Dietary omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids from fish oil reduce interleukin-12 and interferon-gamma production in mice

The Effect of Increasing Concentrations of Omega-3 Fatty Acids from either Flaxseed Oil or Preformed Docosahexaenoic Acid on Fatty Acid Composition, Plasma Oxylipin, and Immune Response of Laying Hens

BACKGROUND

There is a lack of nutrition guidelines for the feeding of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) to laying hens. Knowledge as to whether the type and concentrations of α-linolenic acid (ALA) and/or docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in the diet can make a difference to the birds' immune responses when subjected to a lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge is limited.

OBJECTIVES

The study was designed to determine the potential nutritional and health benefits to laying hens when receiving dietary omega-3 PUFA from either ALA or DHA.

METHODS

A total of 80 Lohmann LSL-Classic (white egg layer, 20 wk old) were randomly assigned to 1 of 8 treatment diets (10 hens/treatment), provided 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, or 0.8% of total dietary omega-3 PUFA, provided as either ALA-rich flaxseed oil or DHA-enriched algal biomass. After an 8-wk feeding period, the birds were challenged with Escherichia coli-derived LPS (8 mg/kg; i.v. injection), with terminal sample collection 4 h after challenge. Egg yolk, plasma, liver, and spleen samples were collected for subsequent analyses.

RESULTS

Increasing dietary omega-3 supplementation yielded predictable responses in egg yolk, plasma, and liver fatty acid concentrations. Dietary intake of ALA contributed mainly to ALA-derived oxylipins. Meanwhile, eicosapentaenoic acid- and DHA-derived oxylipins were primarily influenced by DHA dietary intake. LPS increased the concentrations of almost all the omega-6 PUFA-, ALA-, and DHA-derived oxylipins in plasma and decreased hepatic mRNA expression of COX-2 and 5-LOX (P < 0.001) involved in the biosynthesis of oxylipins. LPS also increased mRNA expression of proinflammatory cytokine IFN-γ and receptor TLR-4 (P < 0.001) in the spleen.

CONCLUSIONS

These results revealed that dietary intake of ALA and DHA had unique impacts on fatty acid deposition and their derived oxylipins and inflammatory responses under the administration of LPS in laying hens.

Effects of Vitamin D3 and Marine Omega-3 Fatty Acids Supplementation on Biomarkers of Systemic Inflammation: 4-Year Findings from the VITAL Randomized Trial

Background: The VITAL study was a nationwide, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, 2 × 2 factorial trial of vitamin D3 (2000 IU/day) and marine n-3 FAs (1 g/day) supplements. We recently reported that vitamin D supplementation with or without omega 3 fatty acids reduced autoimmune disease by 22% in the VITAL study. Objective: To investigate the effects of vitamin D3 and/or n-3 FAs on changes in systemic inflammatory biomarkers including pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines over a 4-year period in the VITAL sub-cohort with in-person evaluations at the Center for Clinical Investigations (CCI) in Boston. Design: Serum levels of four inflammatory biomarkers (high-sensitivity C-reactive protein [hs-CRP], interleukin-6, interleukin-10, and tumor necrosis factor-α) were measured in a total of 2713 samples from those 1054 VITAL/CCI participants (aged 64.9 ± 6.5 years, 49% female, 84% white, and 9% black) at baseline, year 2, and year 4 follow-up visits. Results: In multiple-adjusted models, vitamin D3 supplementation decreased serum hs-CRP levels by 19% at 2-year follow-up (nominal p = 0.007; p-value after multiple comparison adjustment = 0.028), but not at 4-year follow-up (nominal and adjusted p-values > 0.05). The effects of vitamin D3 on other inflammatory markers were not statistically significant either at year 2 or year 4 (all adjusted p-values > 0.05). Marine n-3 FAs were not significantly associated with changes of all the above inflammatory markers either at years 2 and 4, after multiple comparison adjustment (all p-values > 0.05). Conclusions: Vitamin D3 supplementation with or without n-3 FAs decreased hs-CRP by 19% at year 2, but not other inflammatory biomarkers at year 2 or year 4, while n-3 FAs with or without vitamin D3 did not significantly affect these biomarkers at either time point. Our findings support a potential role of vitamin D supplementation in modulating the chronic inflammatory process, systemic inflammation, and possibly autoimmune disease progression.

Long Chain Fatty Acids as Modulators of Immune Cells Function: Contribution of FFA1 and FFA4 Receptors

Long-chain fatty acids are molecules that act as metabolic intermediates and constituents of membranes; however, their novel role as signaling molecules in immune function has also been demonstrated. The presence of free fatty acid (FFA) receptors on immune cells has contributed to the understanding of this new role of long-chain fatty acids (LCFAs) in immune function, showing their role as anti-inflammatory or pro-inflammatory molecules and elucidating their intracellular mechanisms. The FFA1 and FFA4 receptors, also known as GPR40 and GPR120, respectively, have been described in macrophages and neutrophils, two key cells mediating innate immune response. Ligands of the FFA1 and FFA4 receptors induce the release of a myriad of cytokines through well-defined intracellular signaling pathways. In this review, we discuss the cellular responses and intracellular mechanisms activated by LCFAs, such as oleic acid, linoleic acid, palmitic acid, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), in T-cells, macrophages, and neutrophils, as well as the role of the FFA1 and FFA4 receptors in immune cells.

Dietary Fish, Fish Nutrients, and Immune Function: A Review

Dietary habits have a major impact on the development and function of the immune system. This impact is mediated both by the intrinsic nutritional and biochemical qualities of the diet, and by its influence on the intestinal microbiota. Fish as a food is rich in compounds with immunoregulatory properties, among them omega-3 fatty acids, melatonin, tryptophan, taurine and polyamines. In addition, regular fish consumption favors the proliferation of beneficial members of the intestinal microbiota, like short-chain fatty acid-producing bacteria. By substituting arachidonic acid in the eicosanoid biosynthesis pathway, long-chain omega-3 fatty acids from fish change the type of prostaglandins, leukotrienes and thromboxanes being produced, resulting in anti-inflammatory properties. Further, they also are substrates for the production of specialized pro-resolving mediators (SPMs) (resolvins, protectins, and maresins), lipid compounds that constitute the physiological feedback signal to stop inflammation and give way to tissue reparation. Evidence from human observational and interventional studies shows that regular fish consumption is associated with reduced incidence of chronic inflammatory conditions like rheumatoid arthritis, and that continuous infusion of fish oil to tube-fed, critically ill patients may improve important outcomes in the ICU. There is also evidence from animal models showing that larger systemic concentrations of omega-3 fatty acids may counter the pathophysiological cascade that leads to psoriasis. The knowledge gained over the last few decades merits future exploration of the potential role of fish and its components in other conditions characterized by deregulated activation of immune cells and a cytokine storm like viral sepsis or COVID-19.

Liver Transcriptome Profiling Reveals That Dietary DHA and EPA Levels Influence Suites of Genes Involved in Metabolism, Redox Homeostasis, and Immune Function in Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar)

The optimal dietary requirement of omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω3 LC-PUFA), namely docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), for Atlantic salmon that promotes growth and health warrants careful investigation. We used 44K microarrays to study the influence of increasing levels of dietary DHA + EPA (0, 1.0, and 1.4% of the diet, as formulated) in the presence of high linoleic acid (LA) on Atlantic salmon growth and liver transcriptome. After a 14-week feeding trial, Atlantic salmon fed diet ω3LC0 (i.e. 0% of DHA + EPA) showed significantly lower final weight and weight gain, and higher feed conversion ratio compared with ω3LC1.0 and ω3LC1.4 diet groups. The microarray experiment identified 55 and 77 differentially expressed probes (Rank Products analyses; PFP < 10%) in salmon fed diets ω3LC1.4 and ω3LC1.0 compared with those fed diet ω3LC0, respectively. The comparison between ω3LC1.4 and ω3LC1.0 revealed 134 differentially expressed probes. The microarray results were confirmed by qPCR analyses of 22 microarray-identified transcripts. Several key genes involved in fatty acid metabolism including LC-PUFA synthesis were upregulated in fish fed ω3LC0 compared with both other groups. Hierarchical clustering and linear regression analyses of liver qPCR and fatty acid composition data demonstrated significant correlations. In the current study, 1.0% ω3 LC-PUFA seemed to be the minimum requirement for Atlantic salmon based on growth performance; however, multivariate statistical analyses (PERMANOVA and SIMPER) showed that fish fed ω3LC1.0 and ω3LC1.4 diets had similar hepatic fatty acid profiles but marked differences in the transcript expression of biomarker genes involved in redox homeostasis (mgst1), immune responses (mxb, igmb, irf3, lect2a, srk2, and lyz2), and LC-PUFA synthesis (srebp1, fadsd5, and elovl2). This research has provided new insights into dietary requirement of DHA and EPA and their impact on physiologically important pathways in addition to lipid metabolism in Atlantic salmon.

Omega 3 Supplementation Can Regulate Inflammatory States in Gas Station Workers: A Double-Blind Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial

Environmental exposure to diesel particulate matter and commercial gasoline in gas station workers might induce oxidative stress and changes in the balance of the immune system. In this study, the immunomodulatory impacts of omega 3 fatty acid (ω3FA) supplement were assessed on inflammatory and anti-inflammatory markers in gas station workers in a double-blind placebo-controlled clinical trial. Fifty-three men working in gas stations were treated with ω3FA (n = 29) or placebo (n = 24) for 60 days. C-reactive protein, interleukin-12 (IL-12), transforming growth factor β (TGF-β), interferon γ (IFN-γ), tumor necrosis factor α, IL-10, and IL-17 levels were measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay method before and after the completion of the trial. The concentrations of IFN-γ and IL-17 were significantly decreased in ω3FA group compared with the placebo group (P < 0.001). Moreover, the levels of inhibitory cytokines including TGF-β and IL-10 significantly were increased in ω3FA group (P < 0.001). Overall, ω3FA nutritional supplementation can be useful in reducing inflammatory immune responses and maintaining immune tolerance in people with high exposure to inflammation-inducing factors. [Figure: see text].

Samsum ant venom modulates the immune response and redox status at the acute toxic dose in vivo

Background:

Ant venoms express surface molecules that participate in antigen presentation involving pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines. This work aims to investigate the expression of MHC-II, CD80 and CD86 on the polymorphonuclear cells (PMNs) in rats injected with samsum ant venom (SAV).

Methods:

Rats were divided into three groups - control, SAV-treated (intraperitoneal route, 600 μg/kg), and SAV-treated (subcutaneous route, 600 μg/kg). After five doses, animals were euthanized and samples collected for analysis.

Results:

The subcutaneous SAV-trated rats presented decreased levels of glutathione with increased cholesterol and triglyceride levels. Intraperitoneal SAV-treated animals displayed significantly reduced concentrations of both IFN-γ and IL-17 in comparison with the control group. However, intraperitoneal and subcutaneous SAV-treated rats were able to upregulate the expressions of MHC-II, CD80 and CD86 on PMNs in comparison with the control respectively. The histological examination showed severe lymphocyte depletion in the splenic white pulp of the intraperitoneal SAV-injected rats.

Conclusion:

Stimulation of PMNs by SAV leads to upregulation of MHC-II, CD 80, and CD 86, which plays critical roles in antigen presentation and consequently proliferation of T-cells. Subcutaneous route was more efficient than intraperitoneal by elevating MHC-II, CD80 and CD86 expression, disturbing oxidative stability and increasing lipogram concentration.

Exposure to a Farm Environment During Pregnancy Increases the Proportion of Arachidonic Acid in the Cord Sera of Offspring

Growing up in a farm environment is protective against allergy development. Various explanations have been put forward to explain this association. Fatty acids are regulators of immune function and the composition of fatty acids in the circulation system may affect immune development. Here, we investigate whether the fatty acid composition of cord serum differs for infants born to Farm (n = 26) or non-Farm mothers (n =29) in the FARMFLORA birth-cohort. For comparison, the levels of fatty acids in the maternal diet, serum and breast milk around 1 month post-partum were recorded. The fatty acids in the cord sera from infants born to Farm mothers had higher proportions of arachidonic acid (20:4 n-6) and adrenic acid (22:4 n-6) than those from infants born to non-Farm mothers. No differences were found for either arachidonic acid or adrenic acid in the diet, samples of the serum, or breast milk from Farm and non-Farm mothers obtained around 1 month post-partum. The arachidonic and adrenic acid levels in the cord blood were unrelated to allergy outcome for the infants. The results suggest that a farm environment may be associated with the fatty acid composition to which the fetus is exposed during pregnancy.

Short-term consumption of a high-fat diet increases host susceptibility to Listeria monocytogenes infection

BACKGROUND

A westernized diet comprising a high caloric intake from animal fats is known to influence the development of pathological inflammatory conditions. However, there has been relatively little focus upon the implications of such diets for the progression of infectious disease. Here, we investigated the influence of a high-fat (HF) diet upon parameters that influence Listeria monocytogenes infection in mice.

RESULTS

We determined that short-term administration of a HF diet increases the number of goblet cells, a known binding site for the pathogen, in the gut and also induces profound changes to the microbiota and promotes a pro-inflammatory gene expression profile in the host. Host physiological changes were concordant with significantly increased susceptibility to oral L. monocytogenes infection in mice fed a HF diet relative to low fat (LF)- or chow-fed animals. Prior to Listeria infection, short-term consumption of HF diet elevated levels of Firmicutes including Coprococcus, Butyricicoccus, Turicibacter and Clostridium XIVa species. During active infection with L. monocytogenes, microbiota changes were further exaggerated but host inflammatory responses were significantly downregulated relative to Listeria-infected LF- or chow-fed groups, suggestive of a profound tempering of the host response influenced by infection in the context of a HF diet. The effects of diet were seen beyond the gut, as a HF diet also increased the sensitivity of mice to systemic infection and altered gene expression profiles in the liver.

CONCLUSIONS

We adopted a systems approach to identify the effects of HF diet upon L. monocytogenes infection through analysis of host responses and microbiota changes (both pre- and post-infection). Overall, the results indicate that short-term consumption of a westernized diet has the capacity to significantly alter host susceptibility to L. monocytogenes infection concomitant with changes to the host physiological landscape. The findings suggest that diet should be a consideration when developing models that reflect human infectious disease.

Rubber seed oil and flaxseed oil supplementation on serum fatty acid profile, oxidation stability of serum and milk, and immune function of dairy cows

Objective

This study was designed to investigate the effect of diet supplementation with rubber seed oil and flaxseed oil on serum fatty acids profile, oxidation stability of serum and milk, and immune function of dairy cows.

Methods

Forty-eight mid-lactation Holstein dairy cows were randomly assigned to one of four treatments for 8 wk, including basal diet (CON) or the basal diet supplemented with 4% rubber seed oil (RO), 4% flaxseed oil (FO) or 2% rubber seed oil plus 2% flaxseed oil (RFO) on a dry matter basis.

Results

Compared with CON, all the oil groups increased the levels of trans-11 C18:1 (vaccenic acid), cis-9, trans-11 C18:2 (conjugated linoleic acid, CLA) and C18:3 (α-linolenic acid, ALA) in serum. Both the activity of glutathione peroxidase and catalase in serum and milk in oil groups were decreased, which were negatively correlated with the levels of cis-9, trans-11 CLA and ALA. The concentrations of proinflammatory factors (tumor necrosis factor α and interferon γ) in serum of oil groups were lower than that from the CON cows.

Conclusion

These results indicate that diet supplementation with RO or FO could alter serum fatty acid profile and enhance the immune function of dairy cows. However, the negative effect on milk oxidation stability should be considered when feeding these n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid-enriched oils in dairy production.

On growth performance, nutrient digestibility, blood T lymphocyte subsets, and cardiac antioxidant status of broilers

Different lipid sources differ in the fatty acid profiles and differently affect growth performance as well as immune function of broilers. The influences of different dietary lipid sources on growth performance, nutrient digestibility, blood T lymphocyte population, and cardiac antioxidant status were investigated of broilers. A total of 360 one-day-old male broilers (BW = 44 ± 3 g) were randomized into 3 treatment groups, consisting of 6 replicates with 20 birds in each group. Broilers received standard diets supplemented with 5% (wt/wt) of lard (LD, as a control diet), sesame oil (SO), or flaxseed oil (FO). Broilers in both SO and FO treatment groups had lower (P < 0.05) feed conversion ratios from 22 to 42 d and during the overall phase compared to those in LD treatment group. Meanwhile, the apparent total tract nutrient digestibility of crude fat in SO and FO treatment groups was higher than that in LD treatment group. Both FO and SO treatments decreased (P < 0.05) abdominal fat percentage compared to LD treatment. Total triglycerides and total cholesterol in chicken blood were decreased (P < 0.05) by SO and FO treatments compared to LD treatment. Feeding broilers with FO and SO led to a decrease (P < 0.05) in blood CD4⁺ T lymphocyte count and in CD4⁺:CD8⁺ ratio compared to LD treatment. Sesame oil and FO treatments increased cardiac glutathione peroxidase (P < 0.05) compared to LD treatment. It is concluded that addition of 5% SO and FO to the standard corn-soybean meal diet improved feed efficiency, increased the activities of cardiac glutathione peroxidase, and affected the T lymphocytes ratio of fast growing broilers.

Liquid Crystalline Nanostructures as PEGylated Reservoirs of Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids: Structural Insights toward Delivery Formulations against Neurodegenerative Disorders

Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω-3 PUFAs) are bioactive lipids with considerable impact in medicine and nutrition. These compounds exert structuring effects on the cellular membrane organization, regulate the gene expression, and modulate various signaling cascades and metabolic processes. The purpose of the present work is to demonstrate the structural features of ω-3 PUFA-containing three-dimensional supramolecular lipid assemblies suitable for pharmaceutical applications that require soft porous carriers. We investigate the liquid crystalline structures formed upon mixing of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5) with the lyotropic nonlamellar lipid monoolein and the formation of multicompartment assemblies. Starting with the monoolein-based lipid cubic phase, double membrane vesicles, cubosome precursors, sponge-type particles (spongosomes), mixed intermediate nonlamellar structures, and multicompartment assemblies are obtained through self-assembly at different amphiphilic compositions. The dispersions containing spongosomes as well as nanocarriers with oil and vesicular compartments are stabilized by PEGylation of the lipid/water interfaces using a phospholipid with a poly(ethylene glycol) chain. The microstructures of the bulk mixtures were examined by cross-polarized light optical microscopy. The dispersed liquid crystalline structures and intermediate states were studied by small-angle X-ray scattering, cryogenic transmission electron microscopy, and quasielastic light scattering techniques. They established that PUFA influences the phase type and the sizes of the aqueous compartments of the liquid crystalline carriers. The resulting multicompartment systems and stealth nanosponges may serve as mesoporous reservoirs for coencapsulation of ω-3 PUFA (e.g., EPA) with water-insoluble drugs and hydrophilic macromolecules toward development of combination treatment strategies of neurodegenerative and other diseases.

The Unique Molecular and Cellular Microenvironment of Ovarian Cancer

The reciprocal interplay of cancer cells and host cells is an indispensable prerequisite for tumor growth and progression. Cells of both the innate and adaptive immune system, in particular tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) and T cells, as well as cancer-associated fibroblasts enter into a malicious liaison with tumor cells to create a tumor-promoting and immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). Ovarian cancer, the most lethal of all gynecological malignancies, is characterized by a unique TME that enables specific and efficient metastatic routes, impairs immune surveillance, and mediates therapy resistance. A characteristic feature of the ovarian cancer TME is the role of resident host cells, in particular activated mesothelial cells, which line the peritoneal cavity in huge numbers, as well as adipocytes of the omentum, the preferred site of metastatic lesions. Another crucial factor is the peritoneal fluid, which enables the transcoelomic spread of tumor cells to other pelvic and peritoneal organs, and occurs at more advanced stages as a malignancy-associated effusion. This ascites is rich in tumor-promoting soluble factors, extracellular vesicles and detached cancer cells as well as large numbers of T cells, TAMs, and other host cells, which cooperate with resident host cells to support tumor progression and immune evasion. In this review, we summarize and discuss our current knowledge of the cellular and molecular interactions that govern this interplay with a focus on signaling networks formed by cytokines, lipids, and extracellular vesicles; the pathophysiologial roles of TAMs and T cells; the mechanism of transcoelomic metastasis; and the cell type selective processing of signals from the TME.

Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms in the FADS Gene Cluster but not the ELOVL2 Gene are Associated with Serum Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Composition and Development of Allergy (in a Swedish Birth Cohort)

Exposure to polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) influences immune function and may affect the risk of allergy development. Long chain PUFAs are produced from dietary precursors catalyzed by desaturases and elongases encoded by FADS and ELOVL genes. In 211 subjects, we investigated whether polymorphisms in the FADS gene cluster and the ELOVL2 gene were associated with allergy or PUFA composition in serum phospholipids in a Swedish birth-cohort sampled at birth and at 13 years of age; allergy was diagnosed at 13 years of age. Minor allele carriers of rs102275 and rs174448 (FADS gene cluster) had decreased proportions of 20:4 n-6 in cord and adolescent serum and increased proportions of 20:3 n-6 in cord serum as well as a nominally reduced risk of developing atopic eczema, but not respiratory allergy, at 13 years of age. Minor allele carriers of rs17606561 in the ELOVL2 gene had nominally decreased proportions of 20:4 n-6 in cord serum but ELOVL polymorphisms (rs2236212 and rs17606561) were not associated with allergy development. Thus, reduced capacity to desaturase n-6 PUFAs due to FADS polymorphisms was nominally associated with reduced risk for eczema development, which could indicate a pathogenic role for long-chain PUFAs in allergy development.

High levels of both n-3 and n-6 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in cord serum phospholipids predict allergy development

BACKGROUND

Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs) reduce T-cell activation and dampen inflammation. They might thereby counteract the neonatal immune activation and hamper normal tolerance development to harmless environmental antigens. We investigated whether fatty acid composition of cord serum phospholipids affects allergy development up to age 13 years.

METHODS

From a population-based birth-cohort born in 1996/7 and followed until 13 years of age (n = 794), we selected cases with atopic eczema (n = 37) or respiratory allergy (n = 44), as well as non-allergic non-sensitized controls (n = 48) based on diagnosis at 13 years of age. Cord and maternal sera obtained at delivery from cases and controls were analysed for proportions of saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids among serum phospholipids.

RESULTS

The cord serum phospholipids from subject who later developed either respiratory allergy or atopic eczema had significantly higher proportions of 5/8 LCPUFA species, as well as total n-3 LCPUFA, total n-6 LCPUFA and total LCPUFA compared to cord serum phospholipids from controls who did not develop allergy (P<0.001 for all comparisons). Conversely, individuals later developing allergy had lower proportion of the monounsaturated fatty acid 18∶1n-9 as well as total MUFA (p<0.001) among cord serum phospholipids. The risk of respiratory allergy at age 13 increased linearly with the proportion of n-3 LCPUFA (Ptrend<0.001), n-6 LCPUFA (Ptrend = 0.001), and total LCPUFA (Ptrend<0.001) and decreased linearly with the proportions of total MUFA (Ptrend = 0.025) in cord serum phospholipids. Furthermore, Kaplan-Meier estimates of allergy development demonstrated that total LCPUFA proportion in cord serum phospholipids was significantly associated with respiratory allergy (P = 0.008) and sensitization (P = 0.002), after control for sex and parental allergy.

CONCLUSION

A high proportion of long-chain PUFAs among cord serum phospholipids may predispose to allergy development. The mechanism is unknown, but may involve dampening of the physiologic immune activation in infancy needed for proper maturation of the infant's immune system.

Modulation of post-hatch growth and immunity through in ovo supplemented nutrients in broiler chickens

BACKGROUND

Early post-hatch growth and immunity were assessed through in ovo supplementation of nutrients: amino acids (AA), trace elements (TE), fatty acids and vitamins (FAV) grouped under humoral immunity (HI) or cell-mediated immunity (CMI) on the 18th day of incubation at the broad end of the egg using a 25 mm needle.

RESULTS

Hatchability in AA groups was better than TE and FAV groups. CMI groups had better hatchability than HI groups. AA and TE groups had higher chick-to-egg weight ratio (P < 0.01) than the FAV group. At 3 weeks of age, a higher body weight (P < 0.01) was recorded in AA for CMI, TE for HI and FAV for HI groups. FAV-injected chicks had a higher bursa weight at hatch, but TE chicks had higher thymus weight at the 3rd week of age. Humoral immune response was not different in in ovo injected chicks compared to control. CMI was higher (P < 0.01) in AA for CMI, TE for CMI and FAV for CMI or HI nutrient-injected chicks.

CONCLUSIONS

In ovo injection of AA for CMI and TE for HI may accelerate growth of broiler chickens. In ovo injection of AA, TE or FAV may modulate CMI in chicks.

Acquired resistance to Listeria monocytogenes during a secondary infection in a murine model fed dietary lipids

OBJECTIVE

The ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids can suppress immune system functions. This property may cause adverse effects by impairing host resistance to infection. The present study focused on estimating the impact of different dietary lipids on the immune system of mice after a secondary infection with Listeria monocytogenes.

METHODS

BALB/c mice were divided into five dietary groups of olive oil, fish oil, sunflower oil, high-oleic sunflower oil, or low fat that was administered for 8 wk. The mice were immunized with 10(3) colony-forming units. Thirty-eight days later, each mouse was challenged with 10(4) colony-forming units. Mice survival and bacterial clearance from livers and spleens were determined. In addition, cytokine, chemokine, and adhesion molecule productions were quantified from the sera.

RESULTS

Survival percentage in mice fed a fish oil diet was 100% and bacterial numbers from spleen were decreased at 72 h. Interleukin-12, intercellular adhesion molecule-1, and vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 productions were decreased. Levels of tumor necrosis factor-α and interferon-γ were increased, whereas macrophage inflammatory protein-1α (MIP-1α) production was unaltered.

CONCLUSION

Immune defense in mice fed a fish oil diet was improved after secondary exposure, acquiring an adequate resistance. This result could be attributable to an increase of a T-helper type 1 response.

Effects of different doses of free alpha-linolenic acid infused to the duodenum on the immune function of lactating dairy cows

This study investigated the effect of a duodenal infusion of a C18:3 free fatty acid on the immune function of lactating dairy cows. Four primiparous Chinese Holstein cows fitted with duodenal cannulas received 0, 100, 200, 300, and 400 g/d of alpha-linolenic acid (LNA) in a two-treatment crossover design. Blood was collected and serum IgA, IgG, IgM, prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and Th1/Th2 cytokines were determined. Results showed that increasing the supply of LNA to the small intestine of dairy cows linearly increased serum IgG and quadratically enhanced interferon-gamma (p < 0.05), whereas the concentrations of PGE2 declined linearly (p < 0.05) and those of interleukin (IL)-4 tended to decrease (p = 0.08). No difference was observed in serum IgA, IgM or other cytokines, such as IL-2, IL-6 and IL-10. This study demonstrated that in dairy cows, a post-ruminal infusion of high doses of LNA has immunomodulatory effects, possibly associated with a predisposition to a Th1-type response.

Dietary fish oil impairs induction of gamma-interferon and delayed-type hypersensitivity during a systemic Salmonella enteritidis infection in rats

Fish oil that is rich in n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids markedly modulates immunological responses. Literature data indicate that the fish oil reduces cellular immunity and therefore impairs resistance to infections. We have investigated how dietary fish oil affects the immune response against a facultative intracellular pathogen, Salmonella enteritidis. Wistar rats were fed a diet containing 16% (w/w) of either fish oil or corn oil. After a 4-week adaptation period, rats were intraperitoneally challenged with 4 x 10(5) cfu of S. enteritidis. During the 14-day infection period, urine was collected on a daily basis. At days 2 and 14, eight rats per group were sacrificed. Urinary nitrate, used as a marker for NO production, was lower on a fish oil diet during days 3-8. At day 2, serum gamma-interferon was 48 +/- 7 pg/mL in the fish oil-fed rats compared with 162 +/- 52 pg/mL in the corn oil-fed rats. No effects were found on living salmonella in liver and spleen. At day 14, as markers of an impaired T-helper 1 (Th-1) response, a 38% lower delayed-type hypersensitivity responses and a lower salmonella-specific IgG2b were observed in the fish oil-fed rats. Although here dietary fish oil has affected only immune parameters, this impairment of the innate and Th-1-mediated immune response may have implications for the host resistance against other intracellular pathogens.

CD4(+) T-cell activation is differentially modulated by bacteria-primed dendritic cells, but is generally down-regulated by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids

Appropriate activation of CD4(+) T cells is fundamental for efficient initiation and progression of acquired immune responses. Here, we showed that CD4(+) T-cell activation is dependent on changes in membrane n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and is dynamically regulated by the type of signals provided by dendritic cells (DCs). Upon interaction with DCs primed by different concentrations and species of gut bacteria, CD4(+) T cells were activated according to the type of DC stimulus. The levels of CD80 were found to correlate to the levels of expression of CD28 and to the proliferation of CD4(+) T cells, while the presence of CD40 and CD86 on DCs inversely affected inducible costimulator (ICOS) and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen-4 (CTLA-4) levels in CD4(+) T cells. For all DC stimuli, cells high in n-3 PUFAs showed reduced ability to respond to CD28 stimulation, to proliferate, and to express ICOS and CTLA-4. Diminished T-cell receptor (TCR) and CD28 signalling was found to be responsible for n-3 PUFA effects. Thus, the dietary fatty acid composition influences the overall level of CD4(+) T-cell activation induced by DCs, while the priming effect of the DC stimuli modulates CD80, CD86 and CD40 levels, thereby affecting and shaping activation of acquired immunity by differential regulation of proliferation and costimulatory molecule expression in CD4(+) T cells.

Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids (C18:2 omega6 and C18:3 omega3) do not suppress hepatic lipogenesis

Omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids are promoted as beneficial in the prevention of metabolic and cardiovascular diseases. In general, dietary omega 3 fatty acids are derived from plant sources as linolenic acid (LNA, C18:3 omega3) the precursor to eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, C20:5 omega3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, C22:6 omega3). However, it remains unclear if the polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) LNA can provide the same health benefits as the very long chain highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA) EPA and DHA generally derived from oily fish. In this study, mice were fed synthetic diets containing lard (low in PUFA and HUFA), canola oil (to supply PUFA), or a mixture of menhaden and arasco (fish and fungal) oils (to supply HUFA) for 8 weeks. The diets were neither high in calories nor fat, which was supplied at 6%. The lard and canola oil diets resulted in high levels of hepatic triglycerides and cholesterol and elevation of lipogenic gene expression. By comparison livers from mice fed the fish/fungal oil diet had low levels of lipid accumulation and more closely resembled livers from mice fed standard laboratory chow. SREBP1c and PPARgamma gene and protein expression were high in livers of animals fed diets containing lard or canola oil compared with fish/fungal oil. Hepatic fatty acid analyses indicated that dietary PUFA were efficiently converted to HUFA regardless of source. Therefore, differences in hepatic lipid levels and gene expression between dietary groups were due to exogenous fatty acid supplied rather than endogenous pools. These results have important implications for understanding the regulation of hepatic lipogenesis by dietary fatty acids.

Low n-6:n-3 fatty acid ratio, with fish- or flaxseed oil, in a high fat diet improves plasma lipids and beneficially alters tissue fatty acid composition in mice

BACKGROUND

Health benefits from low n-6:n-3 fatty acid (FA) ratio on cardiovascular risk have been shown. However, the impact of the source of n-3 FAs has not been fully investigated.

AIM

Our purpose was to investigate cardiovascular benefits of oils with a low ratio of n-6:n-3 FAs, but different sources of n-3 FAs in C57BL/6 mice.

METHODS

Twenty-one mice were divided into 3 groups (n=7) and fed a diet supplemented with either a fish or flaxseed oil-based 'designer oils' with an approximate n-6:n-3 FA ratio of 2/1 or with a safflower-oil-based diet with a ratio of 25/1, for 16 weeks. Plasma lipids and fatty acid profile of the liver tissue were characterized.

RESULTS

Compared to baseline, plasma triacylglycerol levels declined (>50%) in all groups by week 4. Plasma cholesterol levels were reduced in both fish and flax groups by 27% and 36%, respectively, as compared to controls at endpoint. The levels of EPA and DHA in liver phospholipids were significantly increased in both fish and flax groups as compared to the control group, with more profound increases in the fish group. Arachidonic acid levels were similarly decreased in the liver tissues from both fish and flax groups as compared to controls.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggest that health benefits may be achieved by lowering dietary n-6:n-3 FA even in a high fat diet medium.

The effects of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on TNF-alpha and IL-10 secretion by murine peritoneal cells in vitro

Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) affect immune response, partly by affecting cytokine secretion. Omega-3 PUFA decrease tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha secretion by RAW 264.7 macrophages but increase TNF-alpha secretion by primary elicited peritoneal macrophages in vitro. In this study, the effects of omega-3 and omega-6 PUFA on lipopolysaccharide induced TNF-alpha and interleukin (IL)-10 secretion by murine primary resident and elicited peritoneal macrophages and by RAW 264.7 macrophages, were examined in vitro using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. In addition, the effects of dietary omega-3 PUFA on the number of cells secreting these cytokines were examined with enzyme-linked immunospot assay. All cell types secreted more TNF-alpha but similar amounts of IL-10 when incubated with the omega-3 PUFA, eicosapentaenoic acid or docosahexaenoic acid, compared with that when incubated with the omega-6 PUFA, linoleic acid or arachidonic acid. Dietary fish oil did not affect the number of TNF-alpha secreting resident peritoneal macrophages but decreased the number of macrophages secreting IL-10 ex vivo. These results show that dietary omega-3 PUFA and omega-3 PUFA added to cells in vitro increase TNF-alpha secretion by resident peritoneal macrophages, probably by a direct effect on the cells. In contrast, omega-3 PUFA did not affect IL-10 secretion by the cells but decreased the number of cells secreting IL-10 ex vivo, possibly by affecting cell recruitment, maturation or proliferation.

Fatty acid-mediated inhibition of IL-12 production by murine macrophages is independent of PPARγ

Our laboratory has reported thatn-3 PUFA can reduce host resistance toListeriainfection, in part, by impairingin vivoIL-12 biosynthesis. Recently, PUFA were shown to be ligands for PPAR, a novel family of nuclear receptors with three isoforms: PPARα, PPARδ/β and PPARγ. PPARγ is expressed in immune cells, such as T cells and macrophages. Two PPARγ agonists, 15-deoxy-Δ12,14-prostaglandin (PG) J2and rosiglitazone, have been shown to have immunomodulatory activityin vitro, including inhibiting IL-12 biosynthesis. We hypothesized thatn-3 PUFA inhibit IL-12 production through activating PPARγ. We used thioglycolate-elicited mouse peritoneal macrophages to study the effect of various fatty acids and their oxidized metabolites onin vitroIL-12 production. Our present results demonstrate that bothn-3 andn-6 PUFA can reducein vitroIL-12 biosynthesis, though less potently than 15-deoxy-PGJ2and rosiglitazone. GW9662, a PPARγ antagonist, reversed the inhibitory effect of rosiglitazone, but not that of PUFA. Our present findings suggest that fatty acid-mediated inhibition of IL-12 production is independent of PPARγ.

Conjugated linoleic acid suppresses NF-kappa B activation and IL-12 production in dendritic cells through ERK-mediated IL-10 induction

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) have been shown to modulate immune responses and have therapeutic effects in inflammatory disorders. However, the influence of PUFA on dendritic cells (DC), key cells of the innate immune system in shaping adaptive immune responses, has not yet been defined. In this study, we examine the effects of the cis-9, trans-11 isomer of conjugated linoleic acid (c9, t11-CLA), a dietary PUFA found in meat and dairy products, on murine DC activation. Treatment of DC with c9, t11-CLA suppressed LPS-induced IL-12, enhanced IL-10R expression, and enhanced IL-10 production at the transcriptional and protein level. The suppression of IL-12 by c9, t11-CLA was found to be IL-10 dependent. We investigated the involvement of the MAPK, ERK, and the transcription factor, NF-kappaB, in this IL-10-mediated effect. c9, t11-CLA enhanced ERK activation after LPS stimulation, and inhibition of ERK resulted in abrogation of IL-10 and recovery of IL-12 production. c9, t11-CLA decreased NF-kappaB:DNA binding after LPS stimulation, which was concomitant with delayed translocation of NF-kappaBp65 into the nucleus and an increase in IkappaBalpha. These effects were reversed by addition of a neutralizing anti-IL-10 Ab. Our findings demonstrate that c9, t11-CLA suppresses IL-12 production by LPS-stimulated DC by ERK mediated IL-10-induction. Furthermore, these IL-10-mediated effects are dependent on inhibition of NF-kappaB activation. This is the first study to demonstrate that c9, t11-CLA can enhance transcription and production of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10, while inhibiting the Th1-promoting cytokine IL-12, and may explain certain of its immunosuppressive properties.

Assessment of interleukin-12, gamma interferon, and tumor necrosis factor alpha secretion in sera from mice fed with dietary lipids during different stages of Listeria monocytogenes infection

Recent experimental observations have determined that long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids suppress immune functions and are involved in the reduction of infectious disease resistance. BALB/c mice were fed for 4 weeks with one of four diets containing either olive oil (OO), fish oil (FO), hydrogenated coconut oil, or a low fat level. Interleukin-12p70 (IL-12p70), gamma interferon (IFN-gamma), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) production in the sera of mice fed these diets and challenged with Listeria monocytogenes were determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. In addition, bacterial counts from spleens of mice were carried out at 24, 72, or 96 h of infection. Here, we quantified an initial diminution of production of both IL-12p70 and IFN-gamma, which appear to play an important role in the reduction of host resistance to L. monocytogenes infection. In addition, an efficient elimination of L. monocytogenes was observed in spleens of mice fed a diet containing OO at 96 h of infection, despite reductions in IL-12p70 and TNF-alpha production, suggesting an improvement of immune resistance. Overall, our results indicate that the initial reduction of both IL-12 and IFN-gamma production before L. monocytogenes infection represents the most relevant event that corroborates the impairment of immune resistance by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids during the different stages of infection. However, we speculate that the modulation of other cytokines must be also involved in this response, because the alteration of cytokine production in mice fed an FO diet in a late phase of L. monocytogenes infection was similar to that in mice fed OO, whereas the ability to eliminate this bacterium from the spleen was improved in the latter group.

Dietary (n-3) Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Do Not Affect the In Vivo Development and Function of Listeria-Specific CD4+ and CD8+ Effector and Memory/Effector T Cells in Mice

We previously reported that in a mouse model, a diet high in (n-3) PUFA diminishes host survival following an infection from Listeria monocytogenes, a gram-positive bacterial pathogen. In this study we investigated the impact of (n-3) PUFA on the adaptive immune response to L. monocytogenes. BALB/c mice were fed experimental diets either devoid of or rich in (n-3) PUFA from fish oil for 4 wk and then infected with 10(6) actA-deficient L. monocytogenes. At 7 and 35 d postchallenge, effector and memory/effector T cells in the spleen were enumerated by flow cytometry. Surprisingly, the number of Listeria-specific CD4(+) and CD8(+) effector and memory/effector T cells in the spleen was not affected by (n-3) PUFA. Also, the effector cells derived from mice fed either diet were equally capable of conferring protective immunity upon adoptive transfer to naive recipients. Despite our previous data, which demonstrated that (n-3) PUFA profoundly impaired host resistance to L. monocytogenes, pathogen-specific T cell responses were not substantially affected by dietary (n-3) PUFA.

Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid impairment of early host resistance against Listeria monocytogenes infection is independent of neutrophil infiltration and function

The primary objective of this study was to determine whether the n-3 PUFA-mediated changes in host response to a Listeria monocytogenes infection (e.g., cytokine production and bacterial clearance) were dependent upon neutrophils. Balb/c mice were fed one of two semi-purified diets that contained either 0 or 41 g of n-3 PUFA/kg. After 4 week, mice were injected with a neutrophil-depleting (RB6-8C5) or isotype-control antibody 24 h prior to infection. Bacterial clearance from the liver and spleen at 3 days post-challenge was measured and the concentration of five pro-inflammatory cytokines in sera 24 h post-infection were determined using a novel protein multiplexing kit. We found that neutrophil depletion impaired bacterial clearance independent of the effect of n-3 PUFA. Interestingly, we observed a rather complex interaction between neutrophil-depletion and n-3 PUFA intake on in vivo pro-inflammatory cytokine production. For example, neutrophil depletion elevated circulating IL-6 and MCP-1 (2- to 5-fold; p<0.05) in n-3 PUFA-fed mice, but less so or not at all in mice fed the control diet. In summary, our data suggest that n-3 PUFA-mediated reduction of host resistance to L. monocytogenes is independent of neutrophil activity.

Changes in the immune functions and susceptibility to Listeria monocytogenes infection in mice fed dietary lipids

The direct examination of the effects that fish oil diets (composed of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids) exert on immune system function indicates a reduction of host natural resistance to infectious diseases mainly because of a suppression of immune function generated by the fatty acids contained in this diet. Here, we evaluated the concentration of IL-12, IL-4, prostaglandin E2 and leukotriene B4 in the serum from BALB/c mice receiving four different diets. Each group was fed a diet that differed only in the source of fat: a low-fat diet (2.5% by weight), an olive oil diet (20% by weight), a fish oil diet (20% by weight) or a hydrogenated coconut oil diet (20% by weight). Mice were fed for 4 weeks and then infected with the intracellular pathogen Listeria monocytogenes. An initial reduction in the Th1-type response as a result of a decrease in IL-12p70 secretion, an inefficient action of IL-4 (Th2-type response) and no modification of pro-inflammatory lipid-mediator production could be, at least in part, the key events responsible for the inadequate elimination of L. monocytogenes from the spleens of mice fed a fish oil diet. Furthermore, our results suggest that the type of dietary lipids may affect the circulating concentration of IL-12p70 and IL-4, leading to a modulation in the protective cellular immune response to L. monocytogenes infection.

Fish oil supplementation in pregnancy modifies neonatal progenitors at birth in infants at risk of atopy

Dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) may represent a mode of allergy prevention. Cord blood (CB) CD34+ hemopoietic progenitors are altered in infants at risk of atopy. We therefore studied the effects of dietary n-3 PUFA supplementation during pregnancy on numbers and function of progenitors in neonates at high risk of atopy. In a double-blind study, atopic, pregnant women were randomized to receive fish oil capsules or placebo from 20 wk gestation until delivery. At birth, CB CD34+ cells were isolated and analyzed by flow cytometry for expression of cytokine (IL-5Ralpha, IL-3Ralpha, granulocyte/macrophage colony-stimulating factor Ralpha) or chemokine (CXCR4 and CCR3) receptors. CB cells were also cultured in methylcellulose assays for eosinophil/basophil colony-forming cells. At age 1 y, infants were clinically assessed for atopic symptoms and skin tests. Percentages of CB CD34+ cell numbers were higher after n-3 PUFA than placebo. Co-expression of cytokine or chemokine receptors on CD34 cells was not altered by n-3 PUFA supplementation. However, there were significantly more IL-5-responsive CB eosinophil/basophil colony forming units (Eo/B-CFU) in the fish oil, compared with the control, group. Overall, there was a positive association between CD34+ cells and IL-5-responsive Eo/B-CFU in CB and 1 y clinical outcomes, including atopic dermatitis and wheeze. Dietary n-3 PUFA supplementation during pregnancy in atopic mothers alters infant cord blood hemopoietic progenitor phenotype. This may have an impact on development of atopic disease.

n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids enhance the activities of ceftazidime and amikacin in experimental sepsis caused by multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Recent in vitro and ex vivo studies disclosed an enhancement of the activity of antimicrobials on multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa by n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAS); therefore their effect was evaluated in experimental sepsis in 60 rabbits. Solutions of gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) and arachidonic acid (AA) were administered intravenously with ceftazidime and amikacin in rabbits with sepsis caused by one multidrug-resistant isolate. Therapy was started after bacterial challenge in five groups comprising 12 animals in each group: A, normal saline; B, antimicrobials; C, 99% ethanol and antimicrobials; D, GLA and antimicrobials; and E, AA and antimicrobials. Blood was sampled for the estimation of levels of endotoxins in serum (lipopolysaccharide), leukocytes, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha) and antimicrobials. Animals were sacrificed 210 min after bacterial challenge for tissue cultures. All animals had considerable endotoxemia and evolved leukopenia. The number of viable cells in blood, lung, and mesenteric lymph nodes was significantly reduced in groups D and E compared to that in other groups. Levels of antimicrobials in serum were inadequate to achieve bacterial killing due to the level of resistance. n-6 PUFAs did not influence TNF-alpha. It is concluded that intravenous coadministration of n-6 PUFAs and antimicrobials enhanced antimicrobial bacterial killing in experimental sepsis caused by multidrug-resistant P. aeruginosa.

Dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids modulate in vivo, antigen-driven CD4+ T-cell proliferation in mice

Our objective was to determine whether dietary lipids affect in vivo, antigen-driven, proliferation of naïve CD4(+) T lymphocytes. To accomplish this, we adoptively transferred lymphocytes from T-cell receptor (TCR) transgenic DO11.10 (i.e., donor) mice into syngeneic, nontransgenic BALB/c (i.e., recipient) mice. Before adoptive transfer, recipient mice were fed for 4 wk AIN93G-type diets that differed only in fat source: lard, low in PUFA, fish oil, rich in (n-3) PUFA, and soybean oil, rich in (n-6) PUFA. One week after transfer, recipient mice were immunized with antigen (i.e., ovalbumin), and expansion of CD4(+) T(DO11.10) cells in the spleen and draining lymph nodes (LN) was measured by flow cytometry. Five days postimmunization (p.i.), at the peak of expansion, CD4(+) T(DO11.10) cells in the draining LN and spleen were 5- to 10-fold higher than in unimmunized mice, then quickly declined during the contraction phase (i.e., 7 and 10 d p.i.). Recipients fed the (n-6) PUFA rich diet had approximately 25% greater in vivo expansion of CD4(+) T(DO11.10) cells than lard- and fish oil-fed recipient mice at 5 d p.i. (P < 0.05). However, at 7 and 10 d p.i., CD4(+) T(DO11.10) cells in the draining lymph nodes did not differ between groups, nor in the spleen at 5, 7, and 10 d p.i. In summary, we are the first to demonstrate that dietary PUFAs affect antigen-driven expansion of naïve CD4(+) T cells in vivo. Surprisingly, (n-3) PUFA consumption did not reduce CD4(+) T-cell expansion.

Dietary n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids promote activation-induced cell death in Th1-polarized murine CD4+ T-cells

Dietary n-3 PUFAs have been shown to attenuate T-cell-mediated inflammation. To investigate whether dietary n-3 PUFAs promote activation-induced cell death (AICD) in CD4+ T-cells induced in vitro to a polarized T-helper1 (Th1) phenotype, C57BL/6 mice were fed diets containing either 5% corn oil (CO; n-6 PUFA control) or 4% fish oil (FO) plus 1% CO (n-3 PUFA) for 2 weeks. Splenic CD4+ T-cells were cultured with alpha-interleukin-4 (alphaIL-4), IL-12, and IL-2 for 2 days and then with recombinant (r) IL-12 and rIL-2 for 3 days in the presence of diet-matched homologous mouse serum (HMS) to prevent loss of cell membrane fatty acids, or with fetal bovine serum. After polarization, Th1 cells were reactivated and analyzed for interferon-gamma and IL-4 by intracellular cytokine staining and for apoptosis by Annexin V/propidium iodide. Dietary FO enhanced Th1 polarization by 49% (P = 0.0001) and AICD by 24% (P = 0.0001) only in cells cultured in the presence of HMS. FO enhancement of Th1 polarization and AICD after culture was associated with the maintenance of eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6n-3) in plasma membrane lipid rafts. In conclusion, n-3 PUFAs enhance the polarization and deletion of proinflammatory Th1 cells, possibly as a result of alterations in membrane microdomain fatty acid composition.

Effects of supplementation with vitamins A, C, and E, selenium, and zinc on immune function in a murine sensitization model

OBJECTIVE

We compared the effects of supplementing with vitamins A, C, and E, selenium, and zinc on a range of innate and specific T-helper 1 (Th1) and Th2-driven adaptive immune responses.

METHODS

BALB/c mice were fed semi-purified AIN93 diets and randomly assigned to receive a diet supplemented with 120 mg/kg of vitamin A, 2500 mg/kg of vitamin C, 1000 mg/kg of vitamin E, 2 mg/kg of selenium, and 500 mg/kg of zinc (n = 15/group). After 4 wk of supplementation, mice were sensitized by topical application of di-nitro-chlorobenzene (DNCB); 2 wk later mice were challenged; and 5 d later they were killed to assess the effect on a range of innate responses (phagocytic activity, oxidative burst and tumor necrosis factor-alpha), adaptive Th1-driven responses (delayed-type hypersensitivity, DNCB-specific immunoglobulin [Ig] G2a and IgG2b, and interferon-gamma [IFN-gamma]), and adaptive Th2-driven responses (DNCB-specific IgE and IgG1 and interleukin-4 [IL-4]).

RESULTS

Immune function was affected only in the vitamin A group. These mice gained less weight and were less capable of resolving the inflammatory response elicited during sensitization. The oxidative burst of blood cells was increased, but production of IFN-gamma and IL-4 and the ratio of IFN-gamma to IL-4 were markedly depressed. In concordance with the latter result, production of Th1-driven IgG2a antibodies was decreased, whereas Th2-driven isotypes were not affected (IgG1, IgE) and mucosal IgA was increased.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings confirmed that supplementary amounts of vitamin A above dietary requirements enhance inflammatory responses accompanied by decreased Th1 and increased mucosal responses. However, supplementation of these sufficiently fed, non-stressed, young adult mice with vitamins C and E, selenium, or zinc had no effect on immune function. We speculate that using this model in aged, physiologically, or nutritionally stressed mice may provide outcomes more similar to those in sensitive human populations. If so, this would improve the usefulness of the model to assess, characterize, and rank effects of foods or nutrients on a range of immune functions, including Th1/Th2 polarization.

The Effect of Eicosapentaenoic Acid on Rat Lymphocyte Proliferation Depends Upon Its Position in Dietary Triacylglycerols

Animal and human studies have shown that greatly increasing the amount of fish oil [rich in long-chain (n-3) PUFA] in the diet can decrease lymphocyte functions. The effects of a more modest provision of long-chain (n-3) PUFA and whether eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5) and docosahexaenoic acid (22:6) have the same effects as one another are unclear. Whether the position of 20:5 or 22:6 in dietary triacylglycerols (TAG) influences their incorporation into immune cells and their subsequent functional effects is not known. In this study, male weanling rats were fed for 6 wk one of 9 diets that contained 178 g lipid/kg and that differed in the type of (n-3) PUFA and in the position of these in dietary TAG. The control diet contained 4.4 g alpha-linolenic acid (18:3)/100 g total fatty acids. In the other diets, 20:5 or 22:6 replaced a portion (50 or 100%) of 18:3, and were in the sn-2 or the sn-1(3) position of dietary TAG. There were significant dose-dependent increases in the proportion of 20:5 or 22:6 in spleen mononuclear cell phospholipids when 20:5 or 22:6 was fed. These increases were at the expense of arachidonic acid and were largely independent of the position of 20:5 or 22:6 in dietary TAG. Spleen lymphocyte proliferation increased dose dependently when 20:5 was fed in the sn-1(3) position of dietary TAG. There were no significant differences in interleukin-2, interferon-gamma or interleukin-10 production among spleen cells from rats fed the different diets. Prostaglandin E(2) production by spleen mononuclear cells was decreased by inclusion of either 20:5 or 22:6 in the diet in the sn-1(3) position. Thus, incorporation of 20:5 or 22:6 into spleen mononuclear cell phospholipids is not influenced by the position in dietary TAG. However, the pattern of incorporation may be influenced, and there are some differential functional effects of the position of long-chain (n-3) PUFA in dietary TAG. A moderate increase in the intake of 20:5 at the sn-1(3) position of dietary TAG increases lymphocyte proliferation.

Early in vivo cytokine genes expression in chickens after challenge with Salmonella typhimurium lipopolysaccharide and modulation by dietary n--3 polyunsaturated fatty acids

We studied the effects of Salmonella typhimurium lipopolysaccharide (LPS) on in vivo cytokine mRNA levels in chickens, and investigated whether these levels could be altered by different nutrients. Two hundred and forty chicks were assigned in a 2 x 4 factorial design of treatments. Factors were intravenous injection with S. typhimurium LPS, or saline (control), and four dietary fat sources: corn oil (CO), linseed oil (LO), menhaden oil and beef tallow (BT). Two hours after injection birds were killed and their spleens removed for RNA extraction. Quantitative real-time RT-PCR assays for mRNA of chicken IFN-gamma, IL-6, IL-8, IL-15, IL-18 and 28S rRNA were used to obtain the in vivo splenic cytokine profiles. Expression levels of IL-6, IL-8, IL-18 and IFN-gamma mRNA increased, but IL-15 mRNA decreased 2h after challenge with LPS compared with saline controls. In saline-injected control chickens, the dietary oil source did not affect the splenic mRNA level of any cytokine. In LPS challenged chickens IFN-gamma mRNA was significantly higher in the chickens fed the fish oil enriched diet compared with the LO, CO and BT enriched diets. The present data imply that avian IL-15 has, at least partially, a different function compared to its mammalian counterpart, and in addition, chicken innate immune responses might be affected differently by n-3 PUFA compared to mammals.

Fatty acids, the immune response, and autoimmunity: a question of n-6 essentiality and the balance between n-6 and n-3

The essentiality of n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) is described in relation to a thymus/thymocyte accretion of arachidonic acid (20:4n-6, AA) in early development, and the high requirement of lymphoid and other cells of the immune system for AA and linoleic acid (1 8:2n-6, LA) for membrane phospholipids. Low n-6 PUFA intakes enhance whereas high intakes decrease certain immune functions. Evidence from in vitro and in vivo studies for a role of AA metabolites in immune cell development and functions shows that they can limit or regulate cellular immune reactions and can induce deviation toward a T helper (Th)2-like immune response. In contrast to the effects of the oxidative metabolites of AA, the longer-chain n-6 PUFA produced by gamma-linolenic acid (18:3n-6, GLA) feeding decreases the Th2 cytokine and immunoglobulin (Ig)G1 antibody response. The n-6 PUFA, GLA, dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (20:3n-6, DHLA) and AA, and certain oxidative metabolites of AA can also induce T-regulatory cell activity, e.g., transforming growth factor (TGF)-beta-producing T cells; GLA feeding studies also demonstrate reduced proinflammatory interleukin (IL)-1 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha production. Low intakes of long-chain n-3 fatty acids (fish oils) enhance certain immune functions, whereas high intakes are inhibitory on a wide range of functions, e.g., antigen presentation, adhesion molecule expression, Th1 and Th2 responses, proinflammatory cytokine and eicosanoid production, and they induce lymphocyte apoptosis. Vitamin E has a demonstrable critical role in long-chain n-3 PUFA interactions with immune functions, often reversing the effects of fish oil. The effect of dietary fatty acids on animal autoimmune disease models depends on both the autoimmune model and the amount and type of fatty acids fed. Diets low in fat, essential fatty acid deficient (EFAD), or high in long-chain n-3 PUFA from fish oils increase survival and reduce disease severity in spontaneous autoantibody-mediated disease, whereas high-fat LA-rich diets increase disease severity. In experimentally induced T cell-mediated autoimmune disease, EFAD diets or diets supplemented with long-chain n-3 PUFA augment disease, whereas n-6 PUFA prevent or reduce the severity. In contrast, in both T cell- and antibody-mediated autoimmune disease, the desaturated/elongated metabolites of LA are protective. PUFA of both the n-6 and n-3 families are clinically useful in human autoimmune-inflammatory disorders, but the precise mechanisms by which these fatty acids exert their clinical effects are not well understood. Finally, the view that all n-6 PUFA are proinflammatory requires revision, in part, and their essential regulatory and developmental role in the immune system warrants appreciation.

Dietary fish oil impairs primary host resistance against Listeria monocytogenes more than the immunological memory response

The primary objective of this study was to determine whether dietary (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) impair the ability of mice to generate an immunological memory response against the bacterial pathogen, Listeria monocytogenes. Weanling BALB/c female mice were fed for 28 d one of two semipurified high fat diets containing either lard or refined menhaden fish oil, rich in long-chain (n-3) PUFA. Mice were immunized with 10(4) or 10(3) colony forming units (cfu) bacteria. Thirty-five days later, these immune mice and age-matched naïve (i.e., unimmunized) mice were challenged with 10(5) cfu bacteria. Three days postchallenge, bacterial clearance was determined. Compared with lard-fed mice, naïve mice in the fish oil treatment group had higher bacterial loads in their liver and spleen (P < 0.001). When mice were immunized with 10(4) cfu bacteria before rechallenge with 10-fold more bacteria, both lard- and fish oil-fed mice had significantly lower bacterial loads in their liver and spleen (e.g., approximately 2 log(10); P < 0.001) compared with their naïve counterparts. However, when the immunization dose was reduced to 10(3) bacteria, a modest diet treatment effect was observed, such that compared with immune lard-fed mice, immune fish oil-fed mice had significantly greater bacterial loads in their liver and spleen (i.e., approximately 0.5 log(10); P < 0.01). These data demonstrate for the first time that although dietary (n-3) PUFA can significantly impair host resistance to a primary as well as a secondary L. monocytogenes infection, the impairment of the immunological memory response is much less severe.

(n-3) Polyunsaturated fatty acids promote activation-induced cell death in murine T lymphocytes

Previous studies showing dietary (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) attenuate T cell immune-mediated inflammatory diseases led us to hypothesize that (n-3) PUFA promote activation-induced cell death (AICD) in T cells. Because T cell subsets display a differential resistance to AICD, we compared the effects of (n-3) PUFA feeding on T cells stimulated in vitro to express different cytokine profiles. Mice were fed either diets lacking (n-3) PUFA (control) or (n-3) PUFA-containing diets for 14 d. Splenic T cells were stimulated with alphaCD3/alphaCD28, phorbol myristate acetate (PMA)/Ionomycin or alphaCD3/PMA for 48 h, followed by reactivation with the same stimuli for 5 h. Apoptosis was measured using Annexin V/propidium iodide. (n-3) PUFA were selectively incorporated into membrane phospholipid pools. Cytokine analyses revealed that (n-3) PUFA enhanced AICD only in T cells expressing a T helper cell (Th)1-like cytokine profile after stimulation with PMA/Ionomycin compared to mice fed the (n-6) PUFA control diet (P = 0.0008). In contrast, no increase in apoptosis was seen in T cells stimulated with alphaCD3/PMA, which exhibited a Th2 cytokine profile. These data demonstrate that the ability of (n-3) PUFA to promote AICD is dependent on the activation stimulus. In conclusion, we have identified a novel mechanism by which (n-3) PUFA modulate T cell-mediated immunity by selective deletion of Th1-like cells while maintaining or enhancing the Th2-mediated humoral immune response.

(n-3) Fatty acids and infectious disease resistance

The current view of the manner in which (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) affect the immune system is centered on their ability to alter cytokine production and secondarily to diminish eicosanoid biosynthesis. The purpose of this article is to review the evidence that (n-3) PUFA affect host infectious disease resistance. Although there have been a few human clinical trials involving (n-3) PUFA and human infectious disease, the data are equivocal and the study designs confounded by the simultaneous inclusion of other immunonutrients (i.e., arginine and nucleotides) with the (n-3) PUFA. Thus, this review focuses on animal feeding trials that include an in vivo challenge of the host with a live infectious agent. Host survival and pathogen clearance are the most common end points measured in these studies. The data suggest that (n-3) PUFA can both improve and impair host resistance to a number of pathogens. However, the data are still quite limited in breadth and depth. For those pathogens for which data exist, the number of published studies in general does not exceed two or three. Emphasis is placed on defining important microbiological and immunological differences in various host-pathogen interactions that might help explain the incongruity in the findings published to date. The authors believe that direct examination of (n-3) PUFA on human infectious disease resistance is warranted.

Dietary n-3 PUFA affect TcR-mediated activation of purified murine T cells and accessory cell function in co-cultures

Diets enriched in n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) suppress several functions of murine splenic T cells by acting directly on the T cells and/or indirectly on accessory cells. In this study, the relative contribution of highly purified populations of the two cell types to the dietary suppression of T cell function was examined. Mice were fed diets containing different levels of n-3 PUFA; safflower oil (SAF; control containing no n-3 PUFA), fish oil (FO) at 2% and 4%, or 1% purified docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) for 2 weeks. Purified (>90%) T cells were obtained from the spleen, and accessory cells (>95% adherent, esterase-positive) were obtained by peritoneal lavage. Purified T cells or accessory cells from each diet group were co-cultured with the alternative cell type from every other diet group, yielding a total of 16 different co-culture combinations. The T cells were stimulated with either concanavalin A (ConA) or antibodies to the T cell receptor (TcR)/CD3 complex and the costimulatory molecule CD28 (alphaCD3/alphaCD28), and proliferation was measured after four days. Suppression of T cell proliferation in the co-cultures was dependent upon the dose of dietary n-3 PUFA fed to mice from which the T cells were derived, irrespective of the dietary treatment of accessory cell donors. The greatest dietary effect was seen in mice consuming the DHA diet (P = 0.034 in the anova; P=0.0053 in the Trend Test), and was observed with direct stimulation of the T cell receptor and CD28 costimulatory ligand, but not with ConA. A significant dietary effect was also contributed accessory cells (P = 0.033 in the Trend Test). We conclude that dietary n-3 PUFA affect TcR-mediated by T cell activation by both direct and indirect (accessory cell) mechanisms.

Dietary fish oil increases acetylcholine- and eicosanoid-induced contractility of isolated rat ileum

The long-chain (n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) have been reported to exhibit health benefits and healing properties for the gastrointestinal tract. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of dietary fish oil supplementation on the in vitro contractility of gut tissue. Rats (9 wk old) were fed synthetic diets supplemented with 170 g/kg Sunola oil (SO; 850 g/kg as oleic acid [18:1(n-9)]) or with 100 g/kg of the SO replaced by saturated animal fat (SF) or fish oil (FO) for 4 wk. In the colon, there was no difference in the sensitivity (50% effective concentration) or the maximal contraction among the three dietary groups induced by acetylcholine or 8-iso-prostaglandin (PG)E(2) with the rat colon being relatively insensitive to the thromboxane mimetic U-46619. However, in the ileum, the FO group had greater maximal contractions induced by acetylcholine and 8-iso-PGE(2) compared with the SO and SF groups (P < 0.05), and greater maximal contractions induced by PGE(2), PGF(2alpha) and U-46619 compared with the SF group (P < 0.05). FO feeding increased the incorporation of (n-3) PUFA (eicosapentaenoic [20:5(n-3)], docosapentaenoic [22:5(n-3)] and docosahexaenoic acids [22:6(n-3) primarily at the expense of (n-6) PUFA (linoleic [18:2(n-6)] and arachidonic acids [20:4(n-6)]) in the ileum and colon phospholipid fatty acids (P < 0.05). The FO group had a lower cecal digesta pH (P < 0.001) and a greater butyrate concentration than the SF group (P < 0.05). These results suggest that dietary (n-3) PUFA may modulate the contractility of the small intestine.