Soyasaponin Ab ameliorates colitis by inhibiting the binding of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to Toll-like receptor (TLR)4 on macrophages

Study on the Protective Effect and Mechanism of Umbilicaria esculenta Polysaccharide in DSS-Induced Mice Colitis and Secondary Liver Injury

This study aimed to explore the ameliorative effects and potential mechanisms of Huangshan Umbilicaria esculenta polysaccharide (UEP) in dextran sulfate sodium-induced acute ulcerative colitis (UC) and UC secondary liver injury (SLI). Results showed that UEP could ameliorate both colon and liver pathologic injuries, upregulate mouse intestinal tight junction proteins (TJs) and MUC2 expression, and reduce LPS exposure, thereby attenuating the effects of the gut-liver axis. Importantly, UEP significantly downregulated the secretion levels of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 through inhibition of the NF-κB pathway and activated the Nrf2 signaling pathway to increase the expression levels of SOD and GSH-Px. In vitro, UEP inhibited the LPS-induced phosphorylation of NF-κB P65 and promoted nuclear translocation of Nrf2 in RAW264.7 cells. These results revealed that UEP ameliorated UC and SLI through NF-κB and Nrf2-mediated inflammation and oxidative stress. The study first investigated the anticolitis effect of UEP, suggesting its potential for the treatment of colitis and colitis-associated liver disease.

Opportunities and Challenges of Soy Proteins with Different Processing Applications

Soybean meal (SBM) is a prevailing plant protein supplement in animal diets because of its nutritional value and availability. This review paper explores the significance of SBM and processed soy products, emphasizing their nutritional and bioactive components, such as isoflavones and soyasaponins. These compounds are known for their antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties and are associated with a reduced prevalence of chronic diseases. However, the presence of antinutritional compounds in SBM presents a significant challenge. The paper evaluates various processing methods, including ethanol/acid wash, enzyme treatment, and fermentation, which are aimed at enhancing the nutritional value of soy products. It highlights the significance to maintain a balance between nutritional enhancement and the preservation of beneficial bioactive compounds, emphasizing the importance of different processing techniques to fully exploit the health benefits of soy-based products. Therefore, this review illuminates the complex balance between nutritional improvement, bioactive compound preservation, and the overall health implications of soy products.

Toll-like receptors in inflammatory bowel disease: A review of the role of phytochemicals

BACKGROUND

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic inflammation within the gastrointestinal tract with a remarkable impact on patients' quality of life. Toll-like receptors (TLR), as a key contributor of immune system in inflammation, has a critical role in the pathogenesis of IBD and thus, can be a suitable target of therapeutic agents. Medicinal plants have long been considered as a source of bioactive agents for different diseases, including IBD.

PURPOSE

This review discusses current state of the art on the role of plant-derived compounds for the management of IBD with a focus on TLRs.

METHODS

Electronic database including PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus were searched up to January 2023 and all studies in which anticolitis effects of a phytochemical was assessed via modulation of TLRs were considered.

RESULTS

Different categories of phytochemicals, including flavonoids, lignans, alkaloids, terpenes, saccharides, and saponins have demonstrated modulatory effects on TLR in different animal and cell models of bowel inflammation. Flavonoids were the most studied phytochemicals amongst others. Also, TLR4 was the most important type of TLRs which were modulated by phytochemicals. Other mechanisms such as inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines, nuclear factor-κB pathway, nitric oxide synthesis pathway, cyclooxygenase-2, lipid peroxidation, as well as induction of endogenous antioxidant defense mechanisms were also reported for phytochemicals in various IBD models.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, a growing body of pre-clinical evidence support the efficacy of herbal compounds for the treatment of IBD via modulation of TLRs. Future clinical studies are recommended to assess the safety and efficacy of these compounds in human.

Targeting NF-κB/COX-2 signaling by soyasaponin I alleviates diclofenac-induced gastric ulceration in male albino rats

Gastric ulceration is a prevalent worldwide clinical presentation due to altered gastric defense mechanisms. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are one of the common causes of gastric ulcers mediated by the release of inflammatory mediators. The study aimed to investigate the potential protective effect of soyasaponin I (soya) against diclofenac (DIC)-induced gastric ulcer in rats and to highlight the underlying mechanisms. The experiment was conducted on 40 male Wistar albino rats, equally distributed into five groups: control, DIC-induced ulcer (9 mg/kg/d, orally, twice daily for 3 days), ulcer/soya-, ulcer/ranitidine-, and ulcer/soya/selective nuclear factor kappa B inhibitor (JSH-23)-treated groups. The doses of soya, ranitidine, and JSH were 20, 25, and 5 mg/kg/d, respectively, given orally. Gastric specimens were prepared for gene and histological study and for biochemical analysis of gastric prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), oxidative markers, and inflammatory cytokines. The gastric samples were formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded, and subjected to hematoxylin and eosin (H&E), PAS staining, and immunohistochemical assay for identification of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), and proliferation marker (Ki67) expressions. The findings revealed decreased gastric PGE2 and altered inflammatory and oxidative markers in the ulcer model group. The H&E staining showed mucosal injury characterized by mucosal surface defects and inflammatory cell infiltrations. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and immunohistochemistry demonstrated an upregulation of NF-κB and COX-2 expression at gene/protein levels; meanwhile, Ki67 downregulation. The soya-treated group showed maintained biochemical, histological, and PCR findings comparable to the ranitidine-treated group. The JSH-23-treated group still showed partial gastric protection with biochemical and immunohistochemical changes. Soyasaponin I ameliorated DIC-induced gastric ulcers by targeting the COX-2 activity through modulation of NF-κB signaling.

Identification and Mechanism Elucidation of Anti-Inflammatory Peptides in Jinhua Ham: An Integrative In Silico and In Vitro Study

This study aimed to effectively identify anti-inflammatory peptides in Jinhua ham, a dry-cured meat product made from the hind legs of pigs by curing and fermenting processes, and elucidate their anti-inflammatory mechanism. The investigation involved a combination of chromatographic purification, in silico screening, and in vitro validation. The first peak of JHP (JHP-P1) was purified using two-part exchange chromatography, in which 3350 peptides were identified by nano-HPLC-MS/MS, among which QLEELKR and EAEERADIAESQVNKLR showed significant anti-inflammatory potential (prediction scores: 0.759 and 0.841). In molecular docking and in vitro RAW264.7 cell experiments, these peptides displayed a strong affinity for Toll-like receptor 4-myeloid differentiation-2 (TLR4-MD-2), specifically binding around Arg 380, Lys 475, His 401, Gln 423, Asp 426, etc. This binding inhibited TLR4 expression and prevented trimer formation about TLR4-MD-2 and lipopolysaccharide (LPS), strongly inhibiting the inflammatory cascade. JHP suppressed LPS-induced cytokine overproduction and partially inhibited the phosphorylation of proteins in the MAPK/NF-κB pathway. These results demonstrated that combining in silico methods (activity prediction and molecular docking) is an effective strategy for screening anti-inflammatory peptides. This study provided a theoretical basis for identifying more anti-inflammatory peptides and applying them in functional foods.

Recent research advances on oral colon-specific delivery system of nature bioactive components: A review

Oral colon-specific delivery system (OCDS) is a targeted approach that aims to directly deliver bioactive compounds directly to the colon following oral administration, thereby enhancing the colonic release of bioactive substances and minimizing adverse reactions. The effectiveness of bioactive substances in the colon hinges on the degree of release, which are affected by various factors including pH, mucosal barrier, delivery time and so on. Therefore, this review provides a comprehensive overview of the key factors affecting oral colon-specific release of bioactive components firstly. Considering the oral safety, this review then mainly focuses on the types of carriers with edible OCDS and preparation strategies for OCDS. Finally, several preparation strategies for loading typical natural bioactive ingredients into oral safe OCDS are reviewed, along with future development prospects.

Regulatory mechanism underlying liver X receptor effects on the tumor microenvironment, inflammation and tumorigenesis

INTRODUCTION

Liver X receptors (LXRs) have emerged as novel targets for tumor treatment. LXRs within the tumor microenvironment show the capacity to impact tumorigenesis and tumor development by regulating the infiltration of immune cells and release of cytokines to moderate inflammation.

AREAS COVERED

In this review, we present a systematic description of recent progress in understanding the impact of LXRs on the tumor microenvironment and tumorigenesis. We also summarize the antitumor effects mediated by LXRs via their regulation of cytokine expression. Additionally, we discuss the limitations of LXR research in tumor studies to date.

EXPERT OPINION

Previous studies have demonstrated abnormal LXR expression in tumor tissues, and activation of LXRs has been shown to inhibit tumorigenesis and promote apoptosis in tumor cells. However, LXRs can also affect tumorigenesis by regulating immune cell functions within the tumor immune microenvironment. By summarizing the impact of LXRs on immune cells, we provide new insights into the multifaceted nature of LXRs as antitumor targets.

mRNA therapeutics: new vaccination and beyond

The idea of mRNA therapy had been conceived for decades before it came into reality during the Covid-19 pandemic. The mRNA vaccine emerges as a powerful and general tool against new viral infections, largely due to its versatility and rapid development. In addition to prophylactic vaccines, mRNA technology also offers great promise for new applications as a versatile drug modality. However, realizing the conceptual potential faces considerable challenges, such as minimal immune stimulation, high and long-term expression, and efficient delivery to target cells and tissues. Here we review the applications of mRNA-based therapeutics, with emphasis on the innovative design and future challenges/solutions. In addition, we also discuss the next generation of mRNA therapy, including circular mRNA and self-amplifying RNAs. We aim to provide a conceptual overview and outlook on mRNA therapeutics beyond prophylactic vaccines.

Potential anti-inflammatory effects of legumes: a review

Legumes are a staple of diets all around the world. In some least developed countries, they are the primary source of protein; however, their beneficial properties go beyond their nutritional value. Recent research has shown that legumes have bioactive compounds like peptides, polyphenols and saponins, which exhibit antioxidant, antihypertensive, anti-inflammatory and other biological activities. Thus, these compounds could be an alternative treatment for inflammatory diseases, in particular, chronic inflammation such as arthritis, obesity and cancer. Nowadays, there is a growing interest in alternative therapies derived from natural products; accordingly, the present review has compiled the bioactive compounds found in legumes that have demonstrated an anti-inflammatory effect in non-clinical studies.

Advances in the Bioactivities of Phytochemical Saponins in the Prevention and Treatment of Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis (AS) is a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by hardening and narrowing of arteries. AS leads to a number of arteriosclerotic vascular diseases including cardiovascular diseases, cerebrovascular disease and peripheral artery disease, which pose a big threat to human health. Phytochemicals are a variety of intermediate or terminal low molecular weight secondary metabolites produced during plant energy metabolism. Phytochemicals from plant foods (vegetables, fruits, whole grains) and traditional herb plants have been shown to exhibit multiple bioactivities which are beneficial for prevention and treatment against AS. Many types of phytochemicals including polyphenols, saponins, carotenoids, terpenoids, organic sulfur compounds, phytoestrogens, phytic acids and plant sterols have already been identified, among which saponins are a family of glycosidic compounds consisting of a hydrophobic aglycone (sapogenin) linked to hydrophilic sugar moieties. In recent years, studies have shown that saponins exhibit a number of biological activities such as anti-inflammation, anti-oxidation, cholesterol-lowering, immunomodulation, anti-platelet aggregation, etc., which are helpful in the prevention and treatment of AS. This review aims to summarize the recent advances in the anti-atherosclerotic bioactivities of saponins such as ginsenoside, soyasaponin, astra-galoside, glycyrrhizin, gypenoside, dioscin, saikosaponin, etc.

Phytocompounds as an Alternative Antimicrobial Approach in Aquaculture

Despite culturing the fastest-growing animal in animal husbandry, fish farmers are often adversely economically affected by pathogenic disease outbreaks across the world. Although there are available solutions such as the application of antibiotics to mitigate this phenomenon, the excessive and injudicious use of antibiotics has brought with it major concerns to the community at large, mainly due to the rapid development of resistant bacteria. At present, the use of natural compounds such as phytocompounds that can be an alternative to antibiotics is being explored to address the issue of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). These phytocompounds are bioactive agents that can be found in many species of plants and hold much potential. In this review, we will discuss phytocompounds extracted from plants that have been evidenced to contain antimicrobial, antifungal, antiviral and antiparasitic activities. Further, it has also been found that compounds such as terpenes, phenolics, saponins and alkaloids can be beneficial to the aquaculture industry when applied. This review will focus mainly on compounds that have been identified between 2000 and 2021. It is hoped this review will shed light on promising phytocompounds that can potentially and effectively mitigate AMR.

Bridging the Gaps between Plant and Human Health: A Systematic Review of Soyasaponins

Saponins, prominent secondary plant metabolites, are recognized for their roles in plant defense and medicinal benefits. Soyasaponins, commonly derived from legumes, are a class of triterpenoid saponins that demonstrate significant potential for plant and human health applications. Previous research and reviews largely emphasize human health effects of soyasaponins. However, the biological effects of soyasaponins and their implications for plants in the context of human health have not been well-discussed. This review provides comprehensive discussions on the biological roles of soyasaponins in plant defense and rhizosphere microbial interactions; biosynthetic regulation and compound production; immunological effects and potential for therapeutics; and soyasaponin acquisition attributed to processing effects, bioavailability, and biotransformation processes based on recent soyasaponin research. Given the multifaceted biological effects elicited by soyasaponins, further research warrants an integrated approach to understand molecular mechanisms of regulations in their production as well as their applications in plant and human health.

Effects of glutamine on the IKK/IκB/NF-кB system in the enterocytes of turbot Scophthalmus maximus L. stimulated with soya-saponins

Soya-saponins represent key anti-nutritional factors that contribute to soybean meal-induced enteritis, and glutamine is an effective fish intestine protectant that combats the negative effects of soya-saponins. Nuclear transcription factor-kappa B (NF-кB) systems are involved in the interactions between soya-saponins and glutamine, and the goal of the present work was to clarify the related molecular mechanisms used by the NF-кB kinase (IKK)/inhibitor of NF-κB (IκB)/NF-кB system. Primary cultured turbot (Scophthalmus maximus L.) intestinal epithelial cells were concurrently administrated with 1 mg/mL of soya-saponins and several levels of glutamine (0, 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 mM) for 12 h and then subjected to real-time PCR and Western blot assays. Compared with cells treated with soya-saponins alone, glutamine significantly decreased the expression of interleukin-1 beta, interleukin 8 and tumor necrosis factor α genes, significantly reduced nuclear and cytosolic NF-κB p65 abundance levels in a dose-dependent manner, increased the IκBα protein level but decreased its phosphorylation, and down-regulated the IKKα/β and phosphorylated IKKα/β levels. In conclusion, this in vitro work confirmed that glutamine attenuated soya-saponin-induced inflammatory responses in turbot intestines. Moreover, it identified molecular pathways in which glutamine first decreased the p65 level and then prevented its nuclear translocation. In addition, glutamine reduced IκBα phosphorylation and maintained its level. Finally, glutamine decreased IKK expression and phosphorylation.

Regulation of Intestinal Inflammation by Soybean and Soy-Derived Compounds

Environmental factors, particularly diet, are considered central to the pathogenesis of the inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis. In particular, the Westernization of diet, characterized by high intake of animal protein, saturated fat, and refined carbohydrates, has been shown to contribute to the development and progression of IBD. During the last decade, soybean, as well as soy-derived bioactive compounds (e.g., isoflavones, phytosterols, Bowman-Birk inhibitors) have been increasingly investigated because of their anti-inflammatory properties in animal models of IBD. Herein we provide a scoping review of the most studied disease mechanisms associated with disease induction and progression in IBD rodent models after feeding of either the whole food or a bioactive present in soybean.

Replacing Animal Protein with Soy-Pea Protein in an "American Diet" Controls Murine Crohn Disease-Like Ileitis Regardless of Firmicutes: Bacteroidetes Ratio

BACKGROUND

The current nutritional composition of the "American diet" (AD; also known as Western diet) has been linked to the increasing incidence of chronic diseases, including inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), namely Crohn disease (CD).

OBJECTIVES

This study investigated which of the 3 major macronutrients (protein, fat, carbohydrates) in the AD has the greatest impact on preventing chronic inflammation in experimental IBD mouse models.

METHODS

We compared 5 rodent diets designed to mirror the 2011-2012 "What We Eat in America" NHANES. Each diet had 1 macronutrient dietary source replaced. The formulated diets were AD, AD-soy-pea (animal protein replaced by soy + pea protein), AD-CHO ("refined carbohydrate" by polysaccharides), AD-fat [redistribution of the ω-6:ω-3 (n-6:n-3) PUFA ratio; ∼10:1 to 1:1], and AD-mix (all 3 "healthier" macronutrients combined). In 3 separate experiments, 8-wk-old germ-free SAMP1/YitFC mice (SAMP) colonized with human gut microbiota ("hGF-SAMP") from CD or healthy donors were fed an AD, an AD-"modified," or laboratory rodent diet for 24 wk. Two subsequent dextran sodium sulfate-colitis experiments in hGF-SAMP (12-wk-old) and specific-pathogen-free (SPF) C57BL/6 (20-wk-old) mice, and a 6-wk feeding trial in 24-wk-old SPF SAMP were performed. Intestinal inflammation, gut metagenomics, and MS profiles were assessed.

RESULTS

The AD-soy-pea diet resulted in lower histology scores [mean ± SD (56.1% ± 20.7% reduction)] in all feeding trials and IBD mouse models than did other diets (P < 0.05). Compared with the AD, the AD-soy-pea correlated with increased abundance in Lactobacillaceae and Leuconostraceae (1.5-4.7 log2 and 3.0-5.1 log2 difference, respectively), glutamine (6.5 ± 0.8 compared with 3.9 ± 0.3 ng/μg stool, P = 0.0005) and butyric acid (4:0; 3.3 ± 0.5 compared with 2.54 ± 0.4 ng/μg stool, P = 0.006) concentrations, and decreased linoleic acid (18:2n-6; 5.4 ± 0.4 compared with 8.6 ± 0.3 ng/μL plasma, P = 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Replacement of animal protein in an AD by plant-based sources reduced the severity of experimental IBD in all mouse models studied, suggesting that similar, feasible adjustments to the daily human diet could help control/prevent IBD in humans.

High hydrostatic pressure enhances the anti-proliferative properties of lotus bee pollen on the human prostate cancer PC-3 cells via increased metabolites

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The beneficial effects of bee pollen on prostate diseases are well known. Clinicians confirm that, in nonbacterial prostate diseases, bee pollen improves the condition of patients effectively. However, there is insufficient evidence to rate effectiveness of bee pollen on prostate cancer.

AIM OF THE STUDY

High hydrostatic pressure (HHP), an effective non-thermal technique to improve the nutritional quality and bio-functionality of plant-based foods, was used to increase the anti-proliferative properties of Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) bee pollen (LBP) in prostate cancer PC-3 cells via enhancement of bioactive compounds.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Freeze-dried lotus bee pollen produced from Fu Zhou city, Jiangxi province, China, was processed by high hydrostatic pressure (HHP). The anti-proliferative activities, apoptosis of ethanol and methanol extracts in prostate cancer PC-3 cells was evaluated using MTT method and Annexin-V/PI cell apoptosis assay kit, respectively. The changes of metabolites were determined using UPLC-Triple-TOF-MS analysis platform.

RESULTS

HHP treatment enhanced anti-proliferative activities, cell apoptosis, cell cycle disruption, glutathione-depletion in prostate cancer PC-3 cells. The metabolomics analysis showed that some metabolites such as chaetoglobosin A, glutathione oxidized, cyanidin 3-rutinoside, brassicoside, sophoranone, curcumin II, soyasaponin II were significantly increased (p < 0.05) after the HHP treatment, PCA results shown that these bioactive components have quite correlation with anti-proliferative activities of lotus bee pollen on the PC-3 cells. The results indicated that HHP enhances the anti-prostate cancer activity of lotus bee pollen via increased metabolites.

Soyasaponins reduce inflammation by downregulating MyD88 expression and suppressing the recruitments of TLR4 and MyD88 into lipid rafts

Background

Previous studies indicate that soyasaponins may reduce inflammation via modulating toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/myeloid differentiation factor 88 (MyD88) signaling. However, its underlying mechanisms are still not fully understood.

Methods

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-challenged inflamed male ICR mice were intervened by intragastrical administration with 10 and 20 μmol/kg·BW of soyasaponin A₁, A₂ or I for 8 weeks. The serum inflammatory markers were determined by commercial kits and the expression of molecules in TLR4/MyD88 signaling pathway in liver by real-time PCR and western blotting. The recruitments of TLR4 and MyD88 into lipid rafts of live tissue lysates were detected by sucrose gradient ultracentrifugation and western blotting. LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages were treated with 10, 20 and 40 μmol/L of soyasaponin A₁, A₂ or I for 2 h. MyD88-overexpressed HEK293T cells were treated with 20 and 40 μmol/L of soyasaponins (A₁, A₂ or I) or 20 μmol/L of ST2825 (a MyD88 inhibitor) for 6 h. The expression of molecules in TLR4/MyD88 signaling pathway were determined by western blotting. Data were analyzed by using one way analysis of variance or t-test by SPSS 20.0 statistical software.

Results

Soyasaponins A₁, A₂ or I significantly reduced the levels of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), interleukin (IL)-6 and nitric oxide (NO) in serum (p < 0.05), and decreased the mRNA levels of TNFα, IL-6, IL-1β, cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) (p < 0.05), the protein levels of myeloid differentiation protein 2 (MD-2), TLR4, MyD88, toll-interleukin1 receptor domain containing adaptor protein (TIRAP), phosphorylated interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase 4 (p-IRAK-4), phosphorylated interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase 1 (p-IRAK-1) and TNF receptor associated factor 6 (TRAF6) (p < 0.05), and the recruitments of TLR4 and MyD88 into lipid rafts in liver (p < 0.05). In LPS-stimulated macrophages, soyasaponins A₂ or I significantly decreased MyD88 (p < 0.05), soyasaponins A₁, A₂ or I reduced p-IRAK-4 and p-IRAK-1 (p < 0.05), and soyasaponin I decreased TRAF6 (p < 0.05). In MyD88-overexpressed HEK293T cells, soyasaponins (A₁, A₂ or I) and ST2825 significantly decreased MyD88 and TRAF6 (p < 0.05).

Conclusion

Soyasaponins can reduce inflammation by downregulating MyD88 expression and suppressing the recruitments of TLR4 and MyD88 into lipid rafts. This study provides novel understanding about the anti-inflammatory mechanism of soyasaponins.

Soyasaponins A1 and A2 exert anti-atherosclerotic functionalities by decreasing hypercholesterolemia and inflammation in high fat diet (HFD)-fed ApoE-/- mice

Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease causing coronary heart attacks and strokes. Soyasaponins (SS), the phytochemicals naturally existing in soybeans and their products, have been shown to reduce hypercholesterolemia and inflammation, which are intimately related to the genesis and development of atherosclerosis. However, the anti-atherosclerotic functionality of soyasaponins remains unknown. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of the supplementation of two types of soyasaponin monomers (A1 and A2) on atherosclerotic plaque formation, serum lipid profiles, and inflammation in ApoE gene knockout (ApoE-/-) mice. Sixty 5-week-old ApoE-/- male mice were fed with a high-fat diet (HFD) and intervened by SSA1 and SSA2 (10 and 20 μmol per kg BW, respectively) or simvastatin (10 μmol per kg BW) for 24 weeks. The atherosclerotic lesions in the aorta, aortic root, and innominate artery, lipid profile and inflammatory markers in serum, and TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling in arterial tissues were determined. SSA1 and SSA2 decreased the plaque ratio in the aortic root and innominate artery but not in the entire aorta. In serum, SSA1 reduced TG, TC, and LDL-C but increased HDL-C; SSA2 decreased TC, TG, and LDL-C but did not affect HDL-C. Meanwhile, SSA1 increased TG, SSA2 increased TC, and both of them increased bile acids in the feces. SSA1 and SSA2 lowered TNF-α, MCP-1, and hs-crp in serum. Furthermore, SSA1 and SSA2 reduced the TLR4 and MyD88 expressions in the aorta and innominate artery and inhibited NF-κB p65 and IκBα phosphorylation in the aorta. These results suggest that SSA1 and SSA2 exert anti-atherosclerotic functionalities by decreasing hypercholesterolemia and inflammation in HFD-fed ApoE-/- mice.

Lactobacillus sakei S1 Improves Colitis Induced by 2,4,6-Trinitrobenzene Sulfonic Acid by the Inhibition of NF-κB Signaling in Mice

Lactobacillus sakei S1 strongly inhibits the expression of interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-1β in lipopolysaccharide-induced peritoneal macrophages by a mechanism for which lactic acid bacteria from kimchi that inhibit tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-κ) were isolated. Therefore, we further evaluated the protective effect of this strain on the colitis mouse model induced by 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS). TNBS significantly elevated myeloperoxidase (MPO) expression, macroscopic scores, and colon shortening. Oral L. sakei S1 administration resulted in reduction of TNBS-induced loss in body weight, colon shortening, MPO activity, expression of cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB). L. sakei S1 inhibited the expression of inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-κ, induced by TNBS, but enhanced IL-10 expression. L. sakei S1 showed resistance to artificial digestive juices and adherence to intestinal epithelial Caco-2 cells. Thus, L. sakei S1 may inhibit the NF-κB pathway and be used in functional food to treat colitis.

Safranal Alleviates Dextran Sulfate Sodium-Induced Colitis and Suppresses Macrophage-Mediated Inflammation

Introduction:Crocus sativus (saffron) is widely used in China, Iran, and India for dyeing and as a food additive and medicinal plant. Safranal, as one of the main constituents of saffron, is responsible for its aroma and has been reported to have anticancer, antioxidant, and anti-inflammation properties.

Objective: In this study, we investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of Safranal in RAW264.7 cells, bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs), and dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis mice.

Methods: Safranal toxicity was determined using an MTT assay. We evaluated the inhibitory effect of nitric oxide (NO) and levels of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) in RAW264.7 cells and BMDMs. We assessed the inhibitory effect of pro-inflammatory cytokines, and the mRNA expressions of interleukin-6 (IL-6), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), classical inflammatory pathways (MAPK and NF-κB), and the nuclear translocation factors AP-1 and NF-κB p65 were investigated. The in vivo anti-inflammatory effects of Safranal were assessed in a DSS-induced colitis model. DSS3.5% was used to induce colitis in mice with or without Safranal for 7 days; weight and disease activity index (DAI) were recorded daily. At the end of the experiment, the colon, mesenteric lymph nodes (MLNs), and spleen were collected for flow cytometry, ELISA, and Western blot analysis.

Results: Safranal suppressed NO production, iNOS, and COX-2 in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 cells and BMDMs. Safranal decreased the production and mRNA expression of IL-6 and TNF-α in the RAW264.7 cell line and inhibited the phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of components of the MAPK and NF-κB pathways. Safranal alleviated clinical symptoms in the DSS-induced colitis model, and colon histology showed decreased severity of inflammation, depth of inflammatory involvement, and crypt damage. Immunohistochemical staining and flow cytometry showed reduced macrophage infiltration in colonic tissues and macrophage numbers in MLNs and the spleen. The levels of colonic IL-6 and TNF-α also decreased in Safranal-treated colitis mice. This study elucidates the anti-inflammation activity of Safranal, which may be a candidate for inflammatory bowel syndrome (IBD) therapy.

Saponins regulate intestinal inflammation in colon cancer and IBD

The saponins are natural surface-active glycosides which are the principal components of many popular herbal medicinal plants such as ginseng, astragalus, and bupleurum. Recent studies have suggested that saponins can exert strong anti-inflammatory effects and induce immune homeostasis in many diseases. Intestinal-inflammation-related digestive diseases include inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), irritable bowel syndrome, intestinal ischemia-reperfusion injury, necrotizing enterocolitis and radiation proctitis, as well as intestinal inflammation caused by nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. The pathogenesis of these diseases is poorly understood, and the patients with these diseases suffer from mental stress and physical pain, while their families (and society) experience heavy economic losses. Results from animal experiments suggest that saponins can suppress intestinal inflammation, promote intestinal barrier repair, maintain the diversity of the intestinal flora, and decrease the incidence rate of colon-inflammation-related colon cancer. In this review, we discuss new findings regarding the effects of saponins on intestinal inflammation and digestive diseases with intestinal inflammation. In addition, we provide a summary of the underlying mechanism for saponins-induced treatment on intestinal-inflammation-related disease.

Dietary soyasaponin attenuates 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene-induced contact hypersensitivity via gut microbiota in mice

Soyasaponins (SSs) are abundant in soybeans and display inhibitory activity against contact hypersensitivity (CHS), which is often used as a mouse model for allergic contact dermatitis (ACD); however, their therapeutic mechanisms remain unknown. Here, we attempted to clarify the role of gut microbiota in the inhibition of CHS by dietary soyasaponins. For antibiotic treatment, mice were administered a mixture of ciprofloxacin and metronidazole or vancomycin. These antibiotics and SSs were given to mice via drinking water 3-weeks prior to CHS induction with 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene, and the mice were analysed for ear swelling, tissue oedema, infiltration of Gr-1-positive immune cells, the composition of faecal microbiota and regulatory T (Treg ) cells. The soyasaponin diets attenuated ear swelling and tissue oedema, and reduced the number of Gr-1-positive cells infiltrating ear tissues. CHS caused changes in the structure of the gut microbiota, but dietary SSs blocked the changes in the microbiota composition. Ciprofloxacin and metronidazole treatments significantly enhanced the severity of CHS symptoms, whereas vancomycin treatment blocked the suppressive effect of dietary SSs on CHS. These antibiotic treatments differed in their effects on the gut microbiota composition. Treg cells in auricular lymph node and spleen increased under SS-enriched diets, but this increase was blocked by vancomycin treatment. These results suggest that dietary SSs exert their inhibitory activity on CHS via the gut microbiota in mice, suggesting that dietary supplementation with SSs may have beneficial effects on ACD patients, but that the gut microbiota is a critical determinant of the therapeutic value of dietary SSs.

Role of soybean-derived bioactive compounds in inflammatory bowel disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic, inflammatory condition of the gastrointestinal tract. Patients with IBD present with debilitating symptoms that alter the quality of life and can develop into severe complications requiring surgery. Epidemiological evidence indicates Westernized societies have an elevated IBD burden when compared with Asian societies. Considering the stark contrast between the typical Western and Eastern dietary patterns, it is postulated that differences in food and lifestyle contribute to lower IBD incidence in Asian countries. Soybeans (Glycine max), which are consumed in high quantities and as various preparations in Eastern societies, contain a wealth of natural, biologically active compounds that include isoflavones, bioactive peptides, protease inhibitors, and phytosterols, among many others. These compounds have been shown to improve human health, and preclinical evidence suggests they have potential to improve the prognosis of IBD. This review summarizes the current state of evidence regarding the effects and the mechanisms of action of these soybean-derived bioactive compounds in experimental models of IBD.

Functional macrophages and gastrointestinal disorders

Macrophages (MΦ) differentiate from blood monocytes and participate in innate and adaptive immunity. Because of their abilities to recognize pathogens and activate bactericidal activities, MΦ are always discovered at the site of immune defense. MΦ in the intestine are unique, such that in the healthy intestine, they possess complex mechanisms to protect the gut from inflammation. In these complex mechanisms, they produce anti-inflammatory cytokines, such as interleukin-10 and transforming growth factor-β, and inhibit the inflammatory pathways mediated by Toll-like receptors. It has been demonstrated that resident MΦ play a crucial role in maintaining intestinal homeostasis, and they can be recognized by their unique markers. Nonetheless, in the inflamed intestine, the function of MΦ will change because of environmental variation, which may be one of the mechanisms of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). We provide further explanation about these mechanisms in our review. In addition, we review recent discoveries that MΦ may be involved in the development of gastrointestinal tumors. We will highlight the possible therapeutic targets for the management of IBD and gastrointestinal tumors, and we also discuss why more details are needed to fully understand all other effects of intestinal MΦ.

Inhibitory effects of dietary soyasaponin on 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene-induced contact hypersensitivity in mice

Soyasaponins (SSs) abundant in soybean have anti-inflammatory activities; however, their therapeutic effects on allergic contact dermatitis (ACD) remain unknown. To assess the effects of SS-enriched diets on ACD, we used a mouse model of contact hypersensitivity (CHS). Mice were fed low-dose or high-dose SS-containing diets for 3 weeks prior to CHS induction with 2,4-dinitrofluorobenzene (DNFB). The low-dose SS diet attenuated DNFB-induced ear swelling and tissue oedema, and reduced the number of infiltrating Gr-1-positive myeloid cells. Low-dose, but not high-dose, SSs decreased chemokine (C-X-C motif) ligand 2 (CXCL2) and triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells (TREM)-1 production in ear tissues, compared to a control. Taxonomic 16S rRNA analysis revealed significant alterations in faecal microbiota caused by CHS, which were reversed by low-dose SSs. The low-dose SS and non-CHS groups clustered together, while the high-dose SS group split between CHS and non-CHS clusters. Our results demonstrated that low-dose SSs alleviated CHS symptoms by attenuating inflammation and improving the intestinal microbiota composition, suggesting that dietary SSs may have beneficial effects on ACD.

Soyasaponin Ab inhibits lipopolysaccharide-induced acute lung injury in mice

Soyasaponin Ab (SA) has been reported to have anti-inflammatory effect. However, the effects of SA on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced acute lung injury (ALI) have not been reported. The aim of this study was to investigate the anti-inflammatory effects of SA on LPS-induced ALI and clarify the possible mechanism. The mice were stimulated with LPS to induce ALI. SA was given 1h after LPS treatment. 12h later, lung tissues were collected to assess pathological changes and edema. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) was collected to assess inflammatory cytokines and nitric oxide (NO) production. In vitro, mice alveolar macrophages were used to investigate the anti-inflammatory mechanism of SA. Our results showed that SA attenuated LPS-induced lung pathological changes, edema, the expression of cycloxygenase-2 (COX-2) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) in lung tissues, as well as TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, and NO production in mice. Meanwhile, SA up-regulated the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase decreased by LPS in mice. SA also inhibited LPS-induced TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β production as well as NF-κB activation in alveolar macrophages. Furthermore, SA could activate Liver X Receptor Alpha (LXRα) and knockdown of LXRα by RNAi abrogated the anti-inflammatory effects of SA. In conclusion, the current study demonstrated that SA exhibited protective effects against LPS-induced acute lung injury and the possible mechanism was involved in activating LXRα, thereby inhibiting LPS-induced inflammatory response.

Impact of soyasaponin I on TLR2 and TLR4 induced inflammation in the MUTZ-3-cell model

The anti-inflammatory capacity of SoSa I is based on influencing both monocytic TLR2- and TLR4-induced inflammation by inhibiting whole bacteria more effectively than their appropriate PAMPs.

Evaluation of cytotoxicity and immune modulatory activities of soyasaponin Ab: an in vitro and in vivo study

To improve the immune efficacy of protein subunit vaccines, novel adjuvants are needed to elicit a suitable protective immune response and to promote long term immunologic memory. In this work, soyasaponin Ab, a major constituent among group A soyasaponins in soybeans was purified and prepared from soy hypocotyls. The immunomodulatory effects of soyasaponin Ab both in vitro and in vivo were investigated, and its pro-immunomodulatory molecular mechanism was also studied. For in vitro assays, with mouse macrophage cell line RAW264.7 as the studying model, both cytotoxicity and immune stimulatory activity were investigated to evaluate the potential of soyasaponin Ab as the vaccine adjuvant. The results indicated that soyasaponin Ab could be significantly safer than Quillaja saponins (QS). Soyasaponin Ab showed no toxicities over the tested concentration ranges compared to QS. Soyasaponin Ab was proved able to promote releases of inflammatory cytokines like TNFα and IL-1β in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, NF-κB signalling was also activated by soyasaponin Ab effectively. In addition, with TLR4 gene expression of RAW264.7 cell inhibited by RNA interference, immune stimulatory effects by soyasaponin Ab dropped down significantly. On the other hand, the in vivo experiment results showed that anti-ovalbumin (OVA) IgG, IgG1, IgG2a, IgG2b were significantly enhanced by the soyasaponin Ab and QS groups (p<0.05 or p<0.01). The results suggested that compared to QS, soyasaponin Ab may represent a viable candidate for effective vaccine adjuvant. TLR4 receptor dependent pathway may be involved in immune stimulatory effects of soyasaponin Ab.

Ursolic acid isolated from the seed of Cornus officinalis ameliorates colitis in mice by inhibiting the binding of lipopolysaccharide to Toll-like receptor 4 on macrophages

Ursolic acid, which was isolated from an ethanol extract of Cornus officinalis seed, potently inhibited nuclear factor κ light-chain enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) activation in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated peritoneal macrophages. Therefore, we investigated the anti-inflammatory mechanism of ursolic acid in LPS-stimulated macrophages and colitic mice. Ursolic acid inhibited phosphorylation of interleukin 1 receptor-associated kinase (IRAK)1, TAK1, inhibitor of nuclear factor κB kinase subunit β (IKKβ), and IκBα as well as activation of NF-κB and MAPKs in LPS-stimulated macrophages. Ursolic acid suppressed LPS-stimulated interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, and inducible NO synthetase (iNOS) expression as well as PGE2 and NO levels. Ursolic acid not only inhibited the Alexa Fluor 488-conjugated LPS-mediated shift of macrophages but also reduced the intensity of fluorescent LPS bound to the macrophages transiently transfected with or without MyD88 siRNA. However, ursolic acid did not suppress NF-κB activation in peptidoglycan-stimulated macrophages. Oral administration of ursolic acid significantly inhibited 2,4,6-trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced colon shortening and myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity in mice. Ursolic acid also suppressed TNBS-induced COX-2 and iNOS expression as well as NF-κB activation in colon tissues. Ursolic acid (20 mg/kg) also inhibited TNBS-induced IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α by 93, 86, and 85%, respectively (p < 0.05). However, ursolic acid reversed TNBS-mediated downregulation of IL-10 expression to 79% of the normal control group (p < 0.05). On the basis of these findings, ursolic acid may ameliorate colitis by regulating NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways via the inhibition of LPS binding to TLR4 on immune cells.

Biological functionality of soyasaponins and soyasapogenols

Soyasaponins are a group of structurally complex oleanane triterpenoids primarily found in soybeans and have diverse biological properties. The recent investigations and findings (since 2000) regarding the biological functions of soyasaponins and their aglycones, including their anti-inflammatory, antimutagenic, anticarcinogenic, antimicrobial, and hepato- and cardiovascular-protective activities, are herein summarized. The primary conclusion is that the use of soyasaponins and soyasapogenols in functional foods should be considered.

Lactobacillus plantarum CLP-0611 ameliorates colitis in mice by polarizing M1 to M2-like macrophages

The TNF-α expression-inhibitory effect of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) isolated from kimchi were measured in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated peritoneal macrophages. Among the LAB evaluated, Lactobacillus plantarum CLP-0611 inhibited the IL-1β and IL-6 expression, as well as the NF-κB and AP1 activation in LPS-stimulated peritoneal macrophages. Therefore, we investigated its inhibitory effect on 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced colitis in mice. TNBS significantly induced colon shortening, as well as myeloperoxidase activity and macroscopic score. Oral administration of CLP-0611 significantly reduced TNBS-induced body weight loss, colon shortening, myeloperoxidase activity, IRAK-1 phosphorylation, NF-κB and MAP kinase (p38, ERK, JNK) activation, and iNOS and COX-2 expression. CLP-0611 also inhibited TNBS-induced expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6. However, IL-10 expression was induced. CLP-0611 also induced the production of M2 macrophage markers (IL-10, arginase I and CD206). Based on these findings, CLP-0611 inhibits TLR-4-linked NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways and polarizes M1 to M2-like macrophages, thus ameliorating colitis.

Inhibitory effect of baicalin on iNOS and NO expression in intestinal mucosa of rats with acute endotoxemia

The mechanism by which baicalin modulated the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and nitric oxide (NO) in the mucosa of distal ileum was investigated in a rat model of acute endo-toxemia induced by intraperitoneal injection of bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The experiment demonstrated that LPS upregulated iNOS mRNA and protein expression as well as NO produc-tion (measured as the stable degradation production, nitrites). LPS not only increased toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) content, but also activated p38 and activating transcription factor 2 (ATF2) and inactivated PPARγ via phosphorylation. Inhibition of p38 signalling pathway by chemical inhibitor SB202190 and small interfering RNA (siRNA) ameliorated LPS-induced iNOS generation, while suppression of PPARγ pathway by SR-202 boosted LPS-elicited iNOS expression. Baicalin treatment (I) attenuated LPS-induced iNOS mRNA and protein as well as nitrites generation, and (II) ameliorated LPS-elicited TLR4 and PPARγ production, and (III) inhibited p38/ATF2 phosphorylation leading to suppression of p38 signalling, and (IV) prevented PPARγ from phosphorylation contributing to maintainence of PPARγ bioactivity. However, SR-202 co-treatment (I) partially abrogated the inhibitory effect of baicalin on iNOS mRNA expression, and (II) partially reversed baicalin-inhibited p38 phosphorylation. In summary, baicalin could ameliorate LPS-induced iNOS and NO overproduction in mucosa of rat terminal ileum via inhibition of p38 signalling cascade and activation of PPARγ pathway. There existed a interplay between the two signalling pathways.

Lactobacillus brevis G-101 ameliorates colitis in mice by inhibiting NF-κB, MAPK and AKT pathways and by polarizing M1 macrophages to M2-like macrophages

AIM

We isolated Lactobacillus brevis G-101 from kimchi lactic acid bacteria (LAB) strains, which induced IL-10 expression in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated peritoneal macrophages. To evaluate the inflammatory effect of G-101, we examined its inhibitory effect in 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced colitic mice.

MATERIALS AND RESULTS

The colitic mice were prepared by intrarectal injection of TNBS. We measured intestinal mucosal cytokines by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay; activation of transcription factors, by immunoblotting; and macrophage polarization markers, by real-time polymerase chain reaction. Of 200 LAB strains tested, Lact. brevis G-101 showed most potent activity for induction of IL-10 expression in LPS-stimulated peritoneal macrophages. However, it significantly inhibited the expression of TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 and the phosphorylation of IRAK1 and AKT, and activated NF-κB and MAPKs. Treatment with TNBS caused colon shortening; increased myeloperoxidase activity; and increased IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α expression in mice. Oral administration of Lact. brevis G-101 significantly inhibited these activities. Lactobacillus brevis G-101 inhibited TNBS-induced IRAK-1 phosphorylation and NF-κB activation, as well as the expression of COX-2 and iNOS. Lactobacillus brevis G-101 inhibited the expression of M1 macrophage markers, but increased the expression of M2 macrophages in the colons of TNBS-treated mice.

CONCLUSIONS

Lactobacillus brevis G-101 may improve colitis by inhibiting the IRAK1/NF-κB, MAPK and AKT pathways and by polarizing M1 macrophages to M2-like macrophages.

SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY

These results suggest that IL-10 expression-inducing LAB can ameliorate colitis by inhibiting NF-κB activation and macrophage polarization.

Effects of Enterococcus faecalis lipoteichoic acid on receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB ligand and osteoprotegerin expression in periodontal ligament fibroblasts

AIM

To investigate the influence of Enterococcus faecalis lipoteichoic acid (LTA) on the key bone resorption-regulating proteins, receptor activator of nuclear factor-κB ligand (RANKL) and osteoprotegerin (OPG) in human periodontal ligament fibroblasts (PDL cells).

METHODOLOGY

Periodontal ligament cells were subjected to various concentrations of LTA. Cell viability was then determined by methyl thiazolyl tetrazolium (MTT) assay, whilst the expression levels of RANKL and OPG were investigated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and Western blotting. The effect of the inhibitors [IL-1 receptor-associated kinase (IRAK)-1/4, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) (SB203580)] on LTA-stimulated RANKL/OPG activation was examined. Cell viability and RANKL/OPG ratio in PDL cells were also analysed by MTT assay and Western blotting. Data were analysed using one-way anova or t-test at a significance level of P = 0.05.

RESULT

Cell viability was reduced significantly in the LTA group in a dose-dependent fashion (P < 0.05). In addition, LTA was found to upregulate the protein expression of RANKL, OPG and their relative ratio in PDL cells (P < 0.05). The optimal concentration of LTA used in PDL cells was determined to be 10 μg mL(-1) . Following IRAK1/4 and p38MAPK inhibition, LTA-stimulated increases of RANKL/OPG ratio were significantly reduced (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Enterococcus faecalis LTA could upregulate the expression of RANKL and OPG at different rates, suggesting a potential role for LTA in the bone resorption process of refractory apical periodontitis through the regulation of RANKL and OPG. In addition, IRAK1/4 and p38MAPK signalling involving RANKL/OPG may contribute to inflammatory responses from PDL cells.

Ginsenoside Re ameliorates inflammation by inhibiting the binding of lipopolysaccharide to TLR4 on macrophages

Ginseng (the root of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer, family Araliaceae), which contains protopanaxadiol ginsenoside Rb1 and protopanaxatriol ginsenoside Re as main constituents, is frequently used to treat cancer, inflammation, and stress. In the preliminary study, protopanaxatriol ginsenoside Re inhibited NF-κB activation in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated murine peritoneal macrophages. Therefore, we investigated its anti-inflammatory effect in peptidoglycan (PGN)-, LPS-, or tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α)-stimulated peritoneal macrophages and, in addition, in LPS-induced systemic inflammation and 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced colitis in mice. Ginsenoside Re inhibited IKK-β phosphorylation and NF-κB activation, as well as the expression of proinflammatory cytokines, TNF-α and IL-1β, in LPS-stimulated peritoneal macrophages, but it did not inhibit them in TNF-α- or PG-stimulated peritoneal macrophages. Ginsenoside Re also inhibited IRAK-1 phosphorylation induced by LPS, as well as IRAK-1 and IRAK-4 degradations in LPS-stimulated peritoneal macrophages. Ginsenoside Re inhibited the binding of Alexa Fluor 488-conjugated LPS to TLR4 on peritoneal macrophages. Furthermore, ginsenoside Re inhibited the binding of LPS to TLR4 on peritoneal macrophages transiently transfected with MyD88 siRNAs. Orally administered ginsenoside Re significantly inhibited the expression of IL-1β and TNF-α on LPS-induced systemic inflammation and TNBS-induced colitis in mice. Ginsenoside Re inhibited colon shortening and myeloperoxidase activity in TNBS-treated mice. Ginsenoside Re reversed the reduced expression of tight-junction-associated proteins ZO-1, claudin-1, and occludin. Ginsenoside Re (20 mg/kg) inhibited the activation of NF-κB in TNBS-treated mice. On the basis of these findings, ginsenoside Re may ameliorate inflammation by inhibiting the binding of LPS to TLR4 on macrophages.