Nanoplasmonics for dual-molecule release through nanopores in the membrane of red blood cells

A photothermal surface modified with polyelectrolyte multilayers for gene transfection and cell harvest

Gene transfection, which involves introducing nucleic acids into cells, is a pivotal technology in the life sciences and medical fields, particularly in gene therapy. Surface-mediated transfection, primarily targeting cells adhering to surfaces, shows promise for enhancing cell transfection by localizing and presenting surface-bound nucleic acids directly to the cells. However, optimizing endocytosis for efficient delivery remains a persistent challenge. Additionally, ensuring efficient and non-traumatic cell harvest capability is crucial for applications such as ex vivo cell-based therapy. To address these challenges, we developed a photothermal platform with enzymatic degradation capability for efficient gene transfection and cell harvest. This platform is based on carbon nanotubes (CNTs) doped with poly(dimethylsiloxane) and modified with polyelectrolyte multilayers (PEMs) containing hyaluronic acid and quaternized chitosan, allowing for substantial loading of poly(ethyleneimine)/plasmid DNA (pDNA) complexes through electrostatic interactions. Upon irradiation of near-infrared laser, the photothermal properties of CNTs enable high transfection efficiency by delivering pDNA into attached cells via a membrane disruption mechanism. The engineered cells can be harvested by treating with a non-toxic hyaluronidase solution to degrade PEMs, thus maintaining good viability for further applications. This platform has demonstrated remarkable efficacy across various cell lines (including Hep-G2 cells, Ramos cells and primary T cells), achieving a transfection efficiency exceeding 95 %, cell viability exceeding 90 %, and release efficiency surpassing 95 %, highlighting its potential for engineering living cells.

A Photothermal Polymeric Platform for Efficient and Safe Gene Transfection: When Polyethylenimine Collaborates with Indocyanine Green

Gene transfection, defined by the delivery of nucleic acids into cellular compartments, stands as a crucial procedure in gene therapy. While branched polyethylenimine (PEI) is widely regarded as the "gold standard" for nonviral vectors, its cationic nature presents several issues, including nonspecific protein adsorption and notable cytotoxicity. Additionally, it often fails to achieve high transfection efficiency, particularly with hard-to-transfect cell types. To overcome these challenges associated with PEI as a vector for plasmid DNA (pDNA), the photothermal agent indocyanine green (ICG) is integrated with PEI and pDNA to form the PEI/ICG/pDNA (PI/pDNA) complex for more efficient and safer gene transfection. The negatively charged ICG serves a dual purpose: neutralizing PEI's excessive positive charges to reduce cytotoxicity and, under near-infrared irradiation, inducing local heating that enhances cell membrane permeability, thus facilitating the uptake of PI/pDNA complexes to boost transfection efficiency. Using pDNA encoding vascular endothelial growth factor as a model, our system shows enhanced transfection efficiency in vitro for hard-to-transfect endothelial cells, leading to improved cell proliferation and migration. Furthermore, in vivo studies reveal the therapeutic potential of this system in accelerating the healing of infected wounds by promoting angiogenesis and reducing inflammation. This approach offers a straightforward and effective method for gene transfection, showing potentials for tissue engineering and cell-based therapies.

Plasmonic-Driven Regulation of Biomolecular Activity In Situ

Selective and remote manipulation of activity for biomolecules, including protein, DNA, and lipids, is crucial to elucidate their molecular function and to develop biomedical applications. While advances in tool development, such as optogenetics, have significantly impacted these directions, the requirement for genetic modification significantly limits their therapeutic applications. Plasmonic nanoparticle heating has brought new opportunities to the field, as hot nanoparticles are unique point heat sources at the nanoscale. In this review, we summarize fundamental engineering problems such as plasmonic heating and the resulting biomolecular responses. We highlight the biological responses and applications of manipulating biomolecules and provide perspectives for future directions in the field.

Controllable Gold Nanocluster-Emulsion Interface for Direct Cell Penetration and Photothermal Killing

In the view of their ability to be uptaken by cells, colloidal particles can exert diverse physiological effects and are promising vehicles for the intracellular delivery of biologically active substances. Given that the modulation of biomaterial interfaces greatly facilitates the prediction and control of the corresponding cellular responses, the interfacial behavior of hydrophobic dye-modified gold (Au) nanoclusters (Au NCs) is rationally designed to develop Au NC-containing emulsions and control their biointerfacial interactions with cell membranes. The observed biological performance is indicative of a physical penetration mechanism. The amphiphilic Au NCs decrease the interfacial energy of two immiscible liquids and hinder droplet coalescence to facilitate the formation of emulsions thermodynamically stabilized by dipole-dipole and hydrophobic interactions. Moreover, the amphiphilic Au NCs are localized on the emulsion droplet surface and form segregated interfacial microdomains that adapt to the membrane structure and facilitate the traverse of the emulsions across the cell membrane via direct penetration. Fast penetration coupled with excellent photophysical performance endows the emulsions with multifluorescence tracing and efficient photothermal killing capabilities. The successful change of the interaction mode between NCs and biological objects and the provision of a universal formulation to modulate biointerfacial interactions are expected to inspire new bioapplications.

Red Blood Cell Inspired Strategies for Drug Delivery: Emerging Concepts and New Advances

In the past five decades, red blood cells (RBCs) have been extensively explored as drug delivery systems due to their distinguishing potential in modulating the pharmacokinetic, pharmacodynamics, and biological activity of carried payloads. The extensive interests in RBC-mediated drug delivery technologies are in part derived from RBCs' unique biological features such as long circulation time, wide access to many tissues in the body, and low immunogenicity. Owing to these outstanding properties, a large body of efforts have led to the development of various RBC-inspired strategies to enable precise drug delivery with enhanced therapeutic efficacy and reduced off-target toxicity. In this review, we discuss emerging concepts and new advances in such RBC-inspired strategies, including native RBCs, ghost RBCs, RBC-mimetic nanoparticles, and RBC-derived extracellular vesicles, for drug delivery.

RGD Peptide Modified Erythrocyte Membrane/Porous Nanoparticles Loading Mir-137 for NIR-Stimulated Theranostics of Glioblastomas

Cell-derived drug carriers have increasingly gained the interest of the scientific community due to their ability to imitate various natural properties of their source cells. We developed theranostics nanoplatforms composed of mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs), indocyanine green (ICG) molecules, microRNAs-137 (miR-137), red-blood-cell membranes (RM), and tumor-targeting cyclo Arg-Gly-Asp-d-Phe-Cys peptides (cRGD(fC)), which were abbreviated as MSNs/ICG/miR/RM/RGD particles. These particles possessed photothermal and gene therapy properties due to ICG and miR-137, respectively. The photothermal conversion efficiency was ~18.7%. Upon 808 nm light irradiation, the tumor inhibition rate reached 94.9% with dosage of 10 mg/kg. The developed nanoplatform possessed unique properties, such as exceptional biocompatibility, immune escaping, and specific recognition, which was also used for near-infrared fluorescence, photoacoustic (PA) bimodal imaging-guided tumor recognition.

A Photothermal Nanoplatform with Sugar-Triggered Cleaning Ability for High-Efficiency Intracellular Delivery

Intracellular delivery of functional molecules is of great importance in various biomedical and biotechnology applications. Recently, nanoparticle-based photothermal poration has attracted increasing attention because it provided a facile and efficient method to permeabilize cells transiently, facilitating the entry of exogenous molecules into cells. However, this method still has some safety concerns associated with the nanoparticles that bind to the cell membranes or enter the cells. Herein, a nanoplatform with both photothermal property and sugar-triggered cleaning ability for intracellular delivery is developed based on phenylboronic acid (PBA) functionalized porous magnetic nanoparticles (named as M-PBA). The M-PBA particles could bind to the target cells effectively through the specific interactions between PBA groups and the cis-diol containing components on the cell membrane. During a short-term near-infrared irradiation, the bound particles convert absorbed light energy to heat, enabling high-efficiency delivery of various exogenous molecules into the target cells via a photothermal poration mechanism. After delivery, the bound particles could be easily "cleaned" from the cell surface via mild sugar-treatment and collected by a magnet, avoiding the possible side effects caused by the entrance of particles or their fragments. The delivery and cleaning process is short and effective without compromising the viability and proliferation ability of the cells with delivered molecules, suggesting that the M-PBA particles could be used as promising intracellular delivery agents with a unique combination of efficiency, safety, and flexibility.

Transient nuclear lamin A/C accretion aids in recovery from vapor nanobubble-induced permeabilisation of the plasma membrane

Vapor nanobubble (VNB) photoporation is a physical method for intracellular delivery that has gained significant interest in the past decade. It has successfully been used to introduce molecular cargo of diverse nature into different cell types with high throughput and minimal cytotoxicity. For translational purposes, it is important to understand whether and how photoporation affects cell homeostasis. To obtain a comprehensive view on the transcriptional rewiring that takes place after VNB photoporation, we performed a longitudinal shotgun RNA-sequencing experiment. Six hours after photoporation, we found a marked upregulation of LMNA transcripts as well as their protein products, the A-type lamins. At the same time point, we observed a significant increase in several heterochromatin marks, suggesting a global stiffening of the nucleus. These molecular features vanished 24 h after photoporation. Since VNB-induced chromatin condensation was prolonged in LMNA knockout cells, A-type lamins may be required for restoring the nucleus to its original state. Selective depletion of A-type lamins reduced cell viability after VNB photoporation, while pharmacological stimulation of LMNA transcription increased the percentage of successfully transfected cells that survived after photoporation. Therefore, our results suggest that cells respond to VNB photoporation by temporary upregulation of A-type lamins to facilitate their recovery.

Harvesting Light To Produce Heat: Photothermal Nanoparticles for Technological Applications and Biomedical Devices

The photothermal properties of nanoparticles (NPs), that is, their ability to convert absorbed light into heat, have been studied since the end of the last century, mainly on gold NPs. In the new millennium, these studies have developed into a burst of research dedicated to the photothermal ablation of tumors. However, beside this strictly medical theme, research has also flourished in the connected areas of photothermal antibacterial surface coatings, gels and polymers, of photothermal surfaces for cell stimulation, as well as in purely technological areas that do not involve medical biotechnology. These include the direct conversion of solar light into heat, a more efficient sun-powered generation of steam and the use of inkjet-printed patterns of photothermal NPs for anticounterfeit printing based on temperature reading, to cite but a few. After an analysis of the photothermal effect (PTE) and its mechanism, this minireview briefly considers the antitumor-therapy theme and takes an in-depth look at all the other technological and biomedical applications of the PTE, paying particular attention to photothermal materials whose NPs have joined those based on Au.

Biointeraction of Erythrocyte Ghost Membranes with Gold Nanoparticles Fluorescents

The application of new technologies for treatments against different diseases is increasingly innovative and effective. In the case of nanomedicine, the combination of nanoparticles with biological membranes consists of a “camouflage” technique, which improves biological interaction and minimizes the secondary effects caused by these remedies. In this work, gold nanoparticles synthesized by chemical reduction (Turkevich ≈13 nm) were conjugated with fluorescein isothiocyanate to amplify their optical properties. Fluorescent nanoparticles were deposited onto the surface of hemoglobin-free erythrocytes. Ghost erythrocytes were obtained from red blood cells by density gradient separation in a hypotonic medium and characterized with fluorescence, optical, and electron microscopy; the average size of erythrocyte ghosts was 9 µm. Results show that the functional groups of sodium citrate (COO-) and fluorophore (-N=C=S) adhere by electrostatic attraction to the surface of the hemoglobin-free erythrocyte membrane, forming the membrane–particle–fluorophore. These interactions can contribute to imaging applications, by increasing the sensitivity of measurement caused by surface plasmon resonance and fluorescence, in the context of biological membranes.

Phototheranostics Using Erythrocyte-Based Particles

There has been a recent increase in the development of delivery systems based on red blood cells (RBCs) for light-mediated imaging and therapeutic applications. These constructs are able to take advantage of the immune evasion properties of the RBC, while the addition of an optical cargo allows the particles to be activated by light for a number of promising applications. Here, we review some of the common fabrication methods to engineer these constructs. We also present some of the current light-based applications with potential for clinical translation, and offer some insight into future directions in this exciting field.

Erythrocytes and Nanoparticles: New Therapeutic Systems

Nano-delivery systems represent one of the most studied fields, thanks to the associated improvement in the treatment of human diseases. The functionality of nanostructures is a crucial point, which the effectiveness of nanodrugs depends on. A hybrid approach strategy using synthetic nanoparticles (NPs) and erythrocytes offers an optimal blend of natural and synthetic materials. This, in turn, allows medical practitioners to exploit the combined advantages of erythrocytes and NPs. Erythrocyte-based drug delivery systems have been investigated for their biocompatibility, as well as the long circulation time allowed by specific surface receptors that inhibit immune clearance. In this review, we will discuss several methods—whole erythrocytes as drug carriers, red blood cell membrane-camouflaged nanoparticles and nano-erythrosomes (NERs)—while paying attention to their application and specific preparation methods. The ability to target cells makes erythrocytes excellent drug delivery systems. They can carry a wide range of therapeutic molecules while also acting as bioreactors; thus, they have many applications in therapy and in the diagnosis of many diseases.

Soft erythrocyte-based bacterial microswimmers for cargo delivery

Bacteria-propelled biohybrid microswimmers have recently shown to be able to actively transport and deliver cargos encapsulated into their synthetic constructs to specific regions locally. However, usage of synthetic materials as cargo carriers can result in inferior performance in load-carrying efficiency, biocompatibility, and biodegradability, impeding clinical translation of biohybrid microswimmers. Here, we report construction and external guidance of bacteria-driven microswimmers using red blood cells (RBCs; erythrocytes) as autologous cargo carriers for active and guided drug delivery. Multifunctional biohybrid microswimmers were fabricated by attachment of RBCs [loaded with anticancer doxorubicin drug molecules and superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (SPIONs)] to bioengineered motile bacteria, Escherichia coli MG1655, via biotin-avidin-biotin binding complex. Autonomous and on-board propulsion of biohybrid microswimmers was provided by bacteria, and their external magnetic guidance was enabled by SPIONs loaded into the RBCs. Furthermore, bacteria-driven RBC microswimmers displayed preserved deformability and attachment stability even after squeezing in microchannels smaller than their sizes, as in the case of bare RBCs. In addition, an on-demand light-activated hyperthermia termination switch was engineered for RBC microswimmers to control bacteria population after operations. RBCs, as biological and autologous cargo carriers in the biohybrid microswimmers, offer notable advantages in stability, deformability, biocompatibility, and biodegradability over synthetic cargo-carrier materials. The biohybrid microswimmer design presented here transforms RBCs from passive cargo carriers into active and guidable cargo carriers toward targeted drug and other cargo delivery applications in medicine.

Surface-Mediated Intracellular Delivery by Physical Membrane Disruption

Effective and nondestructive intracellular delivery of exogenous molecules and other functional materials into living cells is of importance for diverse biological fundamental research and therapeutic applications, such as gene editing and cell-based therapies. However, for most exogenous molecules, the cell plasma membrane is effectively impermeable and thus remains the greatest barrier to intracellular delivery. In recent years, methods based on surface-mediated physical membrane disruption have attracted considerable attention. These methods exploit the physical properties of the surface to transiently increase the membrane permeability of cells come in contact thereto, thereby facilitating the efficient intracellular delivery of molecules regardless of molecule or target cell type. In this Review, we focus on recent progress, particularly over the past decade, on these surface-mediated membrane disruption-based delivery systems. According to the membrane disruption mechanism, three categories can be recognized: (i) mechanical penetration, (ii) electroporation, and (iii) photothermal poration. Each of these is discussed in turn and a brief perspective on future developments in this promising area is presented.

Sub-10 nm Nanolaminated Al2O3/HfO2 Coatings for Long-Term Stability of Cu Plasmonic Nanodisks in Physiological Environments

By supporting localized plasmon modes, metal-based plasmonic nanostructures can confine optical fields at deep-subwavelength scale in various applications, such as biological and chemical sensing, nanoscale light emission, and solar energy harvesting. While Cu is a low-cost complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) compatible material, its poor chemical stability limits the use of Cu plasmonic nanodevices in corrosive biochemical aqueous environments. In this paper, we demonstrate that sub-10 nm Al₂O₃/HfO₂ nanolaminated coatings can significantly extend the lifetime of Cu nanodisk arrays from ∼5 h to ∼180 days in the physiological environment of 1× phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) at 37 °C. Cu nanodisk arrays are fabricated using freestanding Au nanohole array films as the physical vapor deposition masks and sub-10 nm nanolaminated coatings composed of alternating Al₂O₃ and HfO₂ nanolayers are grown on Cu nanodisk arrays by atomic layer deposition (ALD). Time-dependent optical extinction measurements of Cu nanodisk arrays are conducted in 1× solutions at 37 °C to investigate the anticorrosion performance for different pure and nanolaminated ALD coatings. We observe a linear relationship between the lifetime of Cu nanodisk arrays in 1× PBS at 37 °C and the nanolaminated coating thickness, and ∼1.3 nm nanolaminated coatings of ∼10 ALD cycles can extend the lifetime of Cu plasmonics up to ∼20 days. Furthermore, we find that the anticorrosion performance of Al₂O₃/HfO₂ nanolaminated ALD coatings strongly depends on the processing and the geometric parameters, such as the annealing temperature and the nanolaminated backbone unit size.

Nanobody click chemistry for convenient site-specific fluorescent labelling, single step immunocytochemistry and delivery into living cells by photoporation and live cell imaging

While conventional antibodies have been an instrument of choice in immunocytochemistry for some time, their small counterparts known as nanobodies have been much less frequently used for this purpose. In this study we took advantage of the availability of nanobody cDNAs to site-specifically introduce a non-standard amino acid carrying an azide/alkyne moiety, allowing subsequent Cu(I)-catalyzed Azide-Alkyne Click Chemistry (CuAAC). This generated a fluorescently labelled nanobody that can be used in single step immunocytochemistry as compared to conventional two step immunocytochemistry. Two strategies were explored to label nanobodies with Alexa Fluor 488. The first involved enzymatic addition of an alkyne-containing peptide to nanobodies using sortase A, while the second consisted of incorporating para-azido phenylalanine at the nanobody C-terminus. Through these approaches, the fluorophore was covalently and site-specifically attached. It was demonstrated that cortactin and β-catenin, cytoskeletal and adherens junction proteins respectively, can be imaged in cells in this manner through single step immunocytochemistry. However, fixation and permeabilization of cells can alter native protein structure and form a dense cross-linked protein network, encumbering antibody binding. It was shown that photoporation prior to fixation not only allowed delivery of nanobodies into living cells, but also facilitated β-catenin nanobody Nb86 imaging of its target, which was not possible in fixed cells. Pharmacological inhibitors are lacking for many non-enzymatic proteins, and it is therefore expected that new biological information will be obtained through photoporation of fluorescent nanobodies, which allows the study of short term effects, independent of gene-dependent (intrabody) expression.

Recent Advances in the Application of Glycan-Modified Self-Assembled Monolayers

Glycans have many important roles in human health and disease in processes such as infection, fertilization, cellular development, cellular adhesion, cancer metastasis and immune system response. The presentation of glycan structures on surfaces for screening of their interaction with protein binding partners, interactions with individual cells, and development of bioassays is an actively developing field. Self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) of glycan terminated alkanethiols on gold have found application in many of these areas. Additionally, more complex structures such as glycan modified polymers on gold surfaces have provided new routes for multivalent glycan presentation. Glycans have also been conjugated to monolayers formed on other useful substrates such as glass or silicon wafers. SAMs have been formed both by direct immobilization of glycan terminated alkanethiols and by conjugation of glycans to pre-formed SAMs with reactive terminal groups. The structure of the SAMs has been characterized using a range of methods including surface spectroscopy, scanning probe microscopy, and electrochemical methods. The binding of proteins to these SAMs has been followed using methods including surface plasmon resonance and electrochemical techniques such as impedance spectroscopy. In this chapter, we will seek to review the recent literature concerning SAMs containing terminal glycans, with a focus on their biomolecular interactions. The applications of these glycan-modified SAMs to the screening and study of protein and cellular binding and to biosensor and assay development will be reviewed.

Nanoerythrosome-functionalized biohybrid microswimmers

Biohybrid microswimmers, which are realized through the integration of motile microscopic organisms with artificial cargo carriers, have a significant potential to revolutionize autonomous targeted cargo delivery applications in medicine. Nonetheless, there are many open challenges, such as motility performance and immunogenicity of the biological segment of the microswimmers, which should be overcome before their successful transition to the clinic. Here, we present the design and characterization of a biohybrid microswimmer, which is composed of a genetically engineered peritrichously flagellated Escherichia coli species integrated with red blood cell-derived nanoliposomes, also known as nanoerythrosomes. Initially, we demonstrated nanoerythrosome fabrication using the cell extrusion technique and characterization of their size and functional cell membrane proteins with dynamic light scattering and flow cytometry analyses, respectively. Then, we showed the construction of biohybrid microswimmers through the conjugation of streptavidin-modified bacteria with biotin-modified nanoerythrosomes by using non-covalent streptavidin interaction. Finally, we investigated the motility performance of the nanoerythrosome-functionalized biohybrid microswimmers and compared it with the free-swimming bacteria. The microswimmer design approach presented here could lead to the fabrication of personalized biohybrid microswimmers from patients' own cells with high fabrication efficiencies and motility performances.

Upconversion Nanoparticle-Assisted Payload Delivery from TiO2 under Near-Infrared Light Irradiation for Bacterial Inactivation

The low penetration depth of UV light in mammalian tissue is the critical limitation for the use of TiO₂-based photocatalysis in biomedical applications. In this work, we develop an effective near-infrared (NIR)-active photocatalytic platform that consists of a shell structure of upconversion nanocrystals decorated on a core of Au/dark-TiO₂. The heart of this system is the strong photocatalytic activity in the visible region enabled by the gold surface-plasmon resonance on dark TiO₂ (D-TiO₂). Simulation and experiment demonstrate for an optimized Au/D-TiO₂ combination a highly enhanced light absorption in the visible range. Using ampicillin sodium (AMP) as model drug, we exemplify the effective use of this principle by demonstrating a NIR light-triggered photocatalytic payload release. Importantly, the photocatalytically generated reactive oxygen species can effectively inactivate AMP-resistant bacteria strains, thus maintaining an antibacterial effect even after all drug is released. Overall, we anticipate that the here-introduced NIR-light-active photocatalytic cascade can considerably widen TiO₂-based photocatalysis and its applications into the infrared range.

Self-activated in vivo therapeutic cascade of erythrocyte membrane-cloaked iron-mineralized enzymes

Biomineralization of enzymes for in vivo diagnosis and treatment of diseases remain a considerable challenge, due to their severe reaction conditions and complicated physiological environment. Herein, we reported a biomimetic enzyme cascade delivery nanosystem, tumor-targeted erythrocyte membrane (EM)-cloaked iron-mineralized glucose oxidases (GOx-Fe⁰@EM-A) for enhancing anticancer efficacy by self-activated in vivo cascade to generate sufficient high toxic •OH at tumor site.

Methods: An ultra-small Fe⁰ nanoparticle (Fe⁰NP) was anchored in the inner cavity of glucose oxidase (GOx) to form iron-mineralized glucose oxidase (GOx-Fe⁰) as a potential tumor therapeutic nanocatalyst. Moreover, erythrocyte membrane cloaking delivery of GOx-Fe⁰in vivo was designed to effectively accumulate ultra-small GOx-Fe⁰ at tumor site.

Results: GOx-Fe⁰@EM-A had satisfactory biocompatibility and light-trigged release efficiency. Erythrocyte membrane cloaking of GOx-Fe⁰@EM-A not only prolongs blood circulation but also protects in vivo enzyme activity of GOx-Fe⁰; Tumor targeting of GOx-Fe⁰@EM-A endowed preferential accumulation at tumor site. After NIR light irradiation at tumor site, erythrocyte membrane of GOx-Fe⁰@EM-A was ruptured to achieve light-driven release and tumor deep penetration of ultra-small nanosize GOx-Fe⁰ by the photothermal effect of ICG. Then, GOx-Fe⁰ occurred self-activated in vivo cascade to effectively eradicate tumor by producing the highly cumulative and deeply penetrating •OH at tumor site.

Conclusion: Tumor-targeted erythrocyte membrane-cloaked iron-mineralized glucose oxidase (GOx-Fe0@EM-A) exhibits a promising strategy for striking antitumor efficacy by light-driven tumor deep penetration and self-activated therapeutic cascade.

Photothermal-assisted surface-mediated gene delivery for enhancing transfection efficiency

The development of gene therapy puts forward the requirements for efficient delivery of genetic information into diverse cells. However, in some cases of transfection, especially those for transfecting some primary cells and for delivering large size plasmid DNA (pDNA), the existing conventional transfection methods show poor efficiency. How to further improve transfection efficiency in these hard-to-achieve issues remains a crucial challenge. Here, we report a photothermal-assisted surface-mediated gene delivery based on a polydopamine-polyethylenimine (PDA-PEI) surface. The PDA-PEI surface was prepared through PEI-accelerated dopamine polymerization, which showed efficiency in the immobilization of PEI/pDNA polyplexes and remarkable photothermal properties. Upon IR irradiation, we observed improved transfection efficiencies of two important hard-to-achieve transfection issues, namely the transfection of primary endothelial cells, which are kinds of typical hard-to-transfect cells, and the transfection of cells with large-size pDNA. We demonstrate that the increases of transfection efficiency were due to the hyperthermia-induced pDNA release, the local cell membrane disturbance, and the polyplex internalization. This work highlights the importance of local immobilization and release of pDNA to gene deliveries, showing great potential applications in medical devices in the field of gene therapy.

Hierarchy of Hybrid Materials-The Place of Inorganics-in-Organics in it, Their Composition and Applications

Hybrid materials, or hybrids incorporating both organic and inorganic constituents, are emerging as a very potent and promising class of materials due to the diverse, but complementary nature of the properties inherent of these different classes of materials. The complementarity leads to a perfect synergy of properties of desired material and eventually an end-product. The diversity of resultant properties and materials used in the construction of hybrids, leads to a very broad range of application areas generated by engaging very different research communities. We provide here a general classification of hybrid materials, wherein organics-in-inorganics (inorganic materials modified by organic moieties) are distinguished from inorganics-in-organics (organic materials or matrices modified by inorganic constituents). In the former area, the surface functionalization of colloids is distinguished as a stand-alone sub-area. The latter area-functionalization of organic materials by inorganic additives-is the focus of the current review. Inorganic constituents, often in the form of small particles or structures, are made of minerals, clays, semiconductors, metals, carbons, and ceramics. They are shown to be incorporated into organic matrices, which can be distinguished as two classes: chemical and biological. Chemical organic matrices include coatings, vehicles and capsules assembled into: hydrogels, layer-by-layer assembly, polymer brushes, block co-polymers and other assemblies. Biological organic matrices encompass bio-molecules (lipids, polysaccharides, proteins and enzymes, and nucleic acids) as well as higher level organisms: cells, bacteria, and microorganisms. In addition to providing details of the above classification and analysis of the composition of hybrids, we also highlight some antagonistic yin-&-yang properties of organic and inorganic materials, review applications and provide an outlook to emerging trends.

Two-in-One Platform for High-Efficiency Intracellular Delivery and Cell Harvest: When a Photothermal Agent Meets a Thermoresponsive Polymer

Efficient intracellular delivery of exogenous macromolecules is a key operation in biological research and for clinical applications. Moreover, under particular in vitro or ex vivo conditions, harvesting the engineered cells that maintain good viability is also important. However, none of the methods currently available is truly satisfactory in all respects. Herein, a "two-in-one" platform based on a polydopamine/poly( N-isopropylacrylamide) (PDA/PNIPAAm) hybrid film is developed, showing high efficiency in both cargo delivery and cell harvest without compromising cell viability. Due to the strong photothermal effect of PDA in response to near-infrared irradiation, this film can deliver diverse molecules to a number of cell types (including three hard-to-transfect cells) with an efficiency of ∼99% via membrane-disruption mechanism. Moreover, due to the thermoresponsive properties of PNIPAAm, the cells are harvested from the film without compromising viability by simply decreasing the temperature. A proof-of-concept experiment demonstrates that, using this platform, "recalcitrant" endothelial cells can be transfected by the functional ZNF580 gene and the harvested transfected cells can be recultured with high retention of viability and improved migration. In general, this "two-in-one" platform provides a reliable, universally applicable approach for both intracellular delivery and cell harvest in a highly efficient and nondestructive way, with great potential for use in a wide range of biomedical applications.

Drug Exchange between Albumin Nanoparticles and Erythrocyte Membranes

The effects of thioridazine (TDZ) and chlorpromazine (CPZ) and bovine serum albumin nanoparticles (BSA-NPs) on erythrocyte membranes have been investigated. Two kinds of hemolytic assays were used; hemolysis under hypotonic conditions and hemolysis in physiological conditions. Under hypotonic conditions for 50% hemolysis, both TDZ and CPZ have a biphasic effect on membranes; namely, stabilization at low concentrations and destabilization after reaching a critical concentration. In physiological conditions, there are other critical concentrations above which both drugs hemolyse the erythrocites. In each case, the critical concentrations of TDZ are lower than those of CPZ, which is consistent with the ratio of their partition coefficients. When BSA-NPs are added to the erythrocyte suspension simultaneously with the drugs, the critical concentrations increase for both drugs. The effect is due to the incorporation of a portion of drug substances into the BSA-nanoparticles, which consequently leads to the decrease of the active drug concentrations in the erythrocyte suspension medium. Similar values of the critical concentrations are found when the BSA-NPs are loaded with the drugs before their addition to the erythrocyte suspension in which case the events of the partition are: desorption of the drug from BSA-NPs, diffusion through the medium, and adsorption on erythrocyte membranes. This result suggests that the drugs are not influenced by the processes of adsorption and desorption onto and out of the BSA-NPs, and that the use of BSA-NPs as drug transporters would allow intravenous administration of higher doses of the drug without the risk of erythrocyte hemolysis.

Optical and Thermophoretic Control of Janus Nanopen Injection into Living Cells

Devising strategies for the controlled injection of functional nanoparticles and reagents into living cells paves the way for novel applications in nanosurgery, sensing, and drug delivery. Here, we demonstrate the light-controlled guiding and injection of plasmonic Janus nanopens into living cells. The pens are made of a gold nanoparticle attached to a dielectric alumina shaft. Balancing optical and thermophoretic forces in an optical tweezer allows single Janus nanopens to be trapped and positioned on the surface of living cells. While the optical injection process involves strong heating of the plasmonic side, the temperature of the alumina stays significantly lower, thus allowing the functionalization with fluorescently labeled, single-stranded DNA and, hence, the spatially controlled injection of genetic material with an untethered nanocarrier.

Oxygen Self-Production Red Blood Cell Carrier System for MRI Mediated Cancer Therapy: Ferryl-Hb, Sonodynamic, and Chemical Therapy

Hypoxia in tumors can lead to insufficient oxygen supply during sonodynamic therapy (SDT), which in turn strengthens tumor resistance to sonodynamic efficacy. To conquer hypoxia in tumors and improve the treatment effectiveness, we developed oxygen self-production red blood cell (RBC) carrier system to decompose tumor endogenic H₂O₂ into O₂ and combine triplex cancer therapy: ferryl-hemoglobin (ferryl-Hb), sonodynamic, and chemical therapy. Both hydrophilic sonosensitizer and doxorubicin (DOX) were encapsulated inside RBCs (DOX/Mn-TPPS@RBCs). The drug release can be improved by combining the effects of H₂O₂ and ultrasonic irradiation. Here, we introduced a contrast agent, meso-tetra (4-sulfonatephenyl) porphyrinate manganese(III) complex (Mn-TPPS), which could be used to enhance the signal intensity of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the tumor site. The feasibility of Mn-TPPS as a sonosensitizer was investigated during SDT. Importantly, DOX/Mn-TPPS@RBCs overcame hypoxia in the tumor and improved the efficacy of SDT owing to the O₂ generation by the catalase-catalyzed decomposition of tumor endogenic H₂O₂. Hemoglobin was simultaneously oxidized into highly oxidative ferryl-Hb species by H₂O₂ and reactive oxygen species, resulting in cytotoxicity. Overall, this drug delivery system is a promising therapeutic agent involving in situ production of oxygen inside the tumor, triplex therapy, and MRI.

Laser-induced remote release in vivo in C. elegans from novel silver nanoparticles-alginate hydrogel shells

Non-destructive, controllable, remote light-induced release inside cells enables studying time- and space-specific processes in biology. In this work we demonstrate the remote release of tagged proteins in Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) worms using a near-infrared laser light as a trigger from novel hydrogel shells functionalized with silver nanoparticles responsive to laser light. A new type of hydrogel shells was developed capable of withstanding prolonged storage in the lyophilized state to enable the uptake of the shell by worms, which takes place on an agar plate under standard culture conditions. Uptake of the shells by C. elegans was confirmed using confocal laser scanning microscopy, while release from alginate shells in C. elegans and the laser effect on the shells on a substrate in air was followed using fluorescence microscopy. In addition, Raman microscopy was used to track the localization of particles to avoid the influence of autofluorescence. Hierarchical cluster spectral analysis is used to extract information about the biochemical composition of an area of a nematode containing the hydrogel shells, whose Raman signal is enhanced by the SERS (Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering) effect due to hot spots formed by silver nanoparticles present in the shells. The in vivo release demonstrated here can be used to study intestinal microbiota and probiotic compounds as well as a possible future strategy for gene delivery in the worms, other insects and other organisms.

Multiresonant Composite Optical Nanoantennas by Out-of-plane Plasmonic Engineering

Optical nanoantennas can concentrate light and enhance light-matter interactions in subwavelength domain, which is useful for photodetection, light emission, optical biosensing, and spectroscopy. However, conventional optical nanoantennas operating at a single wavelength band are not suitable for multiband applications. Here, we propose and exploit an out-of-plane plasmonic engineering strategy to design and create composite optical nanoantennas that can support multiple nanolocalized modes at different resonant wavelengths. These multiresonant composite nanoantennas are composed of vertically stacked building blocks of metal-insulator-metal loop nanoantennas. Studies of multiresonant composite nanoantennas demonstrate that the number of supported modes depends on the number of vertically stacked building blocks and the resonant wavelengths of individual modes are tunable by controlling the out-of-plane geometries of their building blocks. In addition, numerical studies show that the resonant wavelengths of individual modes in composite nanoantennas can deviate from the optical response of building blocks due to hybridization of magnetic modes in neighboring building blocks. Using Au nanohole arrays as deposition masks to fabricate arrays of multilayered composite nanoantennas, we experimentally demonstrate their multiresonant optical properties in good agreement with theory predictions. These studies show that out-of-plane engineered multiresonant composite nanoantennas can provide new opportunities for fundamental nanophotonics research and practical applications involving optical multiband operations, such as multiphoton process, broadband solar energy conversion, and wavelength-multiplexed optical system.

Application of Nanoparticles for Targeting G Protein-Coupled Receptors

Nanoparticles (NPs) have attracted unequivocal attention in recent years due to their potential applications in therapeutics, bio-imaging and material sciences. For drug delivery, NP-based carrier systems offer several advantages over conventional methods. When conjugated with ligands and drugs (or other therapeutic molecules), administrated NPs are able to deliver cargo to targeted sites through ligand-receptor recognition. Such targeted delivery is especially important in cancer therapy. Through this targeted cancer nanotherapy, cancer cells are killed with higher specificity, while the healthy cells are spared. Furthermore, NP drug delivery leads to improved drug load, enhanced drug solubility and stability, and controlled drug release. G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are a superfamily of cell transmembrane receptors. They regulate a plethora of physiological processes through ligand-receptor-binding-induced signaling transduction. With recent evidence unveiling their roles in cancer, GPCR agonists and antagonists have quickly become new targets in cancer therapy. This review focuses on the application of some notable nanomaterials, such as dendrimers, quantum dots, gold nanoparticles, and magnetic nanoparticles, in GPCR-related cancers.

Using porous magnetic iron oxide nanomaterials as a facile photoporation nanoplatform for macromolecular delivery

The intracellular delivery of exogenous macromolecules such as functional proteins, antibodies, polysaccharides and nucleic acids into living cells for biomedical applications is of great interest. Even though great efforts have been devoted to this task, universal delivery systems that provide excellent intracellular delivery performance combined with easy cell recovery are urgently needed. Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles show promising potential for various biomedical applications because of their advantages such as high biocompatibility and cost-effectiveness. Herein, a new facile platform for macromolecular delivery was developed based on the photothermal properties of porous magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (P-MNPs). The near-infrared radiation (NIR) absorption behavior of P-MNPs remarkably facilitates the delivery of macromolecules into cells while maintaining high cell viability. Furthermore, the assistance of polycationic polyethylenimine improves the efficiency of DNA delivery. Most importantly, the cells could be easily recovered after macromolecular delivery by trypsinization, which is of great significance for further practical application of the delivery system. The facile and cost-effective platform proposed in this work provides a new avenue for the utilization of P-MNPs in macromolecular delivery.

Therapeutics incorporating blood constituents

Blood deficiency and dysfunctionality can result in adverse events, which can primarily be treated by transfusion of blood or the re-introduction of properly functioning sub-components. Blood constituents can be engineered on the sub-cellular (i.e., DNA recombinant technology) and cellular level (i.e., cellular hitchhiking for drug delivery) for supplementing and enhancing therapeutic efficacy, in addition to rectifying dysfunctioning mechanisms (i.e., clotting). Herein, we report the progress of blood-based therapeutics, with an emphasis on recent applications of blood transfusion, blood cell-based therapies and biomimetic carriers. Clinically translated technologies and commercial products of blood-based therapeutics are subsequently highlighted and perspectives on challenges and future prospects are discussed.

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

Blood-based therapeutics is a burgeoning field and has advanced considerably in recent years. Blood and its constituents, with and without modification (i.e., combinatorial), have been utilized in a broad spectrum of pre-clinical and clinically-translated treatments. This review article summarizes the most up-to-date progress of blood-based therapeutics in the following contexts: synthetic blood substitutes, acellular/non-recombinant therapies, cell-based therapies, and therapeutic sub-components. The article subsequently discusses clinically-translated technologies and future prospects thereof.

Low-temperature laser-stimulated controllable generation of micro-bubbles in a water suspension of absorptive colloid particles

A method is described for the generation of micrometer-sized vapor-gas bubbles in a water suspension containing absorptive pigment nanoparticles. The diluted suspension (mean interparticle distance 20 μm) absorbs the continuous laser radiation (wavelength 808 nm), and each particle in the best illuminated volume (~10 × 10 × 200 μm³) serves as a bubble-nucleation center. The suspension heating is inessential (several degrees above the room temperature) and the bubbles are formed mainly of the air gases dissolved in water. The bubbles can stably exist within or near the illuminated area where their location is governed by the competition between thermal and optical forces and can be controlled via the laser beam parameters. The method enables controllable creation, support, prescribed transportation, and destruction of the bubbles. This can be useful in applications aimed at precise sorting, transportation, and delivery of species in nano- and micro-engineering as well as for biomedical studies.

Erythrocyte Membrane Modified Janus Polymeric Motors for Thrombus Therapy

We report the construction of erythrocyte membrane-cloaked Janus polymeric motors (EM-JPMs) which are propelled by near-infrared (NIR) laser irradiation and are successfully applied in thrombus ablation. Chitosan (a natural polysaccharide with positive charge, CHI) and heparin (glycosaminoglycan with negative charge, Hep) were selected as wall materials to construct biodegradable and biocompatible capsules through the layer-by-layer self-assembly technique. By partially coating the capsule with a gold (Au) layer through sputter coating, a NIR-responsive Janus structure was obtained. Due to the asymmetric distribution of Au, a local thermal gradient was generated upon NIR irradiation, resulting in the movement of the JPMs through the self-thermophoresis effect. The reversible "on/off" motion of the JPMs and their motile behavior were easily tuned by the incident NIR laser intensity. After biointerfacing the Janus capsules with an erythrocyte membrane, the EM-JPMs displayed red blood cell related properties, which enabled them to move efficiently in relevant biological environments (cell culture, serum, and blood). Furthermore, this therapeutic platform exhibited excellent performance in ablation of thrombus through photothermal therapy. As man-made micromotors, these biohybrid EM-JPMs hold great promise of navigating in vivo for active delivery while overcoming the drawbacks of existing synthetic therapeutic platforms. We expect that this biohybrid motor has considerable potential to be widely used in the biomedical field.

Gd2O3 and GH combined with red blood cells to improve the sensitivity of contrast agents for cancer targeting MR imaging

Herein, we fabricated efficient MR imaging probes by incorporating gadolinium oxide nanoparticles (Gd₂O₃) and gadolinium hybrid nanoparticles (GH) within RBCs. The Gd₂O₃ and GH encapsulated in the RBCs exhibited high relaxation rates and revealed high sensitivity for T₁ MR imaging.

Cell-Based Drug Delivery and Use of Nano-and Microcarriers for Cell Functionalization

Cell functionalization with recently developed various nano- and microcarriers for therapeutics has significantly expanded the application of cell therapy and targeted drug delivery for the effective treatment of a number of diseases. The aim of this progress report is to review the most recent advances in cell-based drug vehicles designed as biological transporter platforms for the targeted delivery of different drugs. For the design of cell-based drug vehicles, different pathways of cell functionalization, such as covalent and noncovalent surface modifications, internalization of carriers are considered in greater detail together with approaches for cell visualization in vivo. In addition, several animal models for the study of cell-assisted drug delivery are discussed. Finally, possible future developments and applications of cell-assisted drug vehicles toward targeted transport of drugs to a designated location with no or minimal immune response and toxicity are addressed in light of new pathways in the field of nanomedicine.

Bioreducible Hydrophobin-Stabilized Supraparticles for Selective Intracellular Release

One of the main hurdles in nanomedicine is the low stability of drug-nanocarrier complexes as well as the drug delivery efficiency in the region-of-interest. Here, we describe the use of the film-forming protein hydrophobin HFBII to organize dodecanethiol-protected gold nanoparticles (NPs) into well-defined supraparticles (SPs). The obtained SPs are exceptionally stable in vivo and efficiently encapsulate hydrophobic drug molecules. The HFBII film prevents massive release of the encapsulated drug, which, instead, is activated by selective SP disassembly triggered intracellularly by glutathione reduction of the protein film. As a consequence, the therapeutic efficiency of an encapsulated anticancer drug is highly enhanced (2 orders of magnitude decrease in IC₅₀). Biodistribution and pharmacokinetics studies demonstrate the high stability of the loaded SPs in the bloodstream and the selective release of the payloads once taken up in the tissues. Overall, our results provide a rationale for the development of bioreducible and multifunctional nanomedicines.

Controllable generation and manipulation of micro-bubbles in water with absorptive colloid particles by CW laser radiation

Micrometer-sized vapor-gas bubbles are formed due to local heating of a water suspension containing absorptive pigment particles of 100 nm diameter. The heating is performed by CW near-infrared (980 nm) laser radiation with controllable power, focused into a 100 μm spot within a 2 mm suspension layer. By changing the laser power, four regimes are realized: (1) bubble generation; (2) stable growth of the existing bubbles; (3) stationary existence of the bubbles and (4) the bubbles' shrinkage and collapse. This behavior is interpreted based on the temperature conditions. The generation and evolution of single bubbles and ensembles of bubbles with controllable sizes and numbers is demonstrated. The bubbles are grouped within the laser-illuminated region and form quasi-ordered structures. They can easily be moved and transported controlled by the focal spot. The results are useful for applications associated with the precise manipulation, sorting and specific delivery in nano- and micro-engineering problems.

Photosensitizer Decorated Red Blood Cells as an Ultrasensitive Light-Responsive Drug Delivery System

Red blood cells (RBCs) have been widely explored as a natural drug delivery system (DDS) owing to their inherent biocompatibility and large internal cavities to load various types of functional molecules. Herein, we uncover that a photosensitizer, chlorin e6 (Ce6), could be decorated into the membrane of RBCs upon simple mixing, without affecting the membrane integrity and stability in dark. Upon light irradiation with a rather low power density, the singlet oxygen generated by Ce6 would lead to rather efficient disruption of RBC membrane. With doxorubicin (DOX), a typical chemotherapy drug, as the model, we engineer a unique type of light-responsive RBC-based DDS by decorating Ce6 on the cell membrane and loading DOX inside cells. The light triggered cell membrane breakdown would thus trigger instant release of DOX, enabling light-controlled chemotherapy with great specificity. Beyond that our RBC system could also be utilized for loading of larger biomolecules such as enzymes, whose release as well as catalytic function is also controlled by light. Our work thus presents a unique type of biocompatible cell-based DDS that can be precisely controlled by mild external stimuli, promising not only for cancer therapy but also for other potential applications in biotechnologies.

Red blood cells: Supercarriers for drugs, biologicals, and nanoparticles and inspiration for advanced delivery systems

Red blood cells (RBCs) constitute a unique drug delivery system as a biologic or hybrid carrier capable of greatly enhancing pharmacokinetics, altering pharmacodynamics (for example, by changing margination within the intravascular space), and modulating immune responses to appended cargoes. Strategies for RBC drug delivery systems include internal and surface loading, and the latter can be performed both ex vivo and in vivo. A relatively new avenue for RBC drug delivery is their application as a carrier for nanoparticles. Efforts are also being made to incorporate features of RBCs in nanocarriers to mimic their most useful aspects, such as long circulation and stealth features. RBCs have also recently been explored as carriers for the delivery of antigens for modulation of immune response. Therefore, RBC-based drug delivery systems represent supercarriers for a diverse array of biomedical interventions, and this is reflected by several industrial and academic efforts that are poised to enter the clinical realm.

Plasmonically Engineered Nanoprobes for Biomedical Applications

The localized surface plasmon resonance of metal nanoparticles is the collective oscillation of electrons on particle surface, induced by incident light, and is a particle composition-, morphology-, and coupling-dependent property. Plasmonic engineering deals with highly precise formation of the targeted nanostructures with targeted plasmonic properties (e.g., electromagnetic field distribution and enhancement) via controlled synthetic, assembling, and atomic/molecular tuning strategies. These plasmonically engineered nanoprobes (PENs) have a variety of unique and beneficial physical, chemical, and biological properties, including optical signal enhancement, catalytic, and local temperature-tuning photothermal properties. In particular, for biomedical applications, there are many useful properties from PENs including LSPR-based sensing, surface-enhanced Raman scattering, metal-enhanced fluorescence, dark-field light-scattering, metal-mediated fluorescence resonance energy transfer, photothermal effect, photodynamic effect, photoacoustic effect, and plasmon-induced circular dichroism. These properties can be utilized for the development of new biotechnologies and biosensing, bioimaging, therapeutic, and theranostic applications in medicine. This Perspective introduces the concept of plasmonic engineering in designing and synthesizing PENs for biomedical applications, gives recent examples of biomedically functional PENs, and discusses the issues and future prospects of PENs for practical applications in bioscience, biotechnology, and medicine.

Recent Advances of Light-Mediated Theranostics

Currently, precision theranostics have been extensively demanded for the effective treatment of various human diseases. Currently, efficient therapy at the targeted disease areas still remains challenging since most available drug molecules lack of selectivity to the pathological sites. Among different approaches, light-mediated therapeutic strategy has recently emerged as a promising and powerful tool to precisely control the activation of therapeutic reagents and imaging probes in vitro and in vivo, mostly attributed to its unique properties including minimally invasive capability and highly spatiotemporal resolution. Although it has achieved initial success, the conventional strategies for light-mediated theranostics are mostly based on the light with short wavelength (e.g., UV or visible light), which may usually suffer from several undesired drawbacks, such as limited tissue penetration depth, unavoidable light absorption/scattering and potential phototoxicity to healthy tissues, etc. Therefore, a near-infrared (NIR) light-mediated approach on the basis of long-wavelength light (700-1000 nm) irradiation, which displays deep-tissue penetration, minimized photo-damage and low autofluoresence in living systems, has been proposed as an inspiring alternative for precisely phototherapeutic applications in the last decades. Despite numerous NIR light-responsive molecules have been currently proposed for clinical applications, several inherent drawbacks, such as troublesome synthetic procedures, low water solubility and limited accumulation abilities in targeted areas, heavily restrict their applications in deep-tissue therapeutic and imaging studies. Thanks to the amazing properties of several nanomaterials with large extinction coefficient in the NIR region, the construction of NIR light responsive nanoplatforms with multifunctions have become promising approaches for deep-seated diseases diagnosis and therapy. In this review, we summarized various light-triggered theranostic strategies and introduced their great advances in biomedical applications in recent years. Moreover, some other promising light-assisted techniques, such as photoacoustic and Cerenkov radiation, were also systemically discussed. Finally, the potential challenges and future perspectives for light-mediated deep-tissue diagnosis and therapeutics were proposed.

Light-driven transport of plasmonic nanoparticles on demand

Laser traps provide contactless manipulation of plasmonic nanoparticles (NPs) boosting the development of numerous applications in science and technology. The known trapping configurations allow immobilizing and moving single NPs or assembling them, but they are not suitable for massive optical transport of NPs along arbitrary trajectories. Here, we address this challenging problem and demonstrate that it can be handled by exploiting phase gradients forces to both confine and propel the NPs. The developed optical manipulation tool allows for programmable transport routing of NPs to around, surround or impact on objects in the host environment. An additional advantage is that the proposed confinement mechanism works for off-resonant but also resonant NPs paving the way for transport with simultaneous heating, which is of interest for targeted drug delivery and nanolithography. These findings are highly relevant to many technological applications including micro/nano-fabrication, micro-robotics and biomedicine.