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Yan Z, Xu Y, Li K, Liu L. Association between genetically proxied HMGCR inhibition and male reproductive health: A Mendelian randomization study. Medicine (Baltimore) 2023; 102:e34690. [PMID: 37773823 PMCID: PMC10545124 DOI: 10.1097/md.0000000000034690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 07/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The causal associations between statin use and male sex hormone levels and related disorders have not been fully understood. In this study, we employed Mendelian randomization for the first time to investigate these associations. METHODS In two-sample Mendelian randomization framework, genetic proxies for hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase (HMGCR) inhibition were identified as variants in the HMGCR gene that were associated with both levels of gene expression and low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C). We assessed the causal relationship between HMGCR inhibitor and 5 sex hormone levels/2 male-related diseases. Additionally, we investigated the association between 4 circulating lipid traits and outcomes. The "inverse variance weighting" method was used as the primary approach, and we assessed for potential heterogeneity and pleiotropy. In a secondary analysis, we revalidated the impact of HMGCR on 7 major outcomes using the summary-data-based Mendelian randomization method. RESULTS Our study found a significant causal association between genetic proxies for HMGCR inhibitor and decreased levels of total testosterone (TT) (LDL-C per standard deviation = 38.7mg/dL, effect = -0.20, 95% confidence interval [CI] = -0.25 to -0.15) and bioavailable testosterone (BT) (effect = -0.15, 95% CI = -0.21 to -0.10). Obesity-related factors were found to mediate this association. Furthermore, the inhibitor were found to mediate a reduced risk of prostate cancer (odds ratio = 0.81, 95%CI = 0.7-0.93) by lowering bioavailable testosterone levels, without increasing the risk of erectile dysfunction (P = .17). On the other hand, there was a causal association between increased levels of LDL-C, total cholesterol, triglycerides (TG) and decreased levels of TT, sex hormone-binding globulin, and estradiol. CONCLUSIONS The use of HMGCR inhibitor will reduce testosterone levels and the risk of prostate cancer without the side effect of erectile dysfunction. LDL-C, total cholesterol, and TG levels were protective factors for TT, sex hormone-binding globulin, and estradiol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhaoqi Yan
- Jiangxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Graduate School, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Yifeng Xu
- Jiangxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Graduate School, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Keke Li
- Jiangxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Graduate School, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
| | - Liangji Liu
- Affiliated Hospital of Jiangxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Pneumology Department, Nanchang, Jiangxi, China
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The effects of statins with a high hepatoselectivity rank on the extra-hepatic tissues; New functions for statins. Pharmacol Res 2019; 152:104621. [PMID: 31891788 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2019.104621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2019] [Accepted: 12/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Statins, as the most common treatment for hyperlipidemia, exert effects beyond their lipid-lowering role which are known as pleiotropic effects. These effects are mainly due to the inhibition of isoprenoids synthesis and consequently blocking prenylation of proteins involved in the cellular signaling pathways regulating cell development, growth, and apoptosis. Statins target cholesterol synthesis in the liver as the major source of cholesterol in the body and so reduce whole-body cholesterol. The reduced level of cholesterol forces other organs to an adaptive homeostatic reaction to increase their cholesterol synthesis capacity, however, this only occurs when statins have unremarkable access to the extra-hepatic tissues. In order to reduce the adverse effects of statin on the skeletal muscle, most recent efforts have been towards formulating new statins with the highest level of hepatoselectivity rank and the least level of access to the extra-hepatic tissues; however, the inaccessibility of statins for the extra-hepatic tissues may induce several biological reactions. In this review, we aim to evaluate the effects of statins on the extra-hepatic tissues when statins have unremarkable access to these tissues.
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Laxman TS, Puttrevu SK, Pradhan R, Mishra A, Verma S, Chhonker YS, Srivastava S, Singh SP, Sashidhara KV, Bhatta RS. Pharmacokinetics, metabolism, bioavailability, tissue distribution and excretion studies of 16α-hydroxycleroda-3, 13(14) Z -dien-15, 16-olide—a novel HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor. Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol 2018; 391:965-973. [DOI: 10.1007/s00210-018-1518-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2018] [Accepted: 05/22/2018] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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4
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Effects of Rosuvastatin on the expression of the genes involved in cholesterol metabolism in rats: adaptive responses by extrahepatic tissues. Gene 2018; 661:45-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gene.2018.03.092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2018] [Revised: 03/25/2018] [Accepted: 03/28/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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Ahmadi Y, Ghorbanihaghjo A, Argani H. The effect of statins on the organs: similar or contradictory? J Cardiovasc Thorac Res 2017; 9:64-70. [PMID: 28740624 PMCID: PMC5516053 DOI: 10.15171/jcvtr.2017.11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2016] [Accepted: 06/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Hydroxy-Methyl-Glutaryl-CoA reductase (HMGCR) – the main enzyme of the cholesterol biosynthesis pathway – is mostly inhibited by statins in hepatocytes. In spite of the other tissues, liver utilizes cholesterol in different ways such as the synthesis of bile acids, excretion in to the intestine and synthesis of lipoproteins. Therefore, statins theoretically alter these pathways; although, there have not been such effects. In this review, we aim to show the roles of extra-hepatic tissues, in particular intestine, adipose and cutaneous tissues in providing the cholesterol after reduction of the whole body cholesterol content by statins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasin Ahmadi
- Student Research Committee, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Amir Ghorbanihaghjo
- Biotechnology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Hassan Argani
- Drug Applied Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
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Wang HJ, Park JY, Kwon O, Choe EY, Kim CH, Hur KY, Lee MS, Yun M, Cha BS, Kim YB, Lee H, Kang ES. Chronic HMGCR/HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor treatment contributes to dysglycemia by upregulating hepatic gluconeogenesis through autophagy induction. Autophagy 2015; 11:2089-2101. [PMID: 26389569 DOI: 10.1080/15548627.2015.1091139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Statins (HMGCR/HMG-CoA reductase [3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase] inhibitors) are widely used to lower blood cholesterol levels but have been shown to increase the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus. However, the molecular mechanism underlying diabetogenic effects remains to be elucidated. Here we show that statins significantly increase the expression of key gluconeogenic enzymes (such as G6PC [glucose-6-phosphatase] and PCK1 (phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase 1 [soluble]) in vitro and in vivo and promote hepatic glucose output. Statin treatment activates autophagic flux in HepG2 cells. Acute suppression of autophagy with lysosome inhibitors in statin treated HepG2 cells reduced gluconeogenic enzymes expression and glucose output. Importantly, the ability of statins to increase gluconeogenesis was impaired when ATG7 was deficient and BECN1 was absent, suggesting that autophagy plays a critical role in the diabetogenic effects of statins. Moreover autophagic vacuoles and gluconeogenic genes expression in the liver of diet-induced obese mice were increased by statins, ultimately leading to elevated hepatic glucose production, hyperglycemia, and insulin resistance. Together, these data demonstrate that chronic statin therapy results in insulin resistance through the activation of hepatic gluconeogenesis, which is tightly coupled to hepatic autophagy. These data further contribute to a better understanding of the diabetogenic effects of stains in the context of insulin resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hye Jin Wang
- a Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism ; Department of Internal Medicine ; Yonsei University College of Medicine ; Seoul , Korea.,b Institute of Endocrine Research; Yonsei University College of Medicine ; Seoul , Korea.,c Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science; Yonsei University College of Medicine ; Seoul , Korea
| | - Jae Yeo Park
- d Department of Clinical Nursing Science ; Yonsei University College of Nursing ; Seoul , Korea.,e Nursing Policy and Research Institute; Biobehavioral Research Center; Yonsei University ; Seoul , Korea
| | - Obin Kwon
- c Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science; Yonsei University College of Medicine ; Seoul , Korea.,f Department of Pharmacology ; Yonsei University College of Medicine ; Seoul , Korea
| | - Eun Yeong Choe
- a Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism ; Department of Internal Medicine ; Yonsei University College of Medicine ; Seoul , Korea.,b Institute of Endocrine Research; Yonsei University College of Medicine ; Seoul , Korea
| | - Chul Hoon Kim
- c Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science; Yonsei University College of Medicine ; Seoul , Korea.,f Department of Pharmacology ; Yonsei University College of Medicine ; Seoul , Korea
| | - Kyu Yeon Hur
- g Department of Medicine ; Samsung Medical Center; Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine ; Seoul , Korea
| | - Myung-Shik Lee
- g Department of Medicine ; Samsung Medical Center; Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine ; Seoul , Korea.,h Samsung Advanced Institute for Health Sciences and Technology; Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine ; Seoul , Korea
| | - Mijin Yun
- i Department of Nuclear Medicine ; Yonsei University College of Medicine ; Seoul , Korea
| | - Bong Soo Cha
- a Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism ; Department of Internal Medicine ; Yonsei University College of Medicine ; Seoul , Korea.,b Institute of Endocrine Research; Yonsei University College of Medicine ; Seoul , Korea.,c Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science; Yonsei University College of Medicine ; Seoul , Korea
| | - Young-Bum Kim
- j Division of Endocrinology , Diabetes, and Metabolism ; Department of Medicine ; Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School ; Boston , MA USA
| | - Hyangkyu Lee
- d Department of Clinical Nursing Science ; Yonsei University College of Nursing ; Seoul , Korea.,e Nursing Policy and Research Institute; Biobehavioral Research Center; Yonsei University ; Seoul , Korea
| | - Eun Seok Kang
- a Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism ; Department of Internal Medicine ; Yonsei University College of Medicine ; Seoul , Korea.,b Institute of Endocrine Research; Yonsei University College of Medicine ; Seoul , Korea.,c Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science; Yonsei University College of Medicine ; Seoul , Korea
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7
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Statin drugs markedly inhibit testosterone production by rat Leydig cells in vitro: Implications for men. Reprod Toxicol 2014; 45:52-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2013.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2013] [Revised: 12/02/2013] [Accepted: 12/28/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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8
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Cofan Pujol M. Mecanismos básicos. Absorción y excreción de colesterol y otros esteroles. CLINICA E INVESTIGACION EN ARTERIOSCLEROSIS 2014; 26:41-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.arteri.2013.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2013] [Accepted: 10/15/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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9
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van der Wulp MYM, Verkade HJ, Groen AK. Regulation of cholesterol homeostasis. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2013; 368:1-16. [PMID: 22721653 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2012.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 129] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2012] [Revised: 05/17/2012] [Accepted: 06/11/2012] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Hypercholesterolemia is an important risk factor for cardiovascular disease. It is caused by a disturbed balance between cholesterol secretion into the blood versus uptake. The pathways involved are regulated via a complex interplay of enzymes, transport proteins, transcription factors and non-coding RNA's. The last two decades insight into underlying mechanisms has increased vastly but there are still a lot of unknowns, particularly regarding intracellular cholesterol transport. After decades of concentration on the liver, in recent years the intestine has come into focus as an important control point in cholesterol homeostasis. This review will discuss current knowledge of cholesterol physiology, with emphasis on cholesterol absorption, cholesterol synthesis and fecal excretion, and new (possible) therapeutic options for hypercholesterolemia.
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Schooling CM, Au Yeung SL, Freeman G, Cowling BJ. The effect of statins on testosterone in men and women, a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. BMC Med 2013; 11:57. [PMID: 23448151 PMCID: PMC3621815 DOI: 10.1186/1741-7015-11-57] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2012] [Accepted: 02/28/2013] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Statins are extensively used for cardiovascular disease prevention. Statins reduce mortality rates more than other lipid-modulating drugs, although evidence from randomized controlled trials also suggests that statins unexpectedly increase the risk of diabetes and improve immune function. Physiologically, statins would be expected to lower androgens because statins inhibit production of the substrate for the local synthesis of androgens and statins' pleiotropic effects are somewhat similar to the physiological effects of lowering testosterone, so we hypothesized that statins lower testosterone. METHODS A meta-analysis of placebo-controlled randomized trials of statins to test the a priori hypothesis that statins lower testosterone. We searched the PubMed, Medline and ISI Web of Science databases until the end of 2011, using '(Testosterone OR androgen) AND (CS-514 OR statin OR simvastatin OR atorvastatin OR fluvastatin OR lovastatin OR rosuvastatin OR pravastatin)' restricted to randomized controlled trials in English, supplemented by a bibliographic search. We included studies with durations of 2+ weeks reporting changes in testosterone. Two reviewers independently searched, selected and assessed study quality. Two statisticians independently abstracted and analyzed data, using random or fixed effects models, as appropriate, with inverse variance weighting. RESULTS Of the 29 studies identified 11 were eligible. In 5 homogenous trials of 501 men, mainly middle aged with hypercholesterolemia, statins lowered testosterone by -0.66 nmol/l (95% confidence interval (CI) -0.14 to -1.18). In 6 heterogeneous trials of 368 young women with polycystic ovary syndrome, statins lowered testosterone by -0.40 nmol/l (95% CI -0.05 to -0.75). Overall statins lowered testosterone by -0.44 nmol/l (95% CI -0.75 to -0.13). CONCLUSIONS Statins may partially operate by lowering testosterone. Whether this is a detrimental side effect or mode of action warrants investigation given the potential implications for drug development and prevention of non-communicable chronic diseases. See commentary article here http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-7015/11/58.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Mary Schooling
- CUNY School of Public Health at Hunter College, 2180 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10035, USA.
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11
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Pelton K, Krieder J, Joiner D, Freeman MR, Goldstein SA, Solomon KR. Hypercholesterolemia promotes an osteoporotic phenotype. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2012; 181:928-36. [PMID: 22770664 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2012.05.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2012] [Revised: 04/19/2012] [Accepted: 05/14/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
A role for hypercholesterolemia in the development of osteoporosis has been suggested in published reports. However, few studies contain direct evidence of a role for maintenance of cholesterol homeostasis in bone health. Using isocaloric high-fat/high-cholesterol and low-fat/no-cholesterol diets in a 4-month feeding study combined with micro computed tomography analysis, we demonstrated in two different mouse strains that mice with hypercholesterolemia lose cortical and trabecular bone in the femurs and vertebrae (bone mineral density was decreased on average by ≈90 mg/mL in the cortical vertebrae in one strain) and cortical bone in the calvariae (bone mineral density was decreased on average by ≈60 mg/mL in one strain). Mechanical testing of the femurs demonstrated that loss of bone in the mice with hypercholesterolemia caused changes in the mechanical properties of the bone including loss of failure load (failure load was decreased by ≈10 N in one strain) and energy to failure. Serologic and histomorphologic analyses suggested that hypercholesterolemia promotes osteoclastogenesis. These studies support a role for hypercholesterolemia in the development of osteoporosis and provide a model with which to test intervention strategies to reduce the effects of hypercholesterolemia on bone health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristine Pelton
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Children's Hospital Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
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12
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Sonawane PJ, Sahu BS, Sasi BK, Geedi P, Lenka G, Mahapatra NR. Functional promoter polymorphisms govern differential expression of HMG-CoA reductase gene in mouse models of essential hypertension. PLoS One 2011; 6:e16661. [PMID: 21304971 PMCID: PMC3031630 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0016661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2010] [Accepted: 01/10/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
3-Hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A [HMG-CoA] reductase gene (Hmgcr) is a susceptibility gene for essential hypertension. Sequencing of the Hmgcr locus in genetically hypertensive BPH (blood pressure high), genetically hypotensive BPL (blood pressure low) and genetically normotensive BPN (blood pressure normal) mice yielded a number of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). BPH/BPL/BPN Hmgcr promoter-luciferase reporter constructs were generated and transfected into liver HepG2, ovarian CHO, kidney HEK-293 and neuronal N2A cells for functional characterization of the promoter SNPs. The BPH-Hmgcr promoter showed significantly less activity than the BPL-Hmgcr promoter under basal as well as nicotine/cholesterol-treated conditions. This finding was consistent with lower endogenous Hmgcr expression in liver and lower plasma cholesterol in BPH mice. Transfection experiments using 5′-promoter deletion constructs (strategically made to assess the functional significance of each promoter SNP) and computational analysis predicted lower binding affinities of transcription factors c-Fos, n-Myc and Max with the BPH-promoter as compared to the BPL-promoter. Corroboratively, the BPH promoter-luciferase reporter construct co-transfected with expression plasmids of these transcription factors displayed less pronounced augmentation of luciferase activity than the BPL construct, particularly at lower amounts of transcription factor plasmids. Electrophoretic mobility shift assays also showed diminished interactions of the BPH promoter with HepG2 nuclear proteins. Taken together, this study provides mechanistic basis for the differential Hmgcr expression in these mouse models of human essential hypertension and have implications for better understanding the role of this gene in regulation of blood pressure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parshuram J. Sonawane
- Cardiovascular Genetics Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India
| | - Bhavani S. Sahu
- Cardiovascular Genetics Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India
| | - Binu K. Sasi
- Cardiovascular Genetics Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India
| | - Parimala Geedi
- Cardiovascular Genetics Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India
| | - Govinda Lenka
- Cardiovascular Genetics Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India
| | - Nitish R. Mahapatra
- Cardiovascular Genetics Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India
- * E-mail:
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Bioconversion of lovastatin to a novel statin by Amycolatopsis sp. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2008; 79:209-16. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-008-1430-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2007] [Revised: 02/22/2008] [Accepted: 02/23/2008] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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14
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Solomon KR, Freeman MR. Do the cholesterol-lowering properties of statins affect cancer risk? Trends Endocrinol Metab 2008; 19:113-21. [PMID: 18356074 DOI: 10.1016/j.tem.2007.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2007] [Revised: 11/28/2007] [Accepted: 12/03/2007] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
The potential of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase inhibitors ('statins') to reduce the incidence and/or progression of certain malignancies remains uncertain. Some investigators have concluded that statins have no effects on malignancies of any kind. However, results of several epidemiologic studies, including four recent prospective cohort studies, suggest that long-term statin therapy inhibits the progression of prostate cancer. We argue that the principal mechanism of any anticancer effects from statin use arises from prolonged lowering of circulating cholesterol. Evidence suggests that prostate cancer might be particularly sensitive to this intervention. Our hypothesis provides a perspective from which mechanistic studies of cholesterol-lowering drugs and cancer, in addition to prospective trials in patients, might be designed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keith R Solomon
- Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Children's Hospital Boston, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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Catapano AL. The pharmacologic elegance of inhibiting cholesterol absorption and synthesis while providing a homeostatic balance. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 2008; 21 Suppl 2:21-6. [PMID: 18001316 DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-8206.2007.00534.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The recent discoveries on the concerted role of several mechanisms involved in regulating the balance of body cholesterol highlight the role of intestinal absorption. Selective modulators of intestinal cholesterol absorption are available that offer a new pharmacologic approach to the modulation of total body cholesterol homeostasis and to a more effective reduction of low-density-lipoprotein cholesterol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberico L Catapano
- Center for the Study of Atherosclerosis and Laboratory of Lipoprotein Metabolism, Department of Pharmacological Sciences, University of Milan, Milan, Italy.
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Satoh K, Takaguri A, Itagaki M, Kano S, Ichihara K. Effects of Rosuvastatin and Pitavastatin on Ischemia-Induced Myocardial Stunning in Dogs. J Pharmacol Sci 2008; 106:593-9. [DOI: 10.1254/jphs.08017fp] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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Yamazaki H, Suzuki M, Aoki T, Morikawa S, Maejima T, Sato F, Sawanobori K, Kitahara M, Kodama T, Saito Y. Influence of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitors on ubiquinone levels in rat skeletal muscle and heart: relationship to cytotoxicity and inhibitory activity for cholesterol synthesis in human skeletal muscle cells. J Atheroscler Thromb 2007; 13:295-307. [PMID: 17192694 DOI: 10.5551/jat.13.295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Although statins are prescribed as relatively safe and effective drugs for hypercholesterolemic patients, it has been reported that a significant side effect, myopathy, occurs infrequently during medication. Moreover, because statins decrease cardiac ubiquinone levels, the risk of cardiac dysfunction has been suggested. This study sought to evaluate and compare the cytotoxicity of statins (cerivastatin, pitavastatin, fluvastatin, simvastatin, atorvastatin and pravastatin) in cultured human skeletal muscle cells (HSkMCs) and the effects on ubiquinone levels in statin-treated rat skeletal muscle and heart. Cerivastatin, the most potent inhibitor of HMG-CoA reductase, showed the strongest cytotoxicity (over 10-fold) among the statins examined, while the effects of the others were in a similar range. In rat experiments, neither pitavastatin nor cerivastatin decreased ubiquinone levels in skeletal muscle, but both dose-dependently lowered ubiquinone levels in the heart. As the rates of reduction by pitavastatin (9.6% at 30 mg/kg) and cerivastatin (9.7% at 0.3 mg/kg) were almost equal, it was estimated that cerivastatin reduced ubiquinone levels in the rat heart approximately 100-fold more strongly than pitavastatin, based on the effective doses. We found that cerivastatin showed the most potent cytotoxicity in HSkMCs and strongly lowered ubiquinone levels in the rat heart.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroyuki Yamazaki
- Tokyo New Drug Research Laboratories I, Pharmaceutical Division, Kowa, Co. Ltd, Japan.
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Dietzen DJ, Page KL, Tetzloff TA, Bohrer A, Turk J. Inhibition of 3-Hydroxy-3-Methylglutaryl Coenzyme A (HMG CoA) Reductase Blunts Factor VIIa/Tissue Factor and Prothrombinase Activities via Effects on Membrane Phosphatidylserine. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2007; 27:690-6. [PMID: 17185615 DOI: 10.1161/01.atv.0000255949.51053.ce] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE 3-Hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG CoA) reductase inhibitors (statins) exhibit antithrombotic properties that are independent of reductions in circulating LDL cholesterol. We hypothesized that these antithrombotic properties are mediated by membrane alterations secondary to disrupted lipid metabolism. METHODS AND RESULTS EA.hy926 cells were incubated in the presence of 1 micromol/L atorvastatin supplemented with fetal bovine serum or lipid-depleted serum mixtures. Lipid restriction alone had no effect on cell lipid composition but when atorvastatin was included, phosphatidylserine, sphingomyelin, and cholesterol were reduced by 50% while ceramide content decreased by 70%. These changes in lipid composition did not alter the association of decay accelerating factor or tissue factor with lipid rafts. Atorvastatin in combination with lipid restriction reduced factor VIIa/tissue factor activity by as much as 75% but did not alter tissue factor expression. Prothrombinase activity was reduced to an extent similar to factor VIIa/tissue factor. Mevalonic acid but not LDL reversed the observed changes in lipid content and prothrombinase activity induced by atorvastatin. These findings were confirmed in primary cells. CONCLUSIONS Inhibition of HMG-CoA reductase limits exposure of phosphatidylserine at the cell surface by restricting the cellular pool of mevalonate-derived isoprenoids. This membrane alteration restricts the activity of proteolytic enzyme complexes that propagate the coagulation cascade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis J Dietzen
- Department of Pediatrics, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA.
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Mitani H, Kimura M. Fluvastatin, HMG-CoA Reductase Inhibitor: Antiatherogenic Profiles Through Its Lipid-Lowering-Dependent and -Independent Actions. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1527-3466.2000.tb00053.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Paragh G, Fóris G, Paragh G, Seres I, Karányi Z, Fülöp P, Balogh Z, Kosztáczky B, Teichmann F, Kertai P. Different anticancer effects of fluvastatin on primary hepatocellular tumors and metastases in rats. Cancer Lett 2005; 222:17-22. [PMID: 15837537 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2004.09.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2004] [Revised: 08/18/2004] [Accepted: 09/02/2004] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Rats (FLF1) were pretreated with 2 and 20 mg/kg/day fluvastatin (Flu), and after 6 weeks, hepatocellular tumor cells were inoculated under the left renal capsule. At different times, growth and pyruvate kinase (PK) activity of the primary tumors and lymph node metastases were determined. Flu had a dose-dependent inhibitory effect on primary and metastatic tumors, and the inhibitory effect on growth and PK activity in metastases were higher than in primary tumors. Finally, Flu had an earlier inhibitory effect on the early appeared PK activity in metastases than in primary tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- György Paragh
- First Department of Medicine, University of Debrecen, P.O. Box 19, Debrecen H-4012, Hungary
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21
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Sun JX, Niecestro R, Phillips G, Shen J, Lukacsko P, Friedhoff L. Comparative pharmacokinetics of lovastatin extended-release tablets and lovastatin immediate-release tablets in humans. J Clin Pharmacol 2002; 42:198-204. [PMID: 11831543 DOI: 10.1177/00912700222011111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The pharmacokinetics of lovastatin and its active metabolite lovastatin acid was evaluated in 9 healthy subjects in a three-period crossover study following a single oral dose of lovastatin extended-release (ER) tablets and lovastatin immediate-release (IR) tablets. Participants were dosed with lovastatin IR 40 mg tablets following a standard breakfast, lovastatin ER 40 mg tablets following a standard breakfast, and lovastatin ER 40 mg tablets underfasting conditions. Serial plasma samples were collected for up to 48 hours postdose and assayed for lovastatin and lovastatin acid using a liquid chromatography/mass spectroscopy/mass spectroscopy method. Lovastatin ER tablets, unlike lovastatin IR tablets, exhibited delayed- and extended-release characteristics. The relative bioavailability, in terms of area under the curve values, of lovastatin (156%) and lovastatin acid (124%) was greater from lovastatin ER tablets as compared with lovastatin IR tablets when given with breakfast. An even greater increase in the bioavailability of lovastatin (261%) and lovastatin acid (231%) was observed when the lovastatin ER tablets were administered under fasting conditions. Thus, greater gastrointestinal tract drug absorption of lovastatin from lovastatin ER tablets was demonstrated. Ingestion of a standard breakfast prior to administration of lovastatin ER tablets decreased absorption of lovastatin by approximately 40%, relative to lovastatin ER tablets under fasting conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jim X Sun
- Department of Clinical Research, Andrx Laboratories, Inc., Andrx Corporation, Fort Lauderdale, Florida, USA
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22
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Fern??ndez J, M??s R, Casta??o G, Men??ndez R, Amor A, Gonz??lez R, Alvarez E. Comparison of the Efficacy, Safety and Tolerability of Policosanol versus Fluvastatin in Elderly Hypercholesterolaemic Women. Clin Drug Investig 2001. [DOI: 10.2165/00044011-200121020-00003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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23
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Grip O, Janciauskiene S, Lindgren S. Pravastatin down-regulates inflammatory mediators in human monocytes in vitro. Eur J Pharmacol 2000; 410:83-92. [PMID: 11134659 DOI: 10.1016/s0014-2999(00)00870-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
There is experimental evidence that pravastatin, which is designed to inhibit the rate-limiting enzyme of cholesterol synthesis, can affect cell metabolism and proliferation. We therefore studied the effects of pravastatin on the generation of inflammatory mediators in non-stimulated and stimulated primary human monocytes in vitro. In our experimental model, pravastatin induced a dose-dependent inhibition of monocyte cholesterol synthesis (up to 67%), up-regulation of low density lipoprotein receptor mRNA (by about 35%) and reduction in intracellular cholesterol accumulation. In parallel, exposure of non-stimulated monocytes to various doses of pravastatin resulted in inhibition of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 protein expression (up to 15-fold), reduction of tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) levels (up to 2.4-fold) and a total loss of metalloproteinase-9 activity in stimulated cells. Pravastatin at concentrations of 5, 100 and 500 microM caused an inhibition of TNF-alpha-induced cellular oxygen consumption from 2. 4- to 5.5-fold. These data extend the findings of potential anti-inflammatory actions of statins and also suggest the possibility for pravastatin use in a broader spectrum of inflammatory situations.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Grip
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Lund University, University Hospital MAS, S-20502, Malmö, Sweden.
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24
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Raungaard B, Brorholt-Petersen JU, Jensen HK, Faergeman O. Flow cytometric assessment of effects of fluvastatin on low-density lipoprotein receptor activity in stimulated T-lymphocytes from patients with heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia. J Clin Pharmacol 2000; 40:421-9. [PMID: 10761170 DOI: 10.1177/00912700022009008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
To test the effects of fluvastatin on low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor activity in patients with heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia, the authors measured LDL receptor activity in stimulated T-lymphocytes prepared from 34 patients before and after treatment with 40 mg fluvastatin daily for 12 weeks. Maximally induced pretreatment LDL receptor activities did not correlate with pretreatment plasma cholesterol levels or with changes in plasma cholesterol levels during treatment, and there were no significant changes in LDL receptor activity during treatment. Barring methodological problems, two explanations are possible. Insofar that LDL receptor activity in lymphocytes reflects LDL receptor activity in the liver, the results suggest that the primary response to treatment with fluvastatin in heterozygous familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) patients is not enhanced LDL receptor activity. Alternatively, fluvastatin increases LDL receptor activity in hepatocytes but has little effect on receptor-dependent lipoprotein catabolism in extrahepatic tissues in vivo.
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MESH Headings
- Amino Acid Substitution
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/chemistry
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/metabolism
- Anticholesteremic Agents/therapeutic use
- Carbocyanines/chemistry
- Cholesterol/blood
- Cholesterol, HDL/blood
- Cholesterol, HDL/drug effects
- Cholesterol, LDL/blood
- Cholesterol, LDL/drug effects
- Cross-Over Studies
- Data Interpretation, Statistical
- Fatty Acids, Monounsaturated/therapeutic use
- Flow Cytometry
- Fluorescein-5-isothiocyanate/chemistry
- Fluvastatin
- Heterozygote
- Humans
- Hyperlipoproteinemia Type II/blood
- Hyperlipoproteinemia Type II/drug therapy
- Hyperlipoproteinemia Type II/genetics
- Indoles/therapeutic use
- Lipoproteins, LDL/chemistry
- Lipoproteins, LDL/metabolism
- Mutation
- Protein Binding
- Receptors, LDL/genetics
- Receptors, LDL/immunology
- Receptors, LDL/metabolism
- T-Lymphocytes/cytology
- T-Lymphocytes/drug effects
- T-Lymphocytes/metabolism
- Triglycerides/blood
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Affiliation(s)
- B Raungaard
- Department of Internal Medicine and Cardiology, Aarhus Amtssygehus University Hospital, Denmark
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25
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Abstract
Pretreatment of dogs with simvastatin, a lipophilic 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase inhibitor, increases myocardial contractile dysfunction during reperfusion after ischemia (stunning), with reduction of tissue adenosine triphosphate (ATP). This was thought to be a consequence of prevention of ubiquinone biosynthesis by the lipophilic inhibitor in the myocardial cell. We examined whether other lipophilic HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors also influence myocardial stunning in dogs. Vehicle, atorvastatin (2 mg/ kg/day), fluvastatin (4 mg/kg/day), or cerivastatin (40 microg/kg/ day) was orally administered for 3 weeks. Hydrophilic pravastatin (4 mg/kg/day) also was given. After 3 weeks, pentobarbital-anesthetized dogs were subjected to 15-min left anterior descending coronary artery occlusion followed by 2-h reperfusion. Myocardial segment function was determined by sonomicrometry. Tissue levels of ATP were determined in 2-h reperfused hearts. All inhibitors significantly decreased serum cholesterol level. The three lipophilic inhibitors resulted in a worsening of segment function in the reperfused myocardium, as compared with the vehicle group. The levels of ATP in the atorvastatin, fluvastatin, and cerivastatin groups were significantly lower than that in the vehicle group. These results confirm that lipophilic HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors enhance myocardial stunning in association with ATP reduction after ischemia and reperfusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Satoh
- Department of Pharmacology, Hokkaido College of Pharmacy, Otaru, Japan
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26
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Hsiang B, Zhu Y, Wang Z, Wu Y, Sasseville V, Yang WP, Kirchgessner TG. A novel human hepatic organic anion transporting polypeptide (OATP2). Identification of a liver-specific human organic anion transporting polypeptide and identification of rat and human hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA reductase inhibitor transporters. J Biol Chem 1999; 274:37161-8. [PMID: 10601278 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.274.52.37161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 443] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
A novel human organic transporter, OATP2, has been identified that transports taurocholic acid, the adrenal androgen dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, and thyroid hormone, as well as the hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA reductase inhibitor, pravastatin. OATP2 is expressed exclusively in liver in contrast to all other known transporter subtypes that are found in both hepatic and nonhepatic tissues. OATP2 is considerably diverged from other family members, sharing only 42% sequence identity with the four other subtypes. Furthermore, unlike other subtypes, OATP2 did not transport digoxin or aldosterone. The rat isoform oatp1 was also shown to transport pravastatin, whereas other members of the OATP family, i.e. rat oatp2, human OATP, and the prostaglandin transporter, did not. Cis-inhibition studies indicate that both OATP2 and roatp1 also transport other statins including lovastatin, simvastatin, and atorvastatin. In summary, OATP2 is a novel organic anion transport protein that has overlapping but not identical substrate specificities with each of the other subtypes and, with its liver-specific expression, represents a functionally distinct OATP isoform. Furthermore, the identification of oatp1 and OATP2 as pravastatin transporters suggests that they are responsible for the hepatic uptake of this liver-specific hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA reductase inhibitor in rat and man.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Hsiang
- Bristol-Myers Squibb Co., Pharmaceutical Research Institute, Princeton, New Jersey 08543-4000, USA
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27
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Suzuki M, Yanagawa Y, Iwasaki H, Kanda H, Yanagihara K, Matsumoto H, Ohara Y, Yazaki Y, Sakoda R. First systematic chiral syntheses of two pairs of enantiomers with 3,5-dihydroxyheptenoic acid chain, associated with a potent synthetic statin NK-104. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 1999; 9:2977-82. [PMID: 10571159 DOI: 10.1016/s0960-894x(99)00519-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
First systematic chiral syntheses of two pairs of enantiomers with 3,5-dihydroxyheptenoic acid chain, associated with a potent synthetic statin NK-104 are reported. A pair of syn diol isomers (NK-104 and its enantiomer) was obtained efficiently by diastereomeric resolution. The synthesis of a pair of anti diol isomers (3-epimer and 5-epimer) was accomplished effectively by the asymmetric aldol reaction followed by anti stereoselective reduction as key steps. Their purity determinations were effected by chiral HPLC analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Suzuki
- Central Research Institute, Nissan Chemical Industries Ltd., Funabashi, Chiba, Japan.
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28
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Carrella M, Fong LG, Loguercio C, Del Piano C. Enhancement of fatty acid and cholesterol synthesis accompanied by enhanced biliary but not very-low-density lipoprotein lipid secretion following sustained pravastatin blockade of hydroxymethyl glutaryl coenzyme A reductase in rat liver. Metabolism 1999; 48:618-26. [PMID: 10337863 DOI: 10.1016/s0026-0495(99)90060-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
A 3-week treatment of rats with pravastatin (PV) augmented biliary cholesterol and phospholipid output 3.6- and 2.2-fold over controls, while bile acid (BA) output and kinetics were unchanged. No major changes were detected in hepatic and serum cholesterol concentrations despite the PV inhibitory property on hydroxymethyl glutaryl coenzyme A (HMG CoA) reductase. To evaluate the mechanisms of this adaptive phenomenon, several parameters of hepatic lipid homeostasis were assessed. Biliary cholesterol changes could not be attributed to an increased influx of lipoprotein cholesterol to the liver and bile. Hepatic low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor content, as inferred from Western blot analysis, was unchanged, as was the biliary excretion of labeled cholesterol derived from chylomicron remnants. In vivo 3H2O-incorporation studies showed an 80% increase in hepatic cholesterol synthesis, evidence for bypass of the PV block. Remarkably, fatty acid synthesis was also stimulated twofold, providing substrate for hepatic triglycerides, which were slightly enhanced. However, serum triglycerides decreased 52% associated with a 22% decrease in hepatic very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) secretion. Thus, the biochemical adaptation following PV treatment produces complex alterations in hepatic lipid metabolism. An enhanced supply of newly synthesized cholesterol and fatty acids in association with a limited VLDL secretion rate augments the biliary lipid secretion pathway in this experimental model.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Carrella
- Cattedra di Gastroenterologia, Facolta' di Medicina e Chirurgia, Universita' degli Studi di Udine, Italy
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29
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Sato T, Oouchi M, Nagakubo H, Chiba T, Ogawa S, Sato C, Sugimura K, Fukuda M. Effect of pravastatin on plasma ketone bodies in diabetics with hypercholesterolemia. TOHOKU J EXP MED 1998; 185:25-9. [PMID: 9710942 DOI: 10.1620/tjem.185.25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Hydroxy-3 methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) is a common intermediate metabolite of cholesterol synthesis and ketone formation in the liver. In order to study the effect of HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor (pravastatin) on ketone formation, changes in the plasma levels of ketone bodies by treatment with pravastatin were studied in 18 non-insulin dependent diabetics with hypercholesterolemia. Body mass index, diabetic control, and plasma free fatty acid levels were not changed during the study, and the plasma levels of cholesterol decreased significantly from 250 +/- 25 to 211 +/- 34 mg/100 ml after 6 months of pravastatin treatment. The plasma levels of acetoacetic acid also significantly decreased from 37.7 +/- 22.6 to 28.4 +/- 13.4 mumol/l, and those of 3-hydroxybutyric acid and total ketone bodies also tended to decrease after pravastatin treatment. These results suggest that pravastatin decreases ketone formation in hepatic mitochondria besides cholesterol synthesis in hepatic microsome.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Sato
- Section of Internal Medicine and Disability Prevention, Tohoku University Graduate School, Sendai, Japan
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30
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Abstract
Herein, studies concerning the biosynthesis, intracellular transport and utilization of isoprenoid lipids in vertebrate retinas are reviewed, with particular regard to rod photoreceptor cells and the assembly of rod outer segment (ROS) disk membranes. Initial in vitro studies with bovine retinas showed that [3H]mevalonate is metabolized primarily to squalene and 'methylated' sterols, rather than to cholesterol. Subsequently, similar results were obtained with frog retinas using [3H]acetate as a precursor, and the absolute rate of the sterol pathway was determined in vitro with 3H2O. With the aid of vesicular transport inhibitors, energy poisons, and reduced temperature, it was demonstrated that lipid and protein trafficking mechanisms in the rod cell are separate and independent from one another. In vivo, the majority of newly synthesized squalene in the frog retina is not metabolized to sterols; rather, it is transported to the ROS, where it turns over in parallel with the disk membranes. The remaining squalene is converted slowly to cholesterol, much of which becomes incorporated into the ROS. In contrast, the in vivo metabolism of [3H]acetate to cholesterol in the rat retina is relatively efficient and rapid. However, in both frog and rat, retinal cholesterol turnover is slow (> 60 days), suggesting the existence of a retention mechanism that minimizes the need for de novo biosynthesis. The use of pharmacological approaches to assess the biological roles of isoprenoid lipids and protein prenylation in the retina and the mechanism of retinal cholesterol homeostasis are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- S J Fliesler
- Saint Louis University Eye Institute, Saint Louis University Health Sciences Center, MO 63104-1540, USA
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31
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Bandoh T, Mitani H, Niihashi M, Kusumi Y, Ishikawa J, Kimura M, Totsuka T, Sakurai I, Hayashi S. Inhibitory effect of fluvastatin at doses insufficient to lower serum lipids on the catheter-induced thickening of intima in rabbit femoral artery. Eur J Pharmacol 1996; 315:37-42. [PMID: 8960862 DOI: 10.1016/s0014-2999(96)00573-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The anti-atherosclerotic effect of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase inhibitors at doses insufficient to lower serum cholesterol was investigated in rabbit femoral artery denuded by balloon catheter. Fluvastatin and pravastatin were given orally at doses of 4 and 8 mg/kg per day, respectively, for 2 weeks after the catheterization. There was little change in serum cholesterol, triglyceride and phospholipid by chronic treatment with the drugs. The cross-sectional area of the intima, expressed as relative values to media (I/M ratio), was increased by the catheterization, showing intimal thickening in the denuded arteries. The I/M ratio was reduced by fluvastatin but not pravastatin: 0.327 +/- 0.060 for control, 0.116 +/- 0.035 for 4 mg/kg fluvastatin, 0.088 +/- 0.027 for 8 mg/kg fluvastatin and 0.22 +/- 0.069 for 8 mg/kg pravastatin. Fluvastatin (8 mg/kg)-induced effect on the I/M ratio, was prevented by the combined administration with 40 mg/kg per day mevalonate, a metabolite in the HMG-CoA reductase pathway. These results suggest that fluvastatin inhibits intimal thickening after catheterization-induced injury through percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA) and that the inhibition is presumably attributed to reduced migration and proliferation of smooth muscle cells but not secondarily to a lowering of serum lipid.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Bandoh
- Department of Pharmacology, Sandoz Tsukuba Research Institute, Ibaraki, Japan
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32
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33
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Bueld JE, Bannenberg G, Netter KJ. Effects of propionic acid and pravastatin on HMG-CoA reductase activity in relation to forestomach lesions in the rat. PHARMACOLOGY & TOXICOLOGY 1996; 78:229-34. [PMID: 8861780 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0773.1996.tb00210.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Administration of 4% propionic acid in powdered diet to rats for 12 weeks induces severe hyperplastic lesions in the forestomach mucosa. The mechanisms underlying this damage are not yet clear. Several lipophilic 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase inhibitors such as lovastatin and simvastatin produce forestomach lesions similar to propionic acid after oral administration and the degree of alterations is correlated with their in vitro inhibitory potency (Kloss et al. 1991). Therefore it is possible, that sustained inhibition of HMG-CoA reductase and induction of hyperplasias may be somehow connected. For that reason we investigated, whether or not propionic acid has any influence on HMG-CoA reductase activity in vitro and in vivo, because propionic acid has been suggested to suppress liver cholesterol synthesis, and also whether or not pravastatin, a more polar HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor than lovastatin displays similar effects on forestomach mucosa. In untreated forestomach microsomes in vitro, propionic acid at a concentration of 51 mM (pH 5.7) inhibited HMG-CoA reductase activity by 51 + or - 10%, but at pH 7.2 no inhibition of the enzyme could be detected. Furthermore 4% propionic acid-treatment did not lower serum cholesterol. In contrast to lovastatin (Kloss et al. 1991), oral administration of pravastatin (up to 25% in the diet) did not produce any forestomach lesions in the rat. On the other hand, pretreatment with pravastatin revealed that HMG-CoA reductase activity in microsomes exceeded the activity of control forestomach and liver microsomes by 4.9 fold and 6.7 fold respectively, whereas no induction of this enzyme (neither liver nor forestomach) could be observed by pretreatment with 4% propionic acid for 12 weeks. Despite increased hepatic HMG-CoA reductase activity, pravastatin-treatment significantly lowered serum cholesterol levels of rats. These results show that sustained inhibition of HMG-CoA reductase activity in forestomach microsomes is not strongly connected with hyperplasia development.
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Affiliation(s)
- J E Bueld
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Philipps University Marburg, Germany
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34
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Abstract
Inherited defects in enzymes of cholesterol metabolism and use of drugs which inhibit lens cholesterol biosynthesis can be associated with cataracts in animals and man. The basis of this relationship apparently lies in the need of the lens to satisfy its sustained requirement for cholesterol by on-site synthesis, and impairing this synthesis can lead to alteration of lens membrane structure. Lens membrane contains the highest cholesterol content of any known membrane. The Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome, mevalonic aciduria, and cerebrotendinous xanthomatosis all involve mutations in enzymes of cholesterol metabolism, and affected patients can develop cataracts. Two established models of rodent cataracts are based on treatment with inhibitors of cholesterol biosynthesis. The long-term ocular safety of the very widely used vastatin class of hypocholesterolemic drugs is controversial. Some vastatins are potent inhibitors of cholesterol biosynthesis by animal lenses, can block cholesterol accumulation by these lenses and can produce cataracts in dogs. Whether these drugs inhibit cholesterol biosynthesis in human lenses at therapeutic doses is unknown. Results of clinical trials of 1-5 years duration in older patient populations indicate high ocular safety. However, considering the slow life-long growth of the lens and its continuing need for cholesterol, longterm safety of the vastatins should perhaps be viewed in units of 10 or 20 years, particularly with younger patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- R J Cenedella
- Department of Biochemistry, Kirksville College of Osteopathic Medicine, Missouri, USA
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35
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Feillet C, Farnier M, Monnier LH, Percheron C, Colette C, Descomps B, Crastes De Paulet A. Comparative effects of simvastatin and pravastatin on cholesterol synthesis in patients with primary hypercholesterolemia. Atherosclerosis 1995; 118:251-8. [PMID: 8770319 DOI: 10.1016/0021-9150(95)05611-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The effects of simvastatin and pravastatin on cholesterol biosynthesis were compared in 26 hypercholesterolemic patients who were randomly allocated to either simvastatin or pravastatin treatment (20 mg once daily) for 6 weeks in a crossover trial. Serum total cholesterol (TC), low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) lathosterol (latho) concentrations and lathosterol/cholesterol (latho/chol) ratios (the latter two are considered as reliable indices of whole body cholesterol synthesis) were evaluated at the beginning and end of each therapeutic sequence. Reductions in TC and LDL-C were more pronounced (P < 0.001) with simvastatin (TC = -28.0%, LDL-C = -35.6%) than with pravastatin (TC = -19.6%, LDL-C = -25.2%). These results were associated with concomitant decreases in both latho concentrations (-59.0% with simvastatin and -37.0% with pravastatin) and latho/chol ratios (-43.0% with simvastatin and -20.3% with pravastatin). Simvastatin resulted in more marked diminutions of latho concentrations (P < 0.01) and latho/chol ratios (P < 0.05) than pravastatin. These results suggest that the better efficacy of simvastatin on serum cholesterol and LDL cholesterol might result in part from a greater inhibitory action of simvastatin on cholesterol synthesis compared with that of pravastatin.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Feillet
- Laboratory of Biochemistry, Montpellier, France
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36
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Shand JH, West DW. The effects of simvastatin and cholestyramine, alone and in combination, on hepatic cholesterol metabolism in the male rat. off. Lipids 1995; 30:917-26. [PMID: 8538379 DOI: 10.1007/bf02537483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
The influence of dietary simvastatin, cholestyramine, and the combination of simvastatin plus cholestyramine on hepatic cholesterol metabolism has been investigated in male rats. Recovery from the effects of the drugs was also investigated by refeeding normal chow for 24 h. Both drugs, alone and in combination, increased 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA (HMG-CoA) reductase activity in vitro, but activity returned toward control values, after drug withdrawal. Acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT) was significantly reduced (P < 0.001) by simvastain (-75%), cholestyramine (-71%), and by the drug combination (-81%), due both to a decrease in microsomal cholesterol and to nonsubstrate-dependent modulation of enzyme activity. Refeeding control diet increased ACAT activity but not to control levels. The enhanced activity arose partly from higher microsomal cholesterol and partly from increases in total enzyme activity. Cytosolic neutral cholesteryl ester hydrolase (CEH) activity was substantially elevated by simvastatin (3-fold) and by the drug combination (6-fold), whereas the effect of cholestyramine was smaller (1.5-fold). Normal chow for 24 h only partially returned cytosolic CEH activity to control values. Microsomal CEH activity was increased by simvastatin, alone and in combination with cholestyramine (1.4 to 1.7-fold), and was also enhanced, in the cholestyramine-treated animals, following drug withdrawal. Removal of simvastatin did not allow recovery of this enzyme activity, while withdrawal of the drug combination led to values 29% below controls. The results indicate that in the rat, simvastatin and cholestyramine alter both ACAT and CEH activity, as well as inhibiting HMG-CoA reductase activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- J H Shand
- Hannah Research Institute, Ayr, United Kingdom
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37
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Satoh K, Yamato A, Nakai T, Hoshi K, Ichihara K. Effects of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitors on mitochondrial respiration in ischaemic dog hearts. Br J Pharmacol 1995; 116:1894-8. [PMID: 8528576 PMCID: PMC1909075 DOI: 10.1111/j.1476-5381.1995.tb16679.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
1. Effects of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase inhibitors, pravastatin and simvastatin, on the myocardial level of coenzyme Q10, and on mitochondrial respiration were examined in dogs. 2. Either vehicle (control), pravastatin (4 mg kg-1 day-1), or simvastatin (2 mg kg-1 day-1) was administered orally for 3 weeks. First, the myocardial tissue level of coenzyme Q10 was determined in the 3 groups. Second, ischaemia was induced by ligating the left anterior descending coronary artery (LAD) in anaesthetized open chest dogs, pretreated with the inhibitors. After 30 min of ischaemia, nonischaemic and ischaemic myocardium were removed from the left circumflex and LAD regions, respectively, and immediately used for isolation of mitochondria. The mitochondrial respiration was determined by polarography, with glutamate and succinate used as substrates. 3. Simvastatin significantly decreased the myocardial level of coenzyme Q10, but pravastatin did not. 4. Ischaemia decreased the mitochondrial respiratory control index (RCI) in both groups. Significant differences in RCI between nonischaemic and ischaemic myocardium were observed in the control and simvastatin-treated groups. 5. Only in the simvastatin-treated group did ischaemia significantly decrease the ADP/O ratio, determined with succinate. 6. The present results indicate that simvastatin but not pravastatin may cause worsening of the myocardial mitochondrial respiration during ischaemia, probably because of reduction of the myocardial coenzyme Q10 level.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Satoh
- Department of Pharmacology, Hokkaido College of Pharmacy, Otaru, Japan
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Satoh K, Ichihara K. Effects of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitors on mitochondrial respiration in ischemic rat hearts. Eur J Pharmacol 1995; 292:271-5. [PMID: 7796866 DOI: 10.1016/0926-6917(95)90032-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to examine the effects of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase inhibitors on mitochondrial respiration in ischemic rat hearts, and to compare the effects between water-soluble pravastatin and lipid-soluble simvastatin. Either vehicle (0.5% carboxymethyl cellulose), pravastatin (2 or 4 mg/kg per day), or simvastatin (1 or 2 mg/kg per day) was orally administered for 3 weeks. Ischemia was induced by ligating the aorta for 60 min in anesthetized open chest rats under artificial respiration. The hearts were removed, mitochondria were isolated, and the respiration was determined by polarography using glutamate and succinate as substrates. When succinate was used as a substrate, the ADP-stimulated respiration (QO3) and ATP production per unit oxygen (ADP/O ratio) were decreased by ischemia. The decreases in QO3 and ADP/O ratio in the pravastatin- and simvastatin-treated groups appeared to be more prominent than those in the vehicle-treated group. This was especially true in the simvastatin-treated group. The ADP-limited respiration (QO4) with succinate in the vehicle-treated heart was slightly increased by ischemia, while that in the pravastatin- or simvastatin-treated hearts was decreased. In conclusion, HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors may result in worsening of myocardial mitochondrial respiration during ischemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Satoh
- Department of Pharmacology, Hokkaido College of Pharmacy, Otaru, Japan
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Yamamoto A, Itoh S, Hoshi K, Ichihara K. Inhibition of cholesterol synthesis ex vivo and in vivo by fluvastatin, a new inhibitor of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase. EXPERIENTIA 1995; 51:223-6. [PMID: 7698284 DOI: 10.1007/bf01931101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
The inhibitory effect of fluvastatin sodium (fluvastatin), a new type of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl (HMG) coenzyme A inhibitor, on de novo cholesterol synthesis was investigated and compared with that of pravastatin. Fluvastatin at a concentration of 12.5 mg/kg inhibited sterol synthesis ex vivo from [14C]acetate in rat liver and ileum by 97-99% with respect to the control, while the inhibition in kidney was 55%. The inhibition by fluvastatin in the liver and ileum persisted for approximately 9 h after administration. Significant differences between fluvastatin also had an inhibitory effect on cholesterol synthesis in vivo in various tissues of rats given [14C]acetate intraperitoneally. Sterol synthesis in the liver, ileum and kidney was inhibited by over 95% 3 h after administration of 6.25 mg/kg of fluvastatin. Significant differences between fluvastatin and pravastatin were found in the liver and ileum. Fluvastatin was more potent than pravastatin in inhibiting both ex vivo and in vivo sterol synthesis in the ileum (but not in kidney) and liver.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Yamamoto
- Department of Pharmacology, Hokkaido Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Otaru, Japan
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Bocan TM, Mazur MJ, Mueller SB, Brown EQ, Sliskovic DR, O'Brien PM, Creswell MW, Lee H, Uhlendorf PD, Roth BD. Antiatherosclerotic activity of inhibitors of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase in cholesterol-fed rabbits: a biochemical and morphological evaluation. Atherosclerosis 1994; 111:127-42. [PMID: 7840808 DOI: 10.1016/0021-9150(94)90198-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Atherosclerotic lesion development was assessed in the thoracic aorta and chronically denuded iliac-femoral artery of hypercholesterolemic New Zealand White rabbits using inhibitors of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase which have previously been shown to possess varying degrees of hepatoselectivity in rats. Atorvastatin, previously known as CI-981 (2.5 mg/kg), PD135022 (1.0 mg/kg), simvastatin (2.5 mg/kg), lovastatin (2.5 mg/kg), PD134965 (1.0 mg/kg), pravastatin (2.5 mg/kg) and BMY22089 (2.5 mg/kg) were added to a 0.5% cholesterol, 3% peanut, 3% coconut oil diet and fed for 8 weeks. Although reductions in plasma total cholesterol of 27% to 60%, VLDL-cholesterol of 31% to 71% and plasma total cholesterol exposure of 37% to 43% were obtained, no correlation between these parameters and vascular lipid content, lesion size or monocyte-macrophage content was noted. Iliac-femoral lipid content was unchanged; however, atorvastatin and simvastatin significantly reduced the cholesterol content of the thoracic aorta by 45%-62%. Atorvastatin and PD135022 reduced the size of the iliac-femoral lesion by 67% and monocyte-macrophage content by 72%. Simvastatin, lovastatin and PD134965 decreased the monocyte-macrophage content; however, lesion size was unchanged. Pravastatin and BMY22089 had no effect on lesion size or content. No compound significantly reduced the extent of thoracic aortic lesions. We concluded that changes in plasma lipids and lipoproteins noted with the various HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors did not account for the beneficial effect on atherosclerotic lesion development. The antiatherosclerotic potential of the HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors was compound-specific and clearly not a class effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- T M Bocan
- Department of Atherosclerosis Therapeutics, Parke-Davis Pharmaceutical Research, Division of Warner-Lambert Company, Ann Arbor, MI 48105
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Felgines C, Sérougne C, Mathé D, Mazur A, Lutton C. Effect of simvastatin treatment on plasma apolipoproteins and hepatic apolipoprotein mRNA levels in the genetically hypercholesterolemic rat (RICO). Life Sci 1994; 54:361-7. [PMID: 8289597 DOI: 10.1016/0024-3205(94)00792-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
The effects of long-term treatment with simvastatin on plasma lipoproteins, plasma apolipoproteins, and on hepatic apolipoprotein gene expression were evaluated in genetically hypercholesterolemic (RICO) rats. Simvastatin administration caused a decrease in plasma triglyceride and phospholipid concentrations. Plasma cholesterol concentration was not changed by simvastatin, but cholesterol distribution among plasma lipoproteins was altered. Plasma apo B, apo A-I, and apo A-IV concentrations were lowered by simvastatin treatment whereas plasma apo E concentration was not affected by this drug. In the liver, simvastatin treatment induced a significant decrease of apo E mRNA level but had no effect on apo B, apo A-I, and apo A-IV mRNA abundances. It appears that simvastatin may modify plasma apolipoprotein concentrations by influencing their hepatic synthesis at both pre- and posttranscriptional levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Felgines
- Laboratoire des Maladies Métaboliques, INRA, Theix, St Genès Champanelle, France
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Ziegler K, Hummelsiep S. Hepatoselective carrier-mediated sodium-independent uptake of pravastatin and pravastatin-lactone. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1993; 1153:23-33. [PMID: 8241247 DOI: 10.1016/0005-2736(93)90272-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Pravastatin and pravastatin-lactone are not taken up into extrahepatic cells such as fibroblasts, or hepatoma cells such as AS-30D ascites hepatoma cells or FAO cells. In contrast, pravastatin is taken up into isolated rat hepatocytes by a carrier mediated, saturable, temperature-dependent and energy-dependent mechanism. The kinetic parameters for the saturable uptake are Km 27 microM, Vmax 537 pmol/mg per min. The permeability coefficients were determined to be 9.829 x 10(-7) cm/s at 4 degrees C, 1.76 x 10(-6) cm/s at 7 degrees C, 3.85 x 10(-6) cm/s at 17 degrees C and 5.82 x 10(-6) cm/s at 37 degrees C. The activation energy is 60 kJ/mol for 100 microM pravastatin at 37 degrees C. The Q10 values are between 1.7 and 2.8. In the presence of metabolic inhibitors and in the absence of oxygen, transport is inhibited. Uptake of pravastatin is not dependent on an extracellular to intracellular sodium-gradient. Replacement of chloride by sulfate, nitrate, gluconate or thiocyanate significantly inhibits the uptake of pravastatin. Uptake is competitively inhibited by cholate and taurocholate in the presence and absence of sodium. Pravastatin, however, competitively inhibits the uptake of cholate and taurocholate only in the absence of sodium. In addition, pravastatin-lactone enters liver cells via an energy-dependent, carrier-mediated uptake system. For the saturable energy-dependent part of the hepatocellular uptake a Km value of 9 microM and a Vmax value of 621 pmol/mg per min was determined. The permeability coefficient of pravastatin-lactone uptake is calculated to be 5.41 x 10(-6) cm/s at 37 degrees C. The uptake of pravastatin-lactone is competitively-noncompetitively inhibited by pravastatin and by lovastatin and vice versa. These results indicate that the hepatoselectivity of pravastatin is due to its carrier-mediated uptake into rat hepatocytes via a sodium-independent bile acid carrier. Pravastatin-lactone resembles pravastatin-sodium in its hepatoselectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Ziegler
- Institut für Pharmakologie und Toxikologie der Justus-Liebig Universität, Giessen, Germany
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Corsini A, Mazzotti M, Raiteri M, Soma MR, Gabbiani G, Fumagalli R, Paoletti R. Relationship between mevalonate pathway and arterial myocyte proliferation: in vitro studies with inhibitors of HMG-CoA reductase. Atherosclerosis 1993; 101:117-25. [PMID: 8216498 DOI: 10.1016/0021-9150(93)90107-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 171] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
The role of mevalonate and its products (isoprenoids) in the control of cellular proliferation was examined by investigating the effect of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase inhibitors (vastatins) on growth and on cholesterol biosynthesis of cultured arterial myocytes (SMC). Simvastatin (S) and fluvastatin (F), but not pravastatin (P), decreased the rate of growth of rat vascular SMC. The inhibition, evaluated as cell number, was dose-dependent with IC50 values of 2.8 and 2.2 microM for S and F, respectively; P (1-500 microM) was inactive. The inhibition of cell growth induced by 3.5 microM S (70% decrease) was prevented completely by the addition of 100 microM mevalonate, partially (70-85%) by the addition of 10 microM geraniol, 10 microM farnesol and 5 microM geranylgeraniol, but not by the addition of squalene, confirming the specific role of isoprenoid metabolites in regulating cell proliferation. All the tested vastatins inhibited the incorporation of [14C]acetate into cholesterol but P had 800 times lower potency than S and F. Similar results were obtained in SMC from human femoral artery. At least 80% inhibition of cholesterol synthesis was necessary to induce a decrease in SMC proliferation. To further investigate the relationship between cholesterol synthesis and cell growth, two enantiomers of F were investigated. The enantiomer more active on HMG-CoA reductase was 70- and 1.6-fold more potent on arterial myocyte proliferation than its antipode and the racemic mixture, respectively.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
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MESH Headings
- Acyclic Monoterpenes
- Animals
- Aorta/cytology
- Cell Division/drug effects
- Cells, Cultured
- Cholesterol/biosynthesis
- Diterpenes/pharmacology
- Dose-Response Relationship, Drug
- Farnesol/pharmacology
- Fatty Acids, Monounsaturated/pharmacology
- Femoral Artery/cytology
- Femoral Artery/drug effects
- Femoral Artery/metabolism
- Fluvastatin
- Humans
- Hydroxymethylglutaryl-CoA Reductase Inhibitors
- Indoles/pharmacology
- Lovastatin/analogs & derivatives
- Lovastatin/pharmacology
- Male
- Mevalonic Acid/metabolism
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/cytology
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/drug effects
- Muscle, Smooth, Vascular/metabolism
- Pravastatin/pharmacology
- Rats
- Rats, Sprague-Dawley
- Simvastatin
- Squalene/pharmacology
- Terpenes/pharmacology
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Affiliation(s)
- A Corsini
- Institute of Pharmacological Sciences, University of Milan, Italy
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Abstract
The mechanisms of action and selected agents for a variety of approaches to the treatment of atherosclerosis have been reviewed. In Table I, each approach is listed according to its primary physiological effect. This is a simplification, of course, and some agents, such as ACAT inhibitors, may have primary effects in all of these categories. As one goes from left to right, the benefit of each physiological effect becomes more speculative. There is no question of the benefit of LDL reduction, but less evidence exists for the clinical benefits of HDL elevation. With regard to direct anti-atherosclerotic effects, most approaches have yet to gather clinical data of any type. Perhaps as a result, the degree of medicinal chemistry effort in each area to date declines as one goes from left to right. This situation is changing rapidly, however. As evidence supporting the HDL hypothesis accumulates and knowledge of how to elevate HDL levels grows, very exciting opportunities for medical advances present themselves. Likewise, the knowledge base for nonlipid intervention is growing and very rapid advances are being achieved with the plaque-imaging techniques needed for evaluating such agents in man. Such results can only lead to greater opportunities for pharmacological intervention. Thus, in the future, much greater research effort will likely be dedicated to HDL elevation and nonlipid approaches. Through these efforts, physicians of the future should be armed with several complementary agents that can reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease in all patient populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- P A McCarthy
- Medicinal Chemistry Department, Central Research, Pfizer, Inc., Groton, CT 06340
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Regan JR, Bruno JG, Gustafson K, Amin D, Neuenschwander K, Perrone M. Inhibitors of HMG-CoA reductase. Biological effects of A 6-[2-[2-(4-fluoro-3-methylphenyl)-4-substituted cyclohexe-1-en-1-yl]ethenyl]-4-hydroxy-3,4,5,6-tetrahydro-2h-pyran-2-one. Eur J Med Chem 1992. [DOI: 10.1016/0223-5234(92)90095-i] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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Koga T, Fukuda K, Shimada Y, Fukami M, Koike H, Tsujita Y. Tissue selectivity of pravastatin sodium, lovastatin and simvastatin. The relationship between inhibition of de novo sterol synthesis and active drug concentrations in the liver, spleen and testis in rat. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 1992; 209:315-9. [PMID: 1396707 DOI: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1992.tb17291.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Tissue selectivity of pravastatin sodium (pravastatin), lovastatin and simvastatin, 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase inhibitors was examined by measuring inhibition of de novo sterol synthesis and active drug concentrations in the liver, spleen and testis in rats after a single oral administration (25 mg/kg) of these drugs. Regarding tissue drug concentrations, all three drugs were liver selective: concentrations of drugs in the liver were about ten-times higher than those in the spleen and testis. On the other hand, pravastatin was far more liver selective in inhibiting sterol synthesis than two other inhibitors: pravastatin inhibited de novo sterol synthesis in the liver but minimally in the spleen and testis, whereas lovastatin and simvastatin inhibited in all three tissues. Microautoradiographic and in vitro cellular-uptake studies demonstrated that pravastatin remained in the extracellular space in the spleen, whereas the other drugs entered the cell. We conclude that pravastatin exhibits a liver-selective inhibition of sterol synthesis because the agent permeates the cell membrane in the liver, but not in non-hepatic tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Koga
- Biological Research Laboratories, Sankyo Co., Ltd, Tokyo, Japan
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47
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Sit S, Parker RA, Wright J. Synthesis of tetrazol-1-yl analogs of HMG-COA reductase inhibitor BMS180431 (formerly BMY21950). Bioorg Med Chem Lett 1992. [DOI: 10.1016/s0960-894x(00)80623-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Powell EE, Kroon PA. Liver, lipoproteins and disease: II. Clinical relevance of disordered cholesterol metabolism in liver disease. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 1992; 7:225-31. [PMID: 1571508 DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-1746.1992.tb00966.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
The alterations in the concentration and composition of lipoproteins that occur in liver disease indicate the central role of the liver in lipoprotein metabolism. A number of studies have characterized plasma lipoproteins in patients with liver disease, although in most cases the underlying molecular defects responsible for the changes are still undetermined.
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Affiliation(s)
- E E Powell
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Queensland, Royal Brisbane Hospital, Australia
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49
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Bocan TM, Ferguson E, McNally W, Uhlendorf PD, Bak Mueller S, Dehart P, Sliskovic DR, Roth BD, Krause BR, Newton RS. Hepatic and nonhepatic sterol synthesis and tissue distribution following administration of a liver selective HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor, CI-981: comparison with selected HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA 1992; 1123:133-44. [PMID: 1739744 DOI: 10.1016/0005-2760(92)90103-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Since cholesterol biosynthesis is an integral part of cellular metabolism, several HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors were systematically analyzed in in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo sterol synthesis assays using [14C]acetate incorporation into digitonin precipitable sterols as a marker of cholesterol synthesis. Tissue distribution of radiolabeled CI-981 and lovastatin was also performed. In vitro, CI-981 and PD134967-15 were equipotent in liver, spleen, testis and adrenal, lovastatin was more potent in extrahepatic tissues than liver and BMY21950, pravastatin and PD135023-15 were more potent in liver than peripheral tissues. In ex vivo assays, all inhibitors except lovastatin preferentially inhibited liver sterol synthesis; however, pravastatin and BMY22089 were strikingly less potent in the liver. CI-981 inhibited sterol synthesis in vivo in the liver, spleen and adrenal while not affecting the testis, kidney, muscle and brain. Lovastatin inhibited sterol synthesis to a greater extent than CI-981 in the spleen, adrenal and kidney while pravastatin and BMY22089 primarily affected liver and kidney. The tissue distribution of radiolabeled CI-981 and lovastatin support the changes observed in tissue sterol synthesis. Thus, we conclude that a spectrum of liver selective HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors exist and that categorizing agents as liver selective is highly dependent upon method of analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- T M Bocan
- Department of Pharmacology, Parke-Davis Pharmaceutical Research Division, Warner-Lambert Company, Ann Arbor, MI 48105
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