared with colostrum from individual cows, and that calves fed pooled colostrum achieve lower serum IgG concentrations than calves fed colostrum from individual cows. Calves were randomly assigned to 1 of 3 groups: (1) fed colostrum from their own dam (n = 20); (2) fed colostrum from a different dam (n = 20); or (3) fed pooled colostrum (n = 18). A sample of colostrum fed to each calf was collected. Serum samples were collected from calves at birth (0 h) and at 24 h after colostrum feeding. Colostrum and serum IgG concentrations were measured by radial immunodiffusion. Calves were weighed at birth and at weaning, and the health status of each calf was assessed twice daily. Health assessment was based on general demeanor, rectal temperature, fecal consistency, respiratory rate, and the presence of cough, nasal, or ocular discharge. Colostrum and serum IgG concentrations, and weaning weights were compared using ANOVA. Associations between group and morbidity or mortality rates were compared using χ² or Fisher's exact tests. Median and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) of IgG concentrations of colostrum were 99.4 (81.8-111.5), 95.2 (84.1-107.2), and 100.7 (90.5-104.4) g/L for own dam, different dam, and pooled groups, respectively. We did not find any differences in colostrum IgG concentrations among the colostrum sources. Median (95% CI) serum IgG concentrations at 24 h were 52.0 (45.6-65.9), 55.7 (51.2-65.9), and 53.1 (46.2-63.7) g/L for calves that received colostrum from own dam, different dam, and pooled, respectively. All calves achieved adequate passive immunity. Serum IgG concentrations at 24 h, weaning weights, and proportions of morbidity and mortality were not different among the 3 groups. Our results suggest that on dairy farms where median colostrum IgG concentrations are high and colostrum management is optimal, pooling has a minimal effect on passive immunity and subsequent calf health.

Longitudinal surveillance of rotavirus A genotypes circulating in a high milk yield dairy cattle herd after the introduction of a rotavirus vaccine

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RVA vaccination program reduces the frequency and intensity of diarrhea in dairy calves.

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The vaccination immune pressure can select specific genotypes in RVA field strains.

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RVA genotype G10P[11] in fecal samples of calves from G6P[5] vaccinated dairy cattle herds.

Worldwide, neonatal diarrhea is one of the most important health issues affecting dairy calves, and rotavirus A (RVA) is one of its primary causes. Among the measures to mitigate the risk of diarrhea outbreaks, cow vaccination stands out as one of the most important. However, the immune pressure resulting from routine vaccination may be able to select specific G and P genotypes in RVA field strains. This study aimed to determine the frequency and intensity of neonatal diarrhea and the incidence of RVA and attempted to monitor the G and P genotypes present in the RVA strains circulating in a high milk yield cattle herd vaccinated with RVA G6P[5] strain. Fecal samples (n = 1220) from 122 Holstein heifer calves between 0–30 days old that were born from RVA-vaccinated cows were collected at 10 different time points, regardless of the presence or absence of diarrhea. The presence of RVA in fecal samples was determined by the polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) technique and confirmed by reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). G and P amplicons from 10 RVA-positive fecal samples from calves of different ages and collections were subjected to nucleotide sequencing. The proportion of the calves and fecal samples that were positive for RVA were 62.3% (76/122) and 8.1% (99/1220), respectively. Using sequence analysis, all 10 RVA field strains presented genotype G10P[11]. The protection of G6P[5] vaccination is clear, as this genotype was not detected in this study, and it is known that vaccination against RVA reduces the incidence of diarrhea independent of genotype involved. This result demonstrates the importance of epidemiological monitoring of RVA genotypes circulating in vaccinated dairy cattle herds to the early detection of new potential pathogenic RVA strains.

Prevalence and viability of group A rotavirus in dairy farm water sources

AIM

To analyse group A rotavirus (RVA) environmental contamination in waters used for calves' consumption and to assess viral viability in dairy farm water sources.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We analysed 202 samples of water used for calves' consumption and RVA was detected by RT-qPCR in 35·1% (95% CI: 28·9-42·0%). A marked pattern of seasonality was observed with higher frequency of detection in colder than warmer months (P = 0·002). There was no association between viral load and season or between the number of milking cows in the herd and the detection of RVA in the farm. The viability of the RVA particles detected was confirmed by isolation of RVA in cell culture from 5 of 10 water samples. Furthermore, an RVA waterborne outbreak of neonatal calf diarrhoea was described.

CONCLUSIONS

We demonstrate that RVA is frequent in dairy farm waters, and that the virus is infectious and capable of generating a diarrhoea outbreak.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

Neonatal diarrhoea syndrome leads to economic losses to the livestock industry worldwide. To determine transmission routes is essential to take action in this regard and reduce the impact that this syndrome has for the livestock production. The results obtained in this work alert the dairy industry and highlight that mitigation strategies are crucial to improve the microbiological quality of this water.

Longitudinal study of bovine rotavirus group A in newborn calves from vaccinated and unvaccinated dairy herds

Reports of rotavirus excretion in calves usually result from cross-sectional studies, and in face of the conflicting results regarding protection of calves born to vaccinated dams against diarrhea, the aim of the present study was to evaluate rotavirus excretion in dairy calves born to vaccinated or unvaccinated dams, to identify the genotypes of bovine rotavirus group A (RVA) strains isolated from these animals as well as to investigate characteristics of the disease in naturally occurring circumstances throughout the first month of life. Five hundred fifty-two fecal samples were taken from 56 calves, 28 from each farm and, in the vaccinated herd, 11/281 samples (3.91%) taken from six different calves tested positive for RVA while in the unvaccinated herd, 3/271 samples (1.11%) taken from 3 different calves tested positive. The genotyping of the VP7 genes showed 91.2% nucleotide sequence identity to G6 genotype (NCDV strain), and for the VP4 gene, strains from the vaccinated herd were 96.6% related to B223 strain, while strains from the unvaccinated herd were 88% related to P[5] genotype (UK strain). Genotypes found in this study were G6P[11] in the vaccinated herd and G6P[5] in the unvaccinated herd. All calves infected with rotavirus presented an episode of diarrhea in the first month of life, and the discrepancy between the genotypes found in the commercial vaccine (G6P[1] and G10P[11]) and the rotavirus strains circulating in both vaccinated and unvaccinated herds show the importance of keeping constant surveillance in order to avoid potential causes of vaccination failure.

Passive immunisation, an old idea revisited: Basic principles and application to modern animal production systems

Immunisation by administration of antibodies (immunoglobulins) has been known for more than one hundred years as a very efficient means of obtaining immediate, short-lived protection against infection and/or against the disease-causing effects of toxins from microbial pathogens and from other sources. Thus, due to its rapid action, passive immunisation is often used to treat disease caused by infection and/or toxin exposure. However immunoglobulins may also be administered prior to exposure to infection and/or toxin, although they will not provide long-lasting protection as is seen with active immunisation (vaccination) in which an immunological memory is established by controlled exposure of the host to the pathogen in question. With multi-factorial infectious diseases in production animals, especially those that have proven hard to control by vaccination, the potential of passive immunisation remains big. This review highlights a number of examples on the use of passive immunisation for the control of infectious disease in the modern production of a range of animals, including pigs, cattle, sheep, goat, poultry and fish. Special emphasis is given on the enablement of passive immunisation strategies in these production systems through low cost and ease of use as well as on the sources, composition and purity of immunoglobulin preparations used and their benefits as compared to current measures, including vaccination (also comprising maternal vaccination), antibiotics and feed additives such as spray-dried plasma. It is concluded that provided highly efficient, relatively low-price immunoglobulin products are available, passive immunisation has a clear role in the modern animal production sector as a means of controlling infectious diseases, importantly with a very low risk of causing development of bacterial resistance, thus constituting a real and widely applicable alternative to antibiotics.

Egg yolk IgY antibodies: A therapeutic intervention against group A rotavirus in calves

Bovine group A rotavirus (RVA) is considered the major cause of diarrhea in intensively reared neonatal calves. Chicken egg yolk antibodies (IgY) are efficient in protecting neonatal calves from RVA diarrhea; however, the value of this intervention in calves once diarrhea has appeared is unclear. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the application of RVA-specific IgY as a passive treatment in those cases. The experimental groups were: G1 = RVA-specific IgY treatment; G2 = no Ab treatment; and G3 = colostrum deprived + no Ab treatment. IgY treatment significantly reduced virus shedding, diarrhea duration and severity compared to G2 and G3 calves. However, it caused a partial suppression of systemic Ab responses to RVA that could be associated with less severe diarrhea. The oral treatment with IgY for 7 days was associated with significantly higher antibody secreting cell responses in the calves compared with other groups of animals.

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Neonatal calf diarrhea is a critical problem and passive therapy with IgY Abs is a way to control it.

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There are no solid studies using rotavirus specific IgY Abs once calves suffer from diarrhea.

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We provide here scientific information regarding the effects of IgY-based products.

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This information is critical considering that IgY Abs are being sold in several countries.

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We prove the therapeutic value of IgY-based treatment and the industrialization of this product.

Specific faecal antibody responses in sheep infected with Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis

Many studies have examined the serum antibody response to Mycobacterium avium subspecies paratuberculosis (MAP) infection in cases of Johne's disease (JD), but there are no reports on the mucosal antibody response. Faecal immunoglobulin (Ig) G and IgA ELISA responses were examined from sheep experimentally inoculated with MAP for up to 23 months post inoculation (PI). Corresponding serum IgG responses and the presence of viable MAP shed in faeces were also examined. The sheep were divided into three groups: (i) "un-inoculated controls" (n=10), (ii) "clinical cases" (n=8) which were inoculated animals that developed clinical disease and had moderate to high levels of MAP shedding and (iii) "survivors" (n=11) which were inoculated animals from which MAP could not be cultured from tissues at the conclusion of the trial. Serum IgG responses gradually increased in all inoculated animals, peaking at 12-16 months PI. A significant increase in the levels of MAP-specific faecal IgG and IgA was measured in the survivors at 16 and 17 months PI, while levels in the un-inoculated controls and clinical cases remained at baseline levels. The detection of faecal Ig in the survivors coincided with the removal of sheep that developed clinical disease. The data suggest that some sheep produced MAP-specific IgG and IgA in the intestinal mucosa, which was released into their faeces. We hypothesise that the survivors produced faecal Ig as a direct response to ingestion of MAP associated with environmental contamination from clinical cases. Thus MAP specific mucosal antibodies may play a previously unreported role as part of a protective response triggered by environmental exposure.

Systemic rotavirus infection

A new paradigm of rotavirus disease is emerging and rotavirus infection is no longer considered to be localized and confined to the GI tract. New evidence indicates that rotavirus infection is systemic. Viral antigen and infectious virus frequently enter the circulation in both children and animal model systems. Clinical case reports of systemic sequelae to rotavirus infection in children continue to accumulate, suggesting involvement in systemic disease syndromes. The use of animal models is providing biological and molecular evidence for infection at peripheral sites. Thus, infection at peripheral sites may account for reports of systemic sequelae to rotavirus infection. The importance of systemic sequelae and the ability of vaccination to prevent such sequelae remains to be determined.

Regional immune response to immunization with Escherichia coli O157:H7-derived intimin in cattle

Escherichia coli O157:H7 is an enteric pathogen of animals and humans that can result in deadly sequelae. Cattle are asymptomatic carriers and shedders of the bacteria and serve as an important reservoir of human infection. E. coli O157:H7 colonizes the gastrointestinal tract, most frequently at the rectoanal junction mucosa in cattle. Vaccination is a potentially highly effective means of decreasing cattle colonization and shedding and thereby decreasing human infections. Currently available vaccines are administered subcutaneously or intramuscularly, and immune responses have been evaluated solely by systemic immunoglobulin responses. This study evaluated local and systemic lymphoproliferative responses in addition to immunoglobulin responses following subcutaneous or mucosal (rectal) immunization with E. coli O157:H7 outer membrane protein intimin over three trials. In all three trials, significant local and systemic lymphoproliferative responses (P < 0.05) occurred following immunization in the majority of animals, as well as significant immunoglobulin responses (P < 0.001) in all animals. Surprisingly, local responses in the mesorectal lymph nodes were very similar between the subcutaneous and mucosal immunization groups. Moreover, the responses in mesorectal lymph nodes appeared targeted rather than generalized, as minimal or no significant responses were observed in the associated prescapular lymph nodes of subcutaneously immunized animals. The results indicate that both subcutaneous and mucosal immunizations are effective methods of inducing immune responses against E. coli O157:H7 in cattle.

Vaccination of pregnant cows with EspA, EspB, γ-intimin, and Shiga toxin 2 proteins from Escherichia coli O157:H7 induces high levels of specific colostral antibodies that are transferred to newborn calves

Enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) O157:H7 is a major cause of intestinal disease and hemolytic uremic syndrome, a serious systemic complication that particularly affects children. Cattle are primary reservoirs for EHEC O157:H7 and the main source of infection for humans. Vaccination of cattle with different combinations of bacterial virulence factors has shown efficacy in decreasing EHEC O157:H7 shedding. It is, therefore, important to demonstrate whether vaccination of pregnant cows with EHEC O157:H7 induces high titers of transferable antibodies to avoid early colonization of calves by the bacteria. In this study we evaluated the ability of EspA, EspB, the C-terminal fragment of 280 amino acids of γ-intimin (γ-intimin C₂₈₀) and inactivated Shiga toxin (Stx) 2 proteins to induce specific antibodies in colostrum and their passive transference to colostrum-fed calves. Friesian pregnant cows immunized by the intramuscular route mounted significantly high serum and colostrum IgG responses against EspB and γ-intimin C₂₈₀ that were efficiently transferred to their calves. Antibodies to EspB and γ-intimin C₂₈₀ were detected in milk samples of vaccinated cows at d 40 postparturition. Significant Stx2-neutralizing titers were also observed in colostrum from Stx2-vaccinated cows and sera from colostrum-fed calves. The results presented showed that bovine colostrum with increased levels of antibodies against EHEC O157:H7 may be obtained by systemic immunization of pregnant cows, and that these specific antibodies are efficiently transferred to newborn calves by feeding colostrum. Hyperimmune colostrum and milk may be an alternative to protect calves from early colonization by EHEC O157:H7 and a possible key source of antibodies to block colonization and toxic activity of this bacterium.

Comparison of three diagnostic techniques for detection of rotavirus and coronavirus in calf faeces in Australia

Objective  Compare real‐time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT‐PCR), a commercially available enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and lateral flow immunochromatography assay (LAT) for the detection of rotavirus and coronavirus in faecal samples collected from diarrhoeic calves.

Design  Prospective survey.

Method  Samples were tested at two separate facilities using a commercial ELISA and an in‐house qRT‐PCR. Simple logistic regression was performed to examine the relationship between the two tests. A subset of samples was screened using qRT‐PCR, ELISA and a commercial LAT dipstick (132 faecal samples were tested for coronavirus and 122 samples for rotavirus).

Results  Of the 586 samples tested, 131 (22.39%) and 468 (79.86%) were positive for coronavirus and group A rotavirus, respectively, using qRT‐PCR. The number of samples positive on ELISA for coronavirus and rotavirus was 73 (12.46%) and 225 (38.40%), respectively. Using LAT, 30 (22.73%) and 43 (35.35%) samples were positive for coronavirus and rotavirus, respectively. Simple linear regression revealed a statistically significant (P < 0.05) but weak (r²=−0.07 and −0.40) correlation between the rotavirus/coronavirus qRT‐PCR and ELISA, respectively. There was also poor agreement between the LAT and qRT‐PCR assays.

Conclusion  The sensitivity and specificity of the commercial ELISA and LAT assays evaluated in this study were low compared with qRT‐PCR. The low positive and negative predictive values of the assays suggests that they were of limited diagnostic benefit in the population sampled.

Egg yolk IgY: protection against rotavirus induced diarrhea and modulatory effect on the systemic and mucosal antibody responses in newborn calves

Bovine rotavirus (BRV) is an important cause of diarrhea in newborn calves. Local passive immunity is the most efficient protective strategy to control the disease. IgY technology (the use of chicken egg yolk immunoglobulins) is an economic and practical alternative to prevent BRV diarrhea in dairy calves. The aim of this study was to evaluate the protection and immunomodulation induced by the oral administration of egg yolk enriched in BRV specific IgY to experimentally BRV infected calves. All calves in groups Gp 1, 2 and 3 received control colostrum (CC; BRV virus neutralization Ab titer - VN=65,536; ELISA BRV IgG(1)=16,384) prior to gut closure. After gut closure, calves received milk supplemented with 6% BRV-immune egg yolk [(Gp 1) VN=2048; ELISA IgY Ab titer=4096] or non-immune control egg yolk [(Gp 2) VN<4; ELISA IgY Ab titer<4] twice a day, for 14 days. Calves receiving CC only or colostrum deprived calves (CD) fed antibody (Ab) free milk served as controls (Gp 3 and 4, respectively). Calves were inoculated with 10(5.85)focus forming units (FFU) of virulent BRV IND at 2 days of age. Control calves (Gp 3 and 4) and calves fed control IgY (Gp 2) were infected and developed severe diarrhea. Around 80% calves in Gp 1 (IgY 4096) were infected, but they showed 80% (4/5) protection against BRV diarrhea. Bovine RV-specific IgY Ab were detected in the feces of calves in Gp 1, indicating that avian antibodies (Abs) remained intact after passage through the gastrointestinal tract. At post infection day 21, the duodenum was the major site of BRV specific antibody secreting cells (ASC) in all experimental groups. Mucosal ASC responses of all isotypes were significantly higher in the IgY treated groups, independently of the specificity of the treatment, indicating that egg yolk components modulated the immune response against BRV infection at the mucosal level. These results indicate that supplementing newborn calves' diets for the first 14 days of life with egg yolk enriched in BRV-specific IgY represents a promising strategy to prevent BRV diarrhea. Moreover a strong active ASC immune response is induced in the intestinal mucosa following BRV infection after the administration of egg yolk, regardless the specificity of the treatment.

Perspectives on immunoglobulins in colostrum and milk

Immunoglobulins form an important component of the immunological activity found in milk and colostrum. They are central to the immunological link that occurs when the mother transfers passive immunity to the offspring. The mechanism of transfer varies among mammalian species. Cattle provide a readily available immune rich colostrum and milk in large quantities, making those secretions important potential sources of immune products that may benefit humans. Immune milk is a term used to describe a range of products of the bovine mammary gland that have been tested against several human diseases. The use of colostrum or milk as a source of immunoglobulins, whether intended for the neonate of the species producing the secretion or for a different species, can be viewed in the context of the types of immunoglobulins in the secretion, the mechanisms by which the immunoglobulins are secreted, and the mechanisms by which the neonate or adult consuming the milk then gains immunological benefit. The stability of immunoglobulins as they undergo processing in the milk, or undergo digestion in the intestine, is an additional consideration for evaluating the value of milk immunoglobulins. This review summarizes the fundamental knowledge of immunoglobulins found in colostrum, milk, and immune milk.

Longitudinal serological and virological study on porcine torovirus (PToV) in piglets from Spanish farms

A study was performed to evaluate porcine torovirus (PToV) seroprevalence and infection in three multi-site farms from the North-eastern region of Spain. Serum samples from 120 piglets and faecal samples from 36 piglets were longitudinally collected at 1, 3, 7, 11 and 15 weeks of age. Serum samples from their dams (n = 30) were also taken 1-week post-farrowing. PToV antibodies in serum were monitored by ELISA, while viral infection was assessed by real-time RT-PCR in faeces. A high seroprevalence (about 100%) was observed in animals older than 11 weeks and in adult sows. Moreover, all 1-week-old animals were seropositive, indicating maternal antibody transference through colostrum. The antibody titers declined to close to or below the ELISA cut-off value by the age of weaning (3 weeks of age). Development of a significant antibody response to PToV occurred before 7 weeks of age in about 50% of piglets, and the remaining animals developed the response by weeks 11 or 15. These results indicate that PToV infection occurred soon after weaning. Although the prevalence of infection in suckling piglets varied among the studied farms, PToV prevalences in 7 and 11-week-old pigs were between 50–67% and 58–75%, respectively, in all farms. Sequencing results indicated that more than one PToV strains were circulating in the studied farms. Present data suggest that PToV was endemic on the studied farms, and provide new insights on the epidemiology of PToV.

Evaluation of a bovine rotavirus VP6 vaccine efficacy in the calf model of infection and disease

Group A bovine rotavirus (BRV) is the major cause of acute viral gastroenteritis in neonatal calves worldwide. Due to the early susceptibility to the infection prevention strategies are based on the improvement of passive immunity levels through cow vaccination in the last third of gestation. The major capsid antigen (VP6) of BRV is the most immunogenic viral protein and it is highly conserved among group A BRV. In this work, VP6 protein from BRV C-486 strain (P[1]G6) was expressed in insect cells using the baculovirus expression vector system. Recombinant VP6 was used to immunize cows and vaccine's efficacy was assessed in a colostrum-deprived calf model of BRV infection and disease. Immune colostrum pool was generated using first and second milking of the immunized cows. Calves receiving one dose of immune colostrum within the first 6h of life, or colostrum-deprived calves were orally inoculated with virulent BRV at 2 days of age. The animals were monitored for diarrhea, virus shedding and isotype-specific antibodies responses to BRV in both feces and serum. Calves receiving VP6-immune colostrum showed a reduction of both diarrhea and virus shedding (in terms of viral titer and excretion period) in comparison with the colostrum-deprived calves.

Milk supplemented with immune colostrum: protection against rotavirus diarrhea and modulatory effect on the systemic and mucosal antibody responses in calves experimentally challenged with bovine rotavirus

Group A bovine rotavirus (BRV) is the major cause of neonatal calf diarrhea worldwide. As a preventive strategy, we evaluated the protection and immunomodulation in two groups of BRV-inoculated calves. All calves received control colostrum (CC; VN=65,536; IgG(1)=16,384) prior to gut closure followed by the milk supplemented with immune colostrum (VN=1,048,576; IgG(1)=262,144), twice a day, for 14 days. Calves received milk supplemented with 0.8% immune colostrum [(Gp 1) VN=16,384; IgG(1)=4096] or milk supplemented with 0.4% immune colostrum [(Gp 2) VN=1024; IgG(1)=1024]. Calves receiving CC or colostrum deprived calves (CD) fed antibody (Ab) free milk served as controls (Gp 3 and 4). Calves were inoculated with virulent BRV IND at 2 days of age. Group 1 calves (milk IgG(1) 4096) showed 80% protection against BRV diarrhea and significantly reduced virus shedding. At 21 post-inoculation days (PID), the antibody secreting cell (ASC) responses of Gp 1 calves were limited mainly to duodenal and jejunal lamina propria (LP) with limited or no responses in systemic sites (spleen and PBL) and mesenteric lymph nodes. The profile of serum and fecal Ab responses as well as the ASC responses was also modulated by the presence of passive IgG(1) Abs and probably other colostrum components, toward higher titers of IgA Ab in serum and feces and a greater number of IgA ASC in the proximal intestine, reflecting positive modulation by colostrum toward this isotype associated with optimal protection of the intestinal mucosa. After challenge, at PID 21, all calves in Gp 1 and 2 were fully protected against diarrhea and only 1 of 5 calves in Gp 1 shed virus asymptomatically, indicating that the passive Ab treatment for 14 days was effective in protecting most of the animals after a first and a second virus exposure. The final outcome was a positive modulation of the mucosal immune responses and a high protection rate against diarrhea and virus shedding during the period of peak susceptibility to BRV infection.

Pathophysiology of diarrhea in calves

Infectious diarrhea in calves is most commonly associated with enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli, Cryptosporidium parvum, rotavirus, coronavirus, or some combination of these pathogens. Each of these agents leads to diarrhea through either secretion or malabsorption/maldigestion, though the specific mechanisms and pathways may differ. Specific pharmacologic control and treatment are dependent on gaining a greater understanding of the pathophysiology of these organisms.

Avaliação da imunidade passiva em bezerros nascidos de vacas imunizadas com vacina contra rotavírus

Com o objetivo de monitorar a imunidade passiva em bezerros alimentados com colostro de vacas imunizadas e não imunizadas com vacina contra rotavírus, foram determinados títulos de anticorpos em amostras de sangue e colostro de 26 vacas da raça Holandesa no dia do parto e de seus bezerros, à zero, às 24, 48 horas e aos sete, 14, 21, 28 dias de idade, pelo ensaio imunoenzimático. Tanto no soro sangüíneo como no colostro, os títulos dos isótipos IgG, IgG1 e IgG2 foram mais elevados no grupo dos animais vacinados, porém somente no colostro o aumento foi significativo. Os bezerros alimentados com o colostro das vacas vacinadas apresentaram títulos mais altos dos isótipos IgG, IgG1, IgG2, IgA e IgM, após a ingestão do colostro, sendo constatado aumento significativo apenas para os títulos do isótipo IgG2. Amostras positivas para rotavírus foram detectadas nos dois grupos experimentais a partir dos sete dias de idade. A vacinação materna não protegeu efetivamente os bezerros das infecções naturais por rotavírus, pois, apesar de aumentar os títulos séricos de anticorpos anti-rotavírus nos animais vacinados, não foi capaz de impedir a ocorrência da rotavirose nos bezerros alimentados com o colostro das vacas imunizadas.

Llama-derived single-chain antibody fragments directed to rotavirus VP6 protein possess broad neutralizing activity in vitro and confer protection against diarrhea in mice

Group A rotavirus is one of the most common causes of severe diarrhea in human infants and newborn animals. Rotavirus virions are triple-layered particles. The outer capsid proteins VP4 and VP7 are highly variable and represent the major neutralizing antigens. The inner capsid protein VP6 is conserved among group A rotaviruses, is highly immunogenic, and is the target antigen of most immunodiagnosis tests. Llama-derived single-chain antibody fragments (VHH) are the smallest molecules with antigen-binding capacity and can therefore be expected to have properties different from conventional antibodies. In this study a library containing the VHH genes of a llama immunized with recombinant inner capsid protein VP6 was generated. Binders directed to VP6, in its native conformation within the viral particle, were selected and characterized. Four selected VHH directed to conformational epitopes of VP6 recognized all human and animal rotavirus strains tested and could be engineered for their use in immunodiagnostic tests for group A rotavirus detection. Three of the four VHH neutralized rotavirus in vivo independently of the strain serotype. Furthermore, this result was confirmed by in vivo partial protection against rotavirus challenge in a neonatal mouse model. The present study demonstrates for the first time a broad neutralization activity of VP6 specific VHH in vitro and in vivo. Neutralizing VHH directed to VP6 promise to become an essential tool for the prevention and treatment of rotavirus diarrhea.

Neonatal immune development in the calf and its impact on vaccine response

In this article we cover the immunologic response as it develops, the components of passive immunity, and the immune response of young calves. We discuss interference from maternal immunity in the development of specific immunity and vaccine strategies for developing protection against pathogens in calves.

Oral ingestion of cow's milk immunoglobulin G stimulates some cellular immune systems and suppresses humoral immune responses in mouse

Four-week-old male C3H/HeN mice were bred with diets consisting of ovalbumin alone (OVA, control diet) or mixtures of OVA and cow's milk immunoglobulin G (IgG-added diets) as a protein source for 4 or 5 weeks, and both the cellular and humoral immune properties of the mice were investigated. The number of interleukin (IL)-12+CD11b+ cells in spleens and the formation of superoxide by peritoneal macrophages were higher in mice given the IgG-added diet than in those given the control diet. The number of natural killer cells in Peyer's patches or spleens and the cytotoxic activity of spleen cells toward an erythroleukemia cell line, K562, were also higher in mice given the IgG-added diet. In contrast, the numbers of interferon-gamma+CD4+ and IL-4+CD4+ cells in Peyer's patches or spleens and the levels of total or OVA-specific intestinal IgA and serum IgG were significantly lower in mice given the IgG-added diet than in those given the control diet. In addition, the number of cells expressing CD19 in spleens was significantly higher in mice given the IgG-added diet. These results indicate that oral ingestion of cow's milk IgG may stimulate some innate cellular immune systems, while suppressing humoral adaptive immune responses in the mouse.

High titers of circulating maternal antibodies suppress effector and memory B-cell responses induced by an attenuated rotavirus priming and rotavirus-like particle-immunostimulating complex boosting vaccine regimen

We investigated maternal antibody (MatAb) effects on protection and immune responses to rotavirus vaccines. Gnotobiotic pigs were injected intraperitoneally at birth with pooled serum from sows hyperimmunized with human rotavirus (HRV); control pigs received no sow serum. Pigs with or without MatAbs received either sequential attenuated HRV (AttHRV) oral priming and intranasal boosting with VP2/VP6 virus-like particle (VLP)-immunostimulating complex (ISCOM) (AttHRV/VLP) or intranasal VLP-ISCOM prime/boost (VLP) vaccines at 3 to 5 days of age. Subsets of pigs were challenged at 28 or 42 days postinoculation with virulent Wa HRV to assess protection. Isotype-specific antibody-secreting cell (ASC) responses to HRV were quantitated by enzyme-linked immunospot assay to measure effector and memory B-cell responses in intestinal and systemic lymphoid tissues pre- and/or postchallenge. Protection rates against HRV challenge (contributed by active immunity and passive circulating MatAbs) were consistently (but not significantly) lower in the MatAb-AttHRV/VLP groups than in the corresponding groups without MatAbs. Intestinal B-cell responses in the MatAb-AttHRV/VLP group were most suppressed with significantly reduced or no intestinal immunoglobulin A (IgA) and IgG effector and memory B-cell responses or antibody titers pre- and postchallenge. This suppression was not alleviated but was enhanced after extending vaccination/challenge from 28 to 42 days. In pigs vaccinated with nonreplicating VLP alone that failed to induce protection, MatAb effects differed, with intestinal and systemic IgG ASCs and prechallenge memory B cells suppressed but the low intestinal IgA and IgM ASC responses unaffected. Thus, we demonstrate that MatAbs differentially affect both replicating and nonreplicating HRV vaccines and suggest mechanisms of MatAb interference. This information should facilitate vaccine design to overcome MatAb suppression.

Low titer maternal antibodies can both enhance and suppress B cell responses to a combined live attenuated human rotavirus and VLP-ISCOM vaccine

We investigated effects of low titer (Lo) circulating MatAb on protection and immunogenicity of attenuated (Att) human rotavirus (HRV) priming and 2/6-virus-like particle (VLP)-immunostimulating complex (ISCOM) boosting (AttHRV/VLP) or VLP-ISCOM alone vaccines. LoMatAb had both enhancing and suppressing effects on B cell responses, depending on tissue, antibody isotype and vaccine. Differential effects of LoMatAb on IgA responses in different tissues suggest that LoMatAb did not suppress induction of IgA effector and memory B cells but impaired homing of these cells to secondary lymphoid or effector tissues, reducing IgA antibody secreting cells and antibodies at these sites. The AttHRV/VLP vaccine partially overcame LoMatAb suppression, conferred moderate protection against virulent HRV (as measured by reduced viral shedding and diarrhea) and represents a new candidate for rotavirus vaccines for both humans and animals.

Immune parameters of dry cows fed mannan oligosaccharide and subsequent transfer of immunity to calves

The objective of this study was to evaluate the benefits of supplementation of mannan oligosaccharide (MOS) to cows during the last 3 wk of the dry period on immune function of the cows and subsequent transfer of passive immunity to their calves. Indicators of nonspecific and specific immunity were evaluated. Cows were vaccinated against rotavirus at 4 and 2 wk before expected parturition. Blood samples were obtained from cows before vaccination and at weekly intervals until calving and from calves at birth and 24 h for analysis of serum protein concentrations, packed cell volume, white blood cell counts, white blood cell differentials, and serum rotavirus neutralization titers. Colostrum quantity and quality were measured at calving, and immunoglobulin isotype concentrations in colostrum were determined. Specific immunity was enhanced by MOS supplementation as evidenced by greater serum rotavirus neutralization titers at calving in cows supplemented with MOS compared with control cows. Colostral rotavirus neutralization titers were not affected by treatment. Although numerical differences appeared large, there was a high degree of variability in the colostral rotavirus neutralization titers. Calves from cows fed MOS tended to have greater serum rotavirus neutralization titers compared with calves from cows fed the control diet. There was a tendency for greater increases in serum protein concentrations from birth to 24 h in calves from cows fed MOS compared with calves from cows fed the control diet. Results indicate that supplementation of MOS to cows during the dry period enhanced their immune response to rotavirus and tended to enhance the subsequent transfer of rotavirus antibodies to calves.