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Zhang X, Wang Y, Liu M, Yan P, Niu F, Ma F, Hu J, He S, Cui J, Yuan X, Yang J, Cao L, Luo X. OsEXPA7 Encoding an Expansin Affects Grain Size and Quality Traits in Rice (Oryza sativa L.). RICE (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2024; 17:36. [PMID: 38780864 PMCID: PMC11116307 DOI: 10.1186/s12284-024-00715-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2024] [Accepted: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Yield and quality are the two most important traits in crop breeding. Exploring the regulatory mechanisms that affect both yield and quality traits is of great significance for understanding the molecular genetic networks controlling these key crop attributes. Expansins are cell wall loosening proteins that play important roles in regulating rice grain size. RESULTS We investigated the effect of OsEXPA7, encoding an expansin, on rice grain size and quality. OsEXPA7 overexpression resulted in increased plant height, panicle length, grain length, and thousand-grain weight in rice. OsEXPA7 overexpression also affected gel consistency and amylose content in rice grains, thus affecting rice quality. Subcellular localization and tissue expression analyses showed that OsEXPA7 is localized on the cell wall and is highly expressed in the panicle. Hormone treatment experiments revealed that OsEXPA7 expression mainly responds to methyl jasmonate, brassinolide, and gibberellin. Transcriptome analysis and RT-qPCR experiments showed that overexpression of OsEXPA7 affects the expression of OsJAZs in the jasmonic acid pathway and BZR1 and GE in the brassinosteroid pathway. In addition, OsEXPA7 regulates the expression of key quantitative trait loci related to yield traits, as well as regulates the expression levels of BIP1 and bZIP50 involved in the seed storage protein biosynthesis pathway. CONCLUSIONS These results reveal that OsEXPA7 positively regulates rice yield traits and negatively regulates grain quality traits by involving plant hormone pathways and other trait-related pathway genes. These findings increase our understanding of the potential mechanism of expansins in regulating rice yield and quality traits and will be useful for breeding high-yielding and high-quality rice cultivars.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinwei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering and Engineering Research Center of Gene Technology (Ministry of Education), School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Biodiversity Science and Ecological Engineering, Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Ying Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering and Engineering Research Center of Gene Technology (Ministry of Education), School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Biodiversity Science and Ecological Engineering, Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Mingyu Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering and Engineering Research Center of Gene Technology (Ministry of Education), School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Peiwen Yan
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering and Engineering Research Center of Gene Technology (Ministry of Education), School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Fuan Niu
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering and Engineering Research Center of Gene Technology (Ministry of Education), School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
- Institute of Crop Breeding and Cultivation, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Fuying Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering and Engineering Research Center of Gene Technology (Ministry of Education), School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jian Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering and Engineering Research Center of Gene Technology (Ministry of Education), School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Shicong He
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering and Engineering Research Center of Gene Technology (Ministry of Education), School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jinhao Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering and Engineering Research Center of Gene Technology (Ministry of Education), School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xinyu Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering and Engineering Research Center of Gene Technology (Ministry of Education), School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jinshui Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering and Engineering Research Center of Gene Technology (Ministry of Education), School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Liming Cao
- Institute of Crop Breeding and Cultivation, Shanghai Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaojin Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Genetic Engineering and Engineering Research Center of Gene Technology (Ministry of Education), School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China.
- Ministry of Education, Key Laboratory of Crop Physiology, Ecology and Genetic Breeding College of Agronomy, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang, China.
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Bernal-Gallardo JJ, González-Aguilera KL, de Folter S. EXPANSIN15 is involved in flower and fruit development in Arabidopsis. PLANT REPRODUCTION 2024:10.1007/s00497-023-00493-4. [PMID: 38285171 DOI: 10.1007/s00497-023-00493-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2023] [Accepted: 12/14/2023] [Indexed: 01/30/2024]
Abstract
KEY MESSAGE EXPANSIN15 is involved in petal cell morphology and size, the fusion of the medial tissues in the gynoecium and expansion of fruit valve cells. It genetically interacts with SPATULA and FRUITFULL. Cell expansion is fundamental for the formation of plant tissues and organs, contributing to their final shape and size during development. To better understand this process in flower and fruit development, we have studied the EXPANSIN15 (EXPA15) gene, which showed expression in petals and in the gynoecium. By analyzing expa15 mutant alleles, we found that EXPA15 is involved in petal shape and size determination, by affecting cell morphology and number. EXPA15 also has a function in fruit size, by affecting cell size and number. Furthermore, EXPA15 promotes fusion of the medial tissues in the gynoecium. In addition, we observed genetic interactions with the transcription factors SPATULA (SPT) and FRUITFULL (FUL) in gynoecium medial tissue fusion, style and stigma development and fruit development in Arabidopsis. These findings contribute to the importance of EXPANSINS in floral and fruit development in Arabidopsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judith Jazmin Bernal-Gallardo
- Unidad de Genómica Avanzada (UGA-Langebio), Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional (CINVESTAV-IPN), 36824, Irapuato, GTO., Mexico
| | - Karla L González-Aguilera
- Unidad de Genómica Avanzada (UGA-Langebio), Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional (CINVESTAV-IPN), 36824, Irapuato, GTO., Mexico
| | - Stefan de Folter
- Unidad de Genómica Avanzada (UGA-Langebio), Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del Instituto Politécnico Nacional (CINVESTAV-IPN), 36824, Irapuato, GTO., Mexico.
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Sun Y, Yue Y, Li X, Li S, Shi Q, Yu Y. Transcription factor VviWOX13C regulates fruit set by directly activating VviEXPA37/38/39 in grape (Vitis vinifera L). PLANT CELL REPORTS 2023; 43:19. [PMID: 38150069 DOI: 10.1007/s00299-023-03107-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2023] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 12/28/2023]
Abstract
KEY MESSAGE VviWOX13C plays a key regulatory role in the expansin during fruit set. Expansins as a type of non-enzymatic cell wall proteins, are responsible for the loosening and extension in cell walls leading to the enlargement of the plant cells. However, the current studies are still lacking in expansin genes associated with promoting fruit set. Here, 29 members of the expansin gene family were identified in the whole genome of grapes (Vitis vinifera L.), and the functional prediction of expansins was based on the gene annotated information. Results showed that the 29 members of grape expansin gene family could be mainly divided into four subfamilies (EXPA, EXPB, LIKE A, and LIKE B), distributed on 16 chromosomes. Replication analysis showed that there were four segmental duplications and two tandem duplications. Each expansins sequence contained two conserved domain features of grape EXPs (DPBB_1 and Expansin_C) through protein sequence analysis. The transcriptome sequencing results revealed that VviEXPA37, VviEXPA38, and VviEXPA39 were induced and upregulated by CPPU. Furthermore, transcriptional regulatory prediction network indicated that VviWOX13C targeted regulates VviEXPA37, VviEXPA38, and VviEXPA39 simultaneously. EMSA and dual luciferase assays demonstrated that VviWOX13C directly activated the expression of VviEXPA37, VviEXPA38, and VviEXPA39 by directly binding to its promoter. These results provide a basis for further studies on the function and regulatory mechanisms of expansin genes in fruit set.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yadan Sun
- College of Horticulture and Plant Protection, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, 471023, Henan Province, China
| | - Yihan Yue
- College of Horticulture and Plant Protection, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, 471023, Henan Province, China
| | - Xufei Li
- College of Horticulture and Plant Protection, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, 471023, Henan Province, China
| | - Songqi Li
- College of Horticulture and Plant Protection, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, 471023, Henan Province, China
| | - Qiaofang Shi
- College of Horticulture and Plant Protection, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, 471023, Henan Province, China
| | - Yihe Yu
- College of Horticulture and Plant Protection, Henan University of Science and Technology, Luoyang, 471023, Henan Province, China.
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Amanullah S, Li S, Osae BA, Yang T, Abbas F, Gao M, Wang X, Liu H, Gao P, Luan F. Primary mapping of quantitative trait loci regulating multivariate horticultural phenotypes of watermelon ( Citrullus lanatus L.). FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 13:1034952. [PMID: 36714694 PMCID: PMC9877429 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.1034952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2022] [Accepted: 12/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Watermelon fruits exhibit a remarkable diversity of important horticultural phenotypes. In this study, we initiated a primary quantitative trait loci (QTL) mapping to identify the candidate regions controlling the ovary, fruit, and seed phenotypes. Whole genome sequencing (WGS) was carried out for two differentiated watermelon lines, and 350 Mb (96%) and 354 Mb (97%) of re-sequenced reads covered the reference de novo genome assembly, individually. A total of 45.53% non-synonymous single nucleotide polymorphism (nsSNPs) and 54.47% synonymous SNPs (sSNPs) were spotted, which produced 210 sets of novel SNP-based cleaved amplified polymorphism sequence (CAPS) markers by depicting 46.25% co-dominant polymorphism among parent lines and offspring. A biparental F2:3 mapping population comprised of 100 families was used for trait phenotyping and CAPS genotyping, respectively. The constructed genetic map spanned a total of 2,398.40 centimorgans (cM) in length and averaged 11.42 cM, with 95.99% genome collinearity. A total of 33 QTLs were identified at different genetic positions across the eight chromosomes of watermelon (Chr-01, Chr-02, Chr-04, Chr-05, Chr-06, Chr-07, Chr-10, and Chr-11); among them, eight QTLs of the ovary, sixteen QTLs of the fruit, and nine QTLs of the seed related phenotypes were classified with 5.32-25.99% phenotypic variance explained (PVE). However, twenty-four QTLs were identified as major-effect and nine QTLs were mapped as minor-effect QTLs across the flanking regions of CAPS markers. Some QTLs were exhibited as tightly localized across the nearby genetic regions and explained the pleiotropic effects of multigenic nature. The flanking QTL markers also depicted significant allele specific contributions and accountable genes were predicted for respective traits. Gene Ontology (GO) functional enrichment was categorized in molecular function (MF), cellular components (CC), and biological process (BP); however, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathways were classified into three main classes of metabolism, genetic information processing, and brite hierarchies. The principal component analysis (PCA) of multivariate phenotypes widely demonstrated the major variability, consistent with the identified QTL regions. In short, we assumed that our identified QTL regions provide valuable genetic insights regarding the watermelon phenotypes and fine genetic mapping could be used to confirm them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sikandar Amanullah
- College of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticulture Crops (Northeast Region), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Harbin, China
| | - Shenglong Li
- College of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticulture Crops (Northeast Region), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Harbin, China
| | - Benjamin Agyei Osae
- College of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticulture Crops (Northeast Region), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Harbin, China
| | - Tiantian Yang
- College of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticulture Crops (Northeast Region), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Harbin, China
| | - Farhat Abbas
- College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Meiling Gao
- College of Life Sciences, Agriculture and Forestry, Qiqihar University, Qiqihar, China
| | - Xuezheng Wang
- College of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticulture Crops (Northeast Region), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Harbin, China
| | - Hongyu Liu
- College of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticulture Crops (Northeast Region), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Harbin, China
| | - Peng Gao
- College of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticulture Crops (Northeast Region), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Harbin, China
| | - Feishi Luan
- College of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin, China
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticulture Crops (Northeast Region), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Harbin, China
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Transcriptome Analysis of Air Space-Type Variegation Formation in Trifolium pratense. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23147794. [PMID: 35887138 PMCID: PMC9322087 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23147794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2022] [Revised: 07/12/2022] [Accepted: 07/13/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Air space-type variegation is the most diverse among the species of known variegated leaf plants and is caused by conspicuous intercellular spaces between the epidermal and palisade cells and among the palisade cells at non-green areas. Trifolium pratense, a species in Fabaceae with V-shaped air space-type variegation, was selected to explore the application potential of variegated leaf plants and accumulate basic data on the molecular regulatory mechanism and evolutionary history of leaf variegation. We performed comparative transcriptome analysis on young and adult leaflets of variegated and green plants and identified 43 candidate genes related to air space-type variegation formation. Most of the genes were related to cell-wall structure modification (CESA, CSL, EXP, FLA, PG, PGIP, PLL, PME, RGP, SKS, and XTH family genes), followed by photosynthesis (LHCB subfamily, RBCS, GOX, and AGT family genes), redox (2OG and GSH family genes), and nitrogen metabolism (NodGS family genes). Other genes were related to photooxidation, protein interaction, and protease degradation systems. The downregulated expression of light-responsive LHCB subfamily genes and the upregulated expression of the genes involved in cell-wall structure modification were important conditions for air space-type variegation formation in T. pratense. The upregulated expression of the ubiquitin-protein ligase enzyme (E3)-related genes in the protease degradation systems were conducive to air space-type variegation formation. Because these family genes are necessary for plant growth and development, the mechanism of the leaf variegation formation in T. pratense might be a widely existing regulation in air space-type variegation in nature.
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Yang T, He Y, Niu S, Zhang Y. A YABBY gene CRABS CLAW a (CRCa) negatively regulates flower and fruit sizes in tomato. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2022; 320:111285. [PMID: 35643610 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2022.111285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2021] [Revised: 03/28/2022] [Accepted: 04/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
CRABS CLAW (CRC) is a YABBY transcription factor that plays a pivotal role in carpel development and flower meristem determinacy. Here, we characterized a CRC homolog SlCRCa and elucidated its specific roles in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum). SlCRCa is highly expressed in the petals and stamens, and is responsive to gibberellin (GA) treatment. Overexpression of SlCRCa in tomato reduces the sizes of petals, stamens, and fruits, while the inverse phenotypes are induced by knockdown of SlCRCa. Furthermore, histological investigation suggests that the smaller or larger fruits in SlCRCa-overexpressing or SlCRCa-RNAi plants are mainly determined by the decreases or increases in cell layers and cell sizes in pericarp, respectively. Through transcriptome and qRT-PCR analyses, we speculate that SlCRCa inhibits cell division by regulating the transcription of cell division-related genes, and also suppresses cell expansion by modulating the expansin genes and GA pathway in tomato fruits. Besides, SlCRCa is involved in the feedback regulation of GA biosynthesis. Our findings reveal that SlCRCa negatively regulates fruit size by affecting cell division and cell expansion, and it is also an inhibitor of floral organ sizes in tomato.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tongwen Yang
- College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, PR China; Shaanxi Engineering Research Center for Vegetables, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, PR China.
| | - Yu He
- College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, PR China; Shaanxi Engineering Research Center for Vegetables, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, PR China.
| | - Shaobo Niu
- College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, PR China; Shaanxi Engineering Research Center for Vegetables, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, PR China.
| | - Yan Zhang
- College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, PR China; Shaanxi Engineering Research Center for Vegetables, Northwest A&F University, Yangling 712100, Shaanxi, PR China.
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Amanullah S, Osae BA, Yang T, Abbas F, Liu S, Liu H, Wang X, Gao P, Luan F. Mapping of genetic loci controlling fruit linked morphological traits of melon using developed CAPS markers. Mol Biol Rep 2022; 49:5459-5472. [PMID: 35235158 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-022-07263-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2021] [Accepted: 02/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Fruit morphology traits are important commercial traits that directly affect the market value. However, studying the genetic basis of these traits in un-explored botanical groups is a fundamental objective for crop genetic improvement through marker-assisted breeding. METHODS AND RESULTS In this study, a quantitative trait loci (QTLs) mapping strategy was used for dissecting the genomic regions of fruit linked morphological traits by single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) based cleaved amplified polymorphism sequence (CAPS) molecular markers. Next-generation sequencing was done for the genomic sequencing of two contrasted melon lines (climacteric and non-climacteric), which revealed 97% and 96% of average coverage over the reference melon genome database, respectively. A total of 57.51% non-synonymous SNPs and 42.49% synonymous SNPs were found, which produced 149 sets of codominant markers with a 24% polymorphism rate. Total 138-F2 derived plant populations were genotyped for linkage mapping and composite interval mapping based QTL mapping exposed 6 genetic loci, positioned over distinct chromosomes (02, 04, 08, 09, and 12) between the flanking intervals of CAPS markers, which explained an unlinked polygenic architecture in genome. Three minor QTLs of fruit weight (FWt2.1, FWt4.1, FWt9.1), one major QTL of fruit firmness (FrFir8.1), one major QTL of fruit length (FL12.1), and one major QTL of fruit shape (FS12.1) were determined and collectively explained the phenotypic variance from 5.64 to 15.64%. Fruit phenotypic correlation exhibited the significant relationship and principal component analysis also identified the potential variability. Multiple sequence alignments also indicated the significant base-mutations in the detected genetic loci, respectively. CONCLUSION In short, our illustrated genetic loci are expected to provide the reference insights for fine QTL mapping and candidate gene(s) mining through molecular genetic breeding approaches aimed at developing the new varieties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sikandar Amanullah
- College of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Northeast Agricultural University, No. 600, Changjiang Road, Harbin, 150030, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticulture Crops (Northeast Region), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Harbin, 150030, People's Republic of China
| | - Benjamin Agyei Osae
- College of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Northeast Agricultural University, No. 600, Changjiang Road, Harbin, 150030, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticulture Crops (Northeast Region), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Harbin, 150030, People's Republic of China
| | - Tiantian Yang
- College of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Northeast Agricultural University, No. 600, Changjiang Road, Harbin, 150030, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticulture Crops (Northeast Region), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Harbin, 150030, People's Republic of China
| | - Farhat Abbas
- College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Yunnan Urban Agricultural Engineering & Technological Research Center, Kunming University, Kunming, People's Republic of China
| | - Shi Liu
- College of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Northeast Agricultural University, No. 600, Changjiang Road, Harbin, 150030, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticulture Crops (Northeast Region), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Harbin, 150030, People's Republic of China
| | - Hongyu Liu
- College of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Northeast Agricultural University, No. 600, Changjiang Road, Harbin, 150030, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticulture Crops (Northeast Region), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Harbin, 150030, People's Republic of China
| | - Xuezheng Wang
- College of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Northeast Agricultural University, No. 600, Changjiang Road, Harbin, 150030, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticulture Crops (Northeast Region), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Harbin, 150030, People's Republic of China
| | - Peng Gao
- College of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Northeast Agricultural University, No. 600, Changjiang Road, Harbin, 150030, People's Republic of China.
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticulture Crops (Northeast Region), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Harbin, 150030, People's Republic of China.
| | - Feishi Luan
- College of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Northeast Agricultural University, No. 600, Changjiang Road, Harbin, 150030, People's Republic of China.
- Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Improvement of Horticulture Crops (Northeast Region), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Harbin, 150030, People's Republic of China.
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Hou Q, Zhao X, Pang X, Duan M, Ehmet N, Shao W, Sun K. Why flowers close at noon? A case study of an alpine species Gentianopsis paludosa (Gentianaceae). Ecol Evol 2022; 12:e8490. [PMID: 35136551 PMCID: PMC8809448 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.8490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Revised: 12/02/2021] [Accepted: 12/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Repeatable floral closure with diurnal rhythms, that is, flower opening in the morning and closing in the evening, was widely reported. However, the rhythm of flower opening in the morning but closing in the midday received much less attention. Gentianopsis paludosa, Gentianaceae, has an obvious petal movement rhythm opening in the morning and closing at noon at northeast of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. In this study, we examined the effects of temperature (T), relative humidity (RH), and illumination intensity (II) on G. paludosa's flower closure. Furthermore, we monitored the environmental changes inside and outside of the flowers, aiming to test the effect of floral closure on the stability of microenvironment inside the flower. Finally, we artificially interrupted temporal petal closure and investigated its effects on reproductive fitness. The results showed that high/low temperature contributed more to the flower closure than low RH, while illumination intensity had no significant effect on it. The medium temperature, relative humidity and illumination intensity (environmental conditions at 10:00) did not delay flower closure when flowers at pre-closing period or stimulate reopen when flowers full closed. Floral closure provided a stable temperature condition and a higher RH condition inside the flower. Meanwhile, compulsive opening and delayed closure of flowers decreased the seed-set ratio while no effect was found when flowers were forced to close. We conclude that endogenous rhythm regulates floral closure. The rhythm of petal movement providing a stable microenvironment for G. paludosa, increasing the seed production and saving energy from flower opening maintenance, which might be an adaptive strategy to against unfavorable environmental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qinzheng Hou
- College of Life SciencesNorthwest Normal UniversityLanzhouChina
| | - Xiang Zhao
- College of Life SciencesNorthwest Normal UniversityLanzhouChina
| | - Xia Pang
- College of Life SciencesNorthwest Normal UniversityLanzhouChina
| | - Meiling Duan
- College of Life SciencesNorthwest Normal UniversityLanzhouChina
| | - Nurbiye Ehmet
- College of Life SciencesNorthwest Normal UniversityLanzhouChina
| | - Wenjuan Shao
- College of Life SciencesNorthwest Normal UniversityLanzhouChina
| | - Kun Sun
- College of Life SciencesNorthwest Normal UniversityLanzhouChina
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Feng G, Wu J, Xu Y, Lu L, Yi H. High-spatiotemporal-resolution transcriptomes provide insights into fruit development and ripening in Citrus sinensis. PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY JOURNAL 2021; 19:1337-1353. [PMID: 33471410 PMCID: PMC8313135 DOI: 10.1111/pbi.13549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2019] [Revised: 12/30/2020] [Accepted: 01/07/2021] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Citrus fruit has a unique structure with soft leathery peel and pulp containing vascular bundles and several segments with many juice sacs. The function and morphology of each fruit tissue are different. Therefore, analysis at the organ-wide or mixed-tissue level inevitably obscures many tissue-specific phenomena. High-throughput RNA sequencing was used to profile Citrus sinensis fruit development based on four fruit tissue types and six development stages from young fruits to ripe fruits. Using a coexpression network analysis, modules of coexpressed genes and hub genes of tissue-specific networks were identified. Of particular, importance is the discovery of the regulatory network of phytohormones during citrus fruit development and ripening. A model was proposed to illustrate how ABF2 mediates the ABA signalling involved in sucrose transport, chlorophyll degradation, auxin homoeostasis, carotenoid and ABA biosynthesis, and cell wall metabolism during citrus fruit development. Moreover, we depicted the detailed spatiotemporal expression patterns of the genes involved in sucrose and citric acid metabolism in citrus fruit and identified several key genes that may play crucial roles in sucrose and citric acid accumulation in the juice sac, such as SWEET15 and CsPH8. The high spatial and temporal resolution of our data provides important insights into the molecular networks underlying citrus fruit development and ripening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guizhi Feng
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant BiologyMinistry of EducationHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanChina
| | - Juxun Wu
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant BiologyMinistry of EducationHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanChina
| | - Yanhui Xu
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant BiologyMinistry of EducationHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanChina
| | - Liqing Lu
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant BiologyMinistry of EducationHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanChina
| | - Hualin Yi
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant BiologyMinistry of EducationHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanChina
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Cruz-Valderrama JE, Bernal-Gallardo JJ, Herrera-Ubaldo H, de Folter S. Building a Flower: The Influence of Cell Wall Composition on Flower Development and Reproduction. Genes (Basel) 2021; 12:genes12070978. [PMID: 34206830 PMCID: PMC8304806 DOI: 10.3390/genes12070978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2021] [Revised: 06/22/2021] [Accepted: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Floral patterning is a complex task. Various organs and tissues must be formed to fulfill reproductive functions. Flower development has been studied, mainly looking for master regulators. However, downstream changes such as the cell wall composition are relevant since they allow cells to divide, differentiate, and grow. In this review, we focus on the main components of the primary cell wall-cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectins-to describe how enzymes involved in the biosynthesis, modifications, and degradation of cell wall components are related to the formation of the floral organs. Additionally, internal and external stimuli participate in the genetic regulation that modulates the activity of cell wall remodeling proteins.
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Zhang H, Han W, Wang H, Cong L, Zhai R, Yang C, Wang Z, Xu L. Downstream of GA 4, PbCYP78A6 participates in regulating cell cycle-related genes and parthenogenesis in pear (Pyrus bretshneideri Rehd.). BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2021; 21:292. [PMID: 34167472 PMCID: PMC8223387 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-021-03098-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/15/2021] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Parthenocarpy results in traits attractive to both consumers and breeders, and it overcomes the obstacle of self-incompatibility in the fruit set of horticultural crops, including pear (Pyrus bretshneider). However, there is limited knowledge regarding the genetic and molecular mechanisms that regulate parthenogenesis. RESULTS Here, in a transcriptional comparison between pollination-dependent fruit and GA4-induced parthenocarpy, PbCYP78A6 was identified and proposed as a candidate gene involved in parthenocarpy. PbCYP78A6 is similar to Arabidopsis thaliana CYP78A6 and highly expressed in pear hypanthia. The increased PbCYP78A6 expression, as assessed by RT-qPCR, was induced by pollination and GA4 exposure. The ectopic overexpression of PbCYP78A6 contributed to parthenocarpic fruit production in tomato. The PbCYP78A6 expression coincided with fertilized and parthenocarpic fruitlets development and the expression of fruit development-related genes as assessed by cytological observations and RT-qPCR, respectively. PbCYP78A6 RNA interference and overexpression in pear calli revealed that the gene is an upstream regulator of specific fruit development-related genes in pear. CONCLUSIONS Our findings indicate that PbCYP78A6 plays a critical role in fruit formation and provide insights into controlling parthenocarpy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haiqi Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas, College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Shaanxi Province, Taicheng Road No.3, Yangling, 712100, China
| | - Wei Han
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas, College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Shaanxi Province, Taicheng Road No.3, Yangling, 712100, China
| | - Huibin Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas, College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Shaanxi Province, Taicheng Road No.3, Yangling, 712100, China
| | - Liu Cong
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas, College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Shaanxi Province, Taicheng Road No.3, Yangling, 712100, China
| | - Rui Zhai
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas, College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Shaanxi Province, Taicheng Road No.3, Yangling, 712100, China
| | - Chengquan Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas, College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Shaanxi Province, Taicheng Road No.3, Yangling, 712100, China
| | - Zhigang Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas, College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Shaanxi Province, Taicheng Road No.3, Yangling, 712100, China
| | - Lingfei Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Biology for Arid Areas, College of Horticulture, Northwest A&F University, Shaanxi Province, Taicheng Road No.3, Yangling, 712100, China.
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De Coninck T, Gistelinck K, Janse van Rensburg HC, Van den Ende W, Van Damme EJM. Sweet Modifications Modulate Plant Development. Biomolecules 2021; 11:756. [PMID: 34070047 PMCID: PMC8158104 DOI: 10.3390/biom11050756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2021] [Revised: 04/28/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Plant development represents a continuous process in which the plant undergoes morphological, (epi)genetic and metabolic changes. Starting from pollination, seed maturation and germination, the plant continues to grow and develops specialized organs to survive, thrive and generate offspring. The development of plants and the interplay with its environment are highly linked to glycosylation of proteins and lipids as well as metabolism and signaling of sugars. Although the involvement of these protein modifications and sugars is well-studied, there is still a long road ahead to profoundly comprehend their nature, significance, importance for plant development and the interplay with stress responses. This review, approached from the plants' perspective, aims to focus on some key findings highlighting the importance of glycosylation and sugar signaling for plant development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tibo De Coninck
- Laboratory of Glycobiology & Biochemistry, Department of Biotechnology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium; (T.D.C.); (K.G.)
| | - Koen Gistelinck
- Laboratory of Glycobiology & Biochemistry, Department of Biotechnology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium; (T.D.C.); (K.G.)
| | - Henry C. Janse van Rensburg
- Laboratory of Molecular Plant Biology, Department of Biology, KU Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 31, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium; (H.C.J.v.R.); (W.V.d.E.)
| | - Wim Van den Ende
- Laboratory of Molecular Plant Biology, Department of Biology, KU Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 31, B-3001 Leuven, Belgium; (H.C.J.v.R.); (W.V.d.E.)
| | - Els J. M. Van Damme
- Laboratory of Glycobiology & Biochemistry, Department of Biotechnology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, B-9000 Ghent, Belgium; (T.D.C.); (K.G.)
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Mori K, Lemaire-Chamley M, Jorly J, Carrari F, Conte M, Asamizu E, Mizoguchi T, Ezura H, Rothan C. The conserved brassinosteroid-related transcription factor BIM1a negatively regulates fruit growth in tomato. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2021; 72:1181-1197. [PMID: 33097930 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/eraa495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2020] [Accepted: 10/20/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Brassinosteroids (BRs) are steroid hormones that play key roles in plant development and defense. Our goal is to harness the extensive knowledge of the Arabidopsis BR signaling network to improve productivity in crop species. This first requires identifying components of the conserved network and their function in the target species. Here, we investigated the function of SlBIM1a, the closest tomato homolog of AtBIM1, which is highly expressed in fruit. SlBIM1a-overexpressing lines displayed severe plant and fruit dwarfism, and histological characterization of different transgenic lines revealed that SlBIM1a expression negatively correlated with fruit pericarp cell size, resulting in fruit size modifications. These growth phenotypes were in contrast to those found in Arabidopsis, and this was confirmed by the reciprocal ectopic expression of SlBIM1a/b in Arabidopsis and of AtBIM1 in tomato. These results determined that BIM1 function depends more on the recipient species than on its primary sequence. Yeast two-hybrid interaction studies and transcriptomic analyses of SlBIM1a-overexpressing fruit further suggested that SlBIM1a acts through its interaction with SlBZH1 to govern the transcriptional regulation of growth-related BR target genes. Together, these results suggest that SlBIM1a is a negative regulator of pericarp cell expansion, possibly at the crossroads with auxin and light signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kentaro Mori
- INRAE, Univ. Bordeaux, UMR BFP, 33882, Villenave d'Ornon, France
| | | | - Joana Jorly
- INRAE, Univ. Bordeaux, UMR BFP, 33882, Villenave d'Ornon, France
| | - Fernando Carrari
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, B1712WAA Castelar, Argentina
| | - Mariana Conte
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, B1712WAA Castelar, Argentina
| | - Erika Asamizu
- Department of Plant Life Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Ryukoku University, Otsu, Shiga, Japan
| | - Tsuyoshi Mizoguchi
- Department of Natural Sciences, International Christian University, Mitaka, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Ezura
- Faculty of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tskuba, Ibaraki, Japan
- Tsukuba Plant Innovation Research Center, University of Tsukuba, Tskuba, Ibaraki, Japan
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Mayorga-Gómez A, Nambeesan SU. Temporal expression patterns of fruit-specific α- EXPANSINS during cell expansion in bell pepper (Capsicum annuum L.). BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2020; 20:241. [PMID: 32466743 PMCID: PMC7254744 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-020-02452-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2020] [Accepted: 05/19/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Expansins (EXPs) facilitate non-enzymatic cell wall loosening during several phases of plant growth and development including fruit growth, internode expansion, pollen tube growth, leaf and root development, and during abiotic stress responses. In this study, the spatial and temporal expression patterns of C. annuum α- EXPANSIN (CaEXPA) genes were characterized. Additionally, fruit-specific CaEXPA expression was correlated with the rate of cell expansion during bell pepper fruit development. RESULTS Spatial expression patterns revealed that CaEXPA13 was up-regulated in vegetative tissues and flowers, with the most abundant expression in mature leaves. Expression of CaEXPA4 was associated with stems and roots. CaEXPA3 was expressed abundantly in flower at anthesis suggesting a role for CaEXPA3 in flower development. Temporal expression analysis revealed that 9 out of the 21 genes were highly expressed during fruit development. Of these, expression of six genes, CaEXPA5, CaEXPA7, CaEXPA12, CaEXPA14 CaEXPA17 and CaEXPA19 were abundant 7 to 21 days after anthesis (DAA), whereas CaEXPA6 was strongly expressed between 14 and 28 DAA. Further, this study revealed that fruit growth and cell expansion occur throughout bell pepper development until ripening, with highest rates of fruit growth and cell expansion occurring between 7 and 14 DAA. The expression of CaEXPA14 and CaEXPA19 positively correlated with the rate of cell expansion, suggesting their role in post-mitotic cell expansion-mediated growth of the bell pepper fruit. In this study, a ripening specific EXP transcript, CaEXPA9 was identified, suggesting its role in cell wall disassembly during ripening. CONCLUSIONS This is the first genome-wide study of CaEXPA expression during fruit growth and development. Identification of fruit-specific EXPAs suggest their importance in facilitating cell expansion during growth and cell wall loosening during ripening in bell pepper. These EXPA genes could be important targets for future manipulation of fruit size and ripening characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrés Mayorga-Gómez
- Department of Horticulture, University of Georgia, 120 Carlton Street, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
| | - Savithri U Nambeesan
- Department of Horticulture, University of Georgia, 120 Carlton Street, Athens, GA, 30602, USA.
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15
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Correia S, Santos M, Glińska S, Gapińska M, Matos M, Carnide V, Schouten R, Silva AP, Gonçalves B. Effects of exogenous compound sprays on cherry cracking: skin properties and gene expression. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2020; 100:2911-2921. [PMID: 32034777 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.10318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2019] [Revised: 01/31/2020] [Accepted: 02/07/2020] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cherry fruit cracking is a costly problem for cherry growers. The effect of repeated sprayings (gibberellic acid - GA3 ; abscisic acid - ABA; salicylic acid - SA; glycine betaine - GB, and Ascophyllum nodosum - AN) combined with CaCl2 , on 'Sweetheart' cherry fruit-cracking characteristics was investigated. Cracking was quantified in terms of cracking incidence, crack morphology, confocal scanning laser microscopy, cuticular wax content, cell-wall modification, and cuticular wax gene expression. RESULTS All spray treatments reduced cracking compared with an untreated control (H2 O), with fewer cheek cracks. The least cracking incidence was observed for ABA + CaCl2 - and GB + CaCl2 -treated fruits, indicating an added benefit compared to spraying with CaCl2 alone. In addition, GB + CaCl2 -treated fruits showed higher fruit diameter. ABA + CaCl2 and GB + CaCl2 sprays showed higher wax content and higher cuticle and epidermal thickness compared with the control, including increased expression of wax synthase (ABA + CaCl2 ) and expansin 1 (GB + CaCl2 ). CONCLUSION In general, factors that improve the cuticle thickness appear to be important at the fruit-coloring stage. At the fruit-ripening stage, larger cell sizes of the epidermis, hypodermis, and parenchyma cells lower cracking incidence, indicating the importance of flexibility and elasticity of the epidermis. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofia Correia
- Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences (CITAB), University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Marlene Santos
- Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences (CITAB), University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Sława Glińska
- Laboratory of Microscopic Imaging and Specialized Biological Techniques, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Łódź, Łódź, Poland
| | - Magdalena Gapińska
- Laboratory of Microscopic Imaging and Specialized Biological Techniques, Faculty of Biology and Environmental Protection, University of Łódź, Łódź, Poland
| | - Manuela Matos
- Department of Genetics and Biotechnology, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal
- Biosystems and Integrative Sciences Institute (BioISI), Sciences Faculty, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Valdemar Carnide
- Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences (CITAB), University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal
- Department of Genetics and Biotechnology, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Rob Schouten
- Horticulture and Product Physiology, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Ana Paula Silva
- Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences (CITAB), University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Berta Gonçalves
- Centre for the Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences (CITAB), University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal
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16
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Fan HM, Liu BW, Ma FF, Sun X, Zheng CS. Proteomic profiling of root system development proteins in chrysanthemum overexpressing the CmTCP20 gene. PLANT SCIENCE : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2019; 287:110175. [PMID: 31481217 DOI: 10.1016/j.plantsci.2019.110175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2019] [Revised: 06/13/2019] [Accepted: 06/21/2019] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Plant root systems ensure the efficient absorption of water and nutrients and provide anchoring into the soil. Although root systems are a highly plastic set of traits that vary both between and among species, the basic root system morphology is controlled by inherent genetic factors. TCP20 has been identified as a key regulator of root development in plants, and yet its underlying mechanism has not been fully elucidated, especially in chrysanthemum. We found that overexpression of the CmTCP20 gene promoted both adventitious and lateral root development in chrysanthemum. To get further insight into the molecular mechanisms controlling root system development, we conducted a study employing tandem mass tag proteomic to characterize the differential root system development proteomes from CmTCP20-overexpressing and wild-type chrysanthemum root samples. Of the proteins identified, 234 proteins were found to be differentially abundant (>1.5-fold cut off, p < 0.05) in CmTCP20-overexpressing versus wild-type chrysanthemum root samples. Functional enrichment analysis indicated that the CmTCP20 gene may participate in "phytohormone signal transduction". Our findings provide a valuable perspective on the mechanisms of both adventitious and lateral root development via CmTCP20 modulation at the proteome level in chrysanthemum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong-Mei Fan
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, College of Horticulture Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai-An, Shandong, 271018, China
| | - Bo-Wen Liu
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, College of Horticulture Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai-An, Shandong, 271018, China
| | - Fang-Fang Ma
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, College of Horticulture Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai-An, Shandong, 271018, China
| | - Xia Sun
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, College of Horticulture Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai-An, Shandong, 271018, China.
| | - Cheng-Shu Zheng
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, College of Horticulture Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai-An, Shandong, 271018, China.
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17
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Liu J, Zhai R, Liu F, Zhao Y, Wang H, Liu L, Yang C, Wang Z, Ma F, Xu L. Melatonin Induces Parthenocarpy by Regulating Genes in Gibberellin Pathways of 'Starkrimson' Pear ( Pyrus communis L.). FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2018; 9:946. [PMID: 30022992 PMCID: PMC6040045 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2018.00946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2017] [Accepted: 06/12/2018] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Parthenocarpy, the production of seedless fruit without fertilization, has a variety of valuable qualities, especially for self-incompatible species, such as pear. To explore whether melatonin (MT) induces parthenocarpy, we used 'Starkrimson' pear as a material for morphological observations. According to our results, exogenous MT promoted the expansion and division of the mesocarp cells in a manner similar to hand pollination. However, the seeds of exogenous MT-treated fruit were undeveloped and aborted later in the fruit-setting stage. To further investigate how MT induced parthenocarpy, we studied changes of related hormones in the ovaries and found that MT significantly increased the contents of the gibberellins (GAs) GA3 and GA4. Thus, paclobutrazol (PAC), a GA-biosynthesis inhibitor, was used to study the relationship between GAs and MT. In addition, spraying MT after treatment with PAC did not increase GA content nor lead to parthenocarpy. Through a transcriptome analysis, we discovered that MT can cause significant upregulation of PbGA20ox and downregulation of PbGA2ox. However, no significant difference was observed in PbGA2ox compared with the control after PAC and MT applications. Thus, MT induces parthenocarpy by promoting GA biosynthesis along with cell division and mesocarp expansion in pear.
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18
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Kim SH, Woo OG, Jang H, Lee JH. Characterization and comparative expression analysis of CUL1 genes in rice. Genes Genomics 2018; 40:233-241. [PMID: 29892794 DOI: 10.1007/s13258-017-0622-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2017] [Accepted: 10/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Cullin-RING E3 ubiquitin ligase (CRL) complex is known as the largest family of E3 ligases. The most widely characterized CRL, SCF complex (CRL1), utilizes CUL1 as a scaffold protein to assemble the complex components. To better understand CRL1-mediated cellular processes in rice, three CUL1 genes (OsCUL1s) were isolated in Oryza sativa. Although all OsCUL1 proteins exhibited high levels of amino acid similarities with each other, OsCUL1-3 had a somewhat distinct structure from OsCUL1-1 and OsCUL1-2. Basal expression levels of OsCUL1-3 were much lower than those of OsCUL1-1 and OsCUL1-2 in all selected samples, showing that OsCUL1-1 and OsCUL1-2 play predominant roles relative to OsCUL1-3 in rice. OsCUL1-1 and OsCUL1-2 genes were commonly upregulated in dry seeds and by ABA and salt/drought stresses, implying their involvement in ABA-mediated processes. These genes also showed similar expression patterns in response to various hormones and abiotic stresses, alluding to their functional redundancy. Expression of the OsCUL1-3 gene was also induced in dry seeds and by ABA-related salt and drought stresses, implying their participation in ABA responses. However, its expression pattern in response to hormones and abiotic stresses was somehow different from those of the OsCUL1-1 and OsCUL1-2 genes. Taken together, these findings suggest that the biological role and function of OsCUL1-3 may be distinct from those of OsCUL1-1 and OsCUL1-2. The results of expression analysis of OsCUL1 genes in this study will serve as a useful platform to better understand overlapping and distinct roles of OsCUL1 proteins and CRL1-mediated cellular processes in rice plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sang-Hoon Kim
- Department of Biology Education, Pusan National University, Busan, 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Og-Geum Woo
- Department of Biology Education, Pusan National University, Busan, 46241, Republic of Korea.,Department of Integrated Biological Science, Pusan National University, Busan, 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyunsoo Jang
- Department of Biology Education, Pusan National University, Busan, 46241, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae-Hoon Lee
- Department of Biology Education, Pusan National University, Busan, 46241, Republic of Korea.
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19
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Wang D, Yeats TH, Uluisik S, Rose JKC, Seymour GB. Fruit Softening: Revisiting the Role of Pectin. TRENDS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2018; 23:302-310. [PMID: 29429585 DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2018.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 211] [Impact Index Per Article: 35.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2017] [Revised: 01/16/2018] [Accepted: 01/18/2018] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Fruit softening, which is a major determinant of shelf life and commercial value, is the consequence of multiple cellular processes, including extensive remodeling of cell wall structure. Recently, it has been shown that pectate lyase (PL), an enzyme that degrades de-esterified pectin in the primary wall, is a major contributing factor to tomato fruit softening. Studies of pectin structure, distribution, and dynamics have indicated that pectins are more tightly integrated with cellulose microfibrils than previously thought and have novel structural features, including branches of the main polymer backbone. Moreover, recent studies of the significance of pectinases, such as PL and polygalacturonase, are consistent with a causal relationship between pectin degradation and a major effect on fruit softening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Duoduo Wang
- Plant and Crop Science Division, School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, Loughborough, LE12 5RD, UK
| | - Trevor H Yeats
- Plant Biology Section, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA; Robert W. Holley Center for Agriculture and Health, USDA-ARS, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Selman Uluisik
- Colemerik Vocational School, Hakkari University, University Street, Karsiyaka Neighborhood 30000, Hakkari, Turkey
| | - Jocelyn K C Rose
- Plant Biology Section, School of Integrative Plant Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA
| | - Graham B Seymour
- Plant and Crop Science Division, School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, Loughborough, LE12 5RD, UK.
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20
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Perini MA, Sin IN, Martinez GA, Civello PM. Measurement of expansin activity and plant cell wall creep by using a commercial texture analyzer. ELECTRON J BIOTECHN 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejbt.2016.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
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21
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Verma C, Kumar Mani A, Mishra S. Biochemical and Molecular Characterization of Cell Wall Degrading Enzyme, Pectin Methylesterase Versus Banana Ripening: An Overview. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.3923/ajbkr.2017.1.23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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22
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Ding A, Marowa P, Kong Y. Genome-wide identification of the expansin gene family in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum). Mol Genet Genomics 2016; 291:1891-907. [PMID: 27329217 DOI: 10.1007/s00438-016-1226-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2016] [Accepted: 06/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Expansins are pH-dependent cell wall loosening proteins which form a large family in plants. They have been shown to be involved in various developmental processes and been implicated in enabling plants' ability to absorb nutrients from the soil as well as conferring biotic and abiotic stress resistances. It is therefore clear that they can be potential targets in genetic engineering for crop improvement. Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) is a major crop species as well as a model organism. Considering that only a few tobacco expansins have been studied, a genome-wide analysis of the tobacco expansin gene family is necessary. In this study, we identified 52 expansins in tobacco, which were classified into four subfamilies: 36 NtEXPAs, 6 NtEXPBs, 3 NtEXLAs and 7 NtEXLBs. Compared to other species, the NtEXLB subfamily size was relatively larger. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the 52 tobacco expansins were divided into 13 subgroups. Gene structure analysis revealed that genes within subfamilies/subgroups exhibited similar characteristics such as gene structure and protein motif arrangement. Whole-genome duplication and tandem duplication events may have played important roles in the expanding of tobacco expansins. Cis-Acting element analysis revealed that each expansin gene was regulated or several expansin genes were co-regulated by both internal and environmental factors. 35 of these genes were identified as being expressed according to a microarray analysis. In contrast to most NtEXPAs which had higher expression levels in young organs, NtEXLAs and NtEXLBs were preferentially expressed in mature or senescent tissues, suggesting that they might play different roles in different organs or at different developmental stages. As the first step towards genome-wide analysis of the tobacco expansin gene family, our work provides solid background information related to structure, evolution and expression as well as regulatory cis-acting elements of the tobacco expansins. This information will provide a strong foundation for cloning and functional exploration of expansin genes in tobacco.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anming Ding
- Key Laboratory for Tobacco Gene Resources, Tobacco Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Qingdao, 266101, Shandong, People's Republic of China
| | - Prince Marowa
- Key Laboratory for Tobacco Gene Resources, Tobacco Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Qingdao, 266101, Shandong, People's Republic of China
| | - Yingzhen Kong
- Key Laboratory for Tobacco Gene Resources, Tobacco Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Qingdao, 266101, Shandong, People's Republic of China.
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Dheilly E, Gall SL, Guillou MC, Renou JP, Bonnin E, Orsel M, Lahaye M. Cell wall dynamics during apple development and storage involves hemicellulose modifications and related expressed genes. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2016; 16:201. [PMID: 27630120 PMCID: PMC5024441 DOI: 10.1186/s12870-016-0887-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2016] [Accepted: 09/01/2016] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Fruit quality depends on a series of biochemical events that modify appearance, flavour and texture throughout fruit development and ripening. Cell wall polysaccharide remodelling largely contributes to the elaboration of fleshy fruit texture. Although several genes and enzymes involved in cell wall polysaccharide biosynthesis and modifications are known, their coordinated activity in these processes is yet to be discovered. RESULTS Combined transcriptomic and biochemical analyses allowed the identification of putative enzymes and related annotated members of gene families involved in cell wall polysaccharide composition and structural changes during apple fruit growth and ripening. The early development genes were mainly related to cell wall biosynthesis and degradation with a particular target on hemicelluloses. Fine structural evolutions of galactoglucomannan were strongly correlated with mannan synthase, glucanase (GH9) and β-galactosidase gene expression. In contrast, fewer genes related to pectin metabolism and cell expansion (expansin genes) were observed in ripening fruit combined with expected changes in cell wall polysaccharide composition. CONCLUSIONS Hemicelluloses undergo major structural changes particularly during early fruit development. The high number of early expressed β-galactosidase genes questions their function on galactosylated structures during fruit development and storage. Their activity and cell wall substrate remains to be identified. Moreover, new insights into the potential role of peroxidases and transporters, along with cell wall metabolism open the way to further studies on concomitant mechanisms involved in cell wall assembly/disassembly during fruit development and storage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuelle Dheilly
- INRA UR 1268 Biopolymères, Interactions, Assemblages, F-44316 Nantes, France
- IRHS, INRA, AGROCAMPUS-Ouest, Université d’Angers, SFR 4207 QUASAV, 42 rue Georges Morel, 49071 Beaucouzé cedex, France
| | - Sophie Le Gall
- INRA UR 1268 Biopolymères, Interactions, Assemblages, F-44316 Nantes, France
| | - Marie-Charlotte Guillou
- IRHS, INRA, AGROCAMPUS-Ouest, Université d’Angers, SFR 4207 QUASAV, 42 rue Georges Morel, 49071 Beaucouzé cedex, France
| | - Jean-Pierre Renou
- IRHS, INRA, AGROCAMPUS-Ouest, Université d’Angers, SFR 4207 QUASAV, 42 rue Georges Morel, 49071 Beaucouzé cedex, France
| | - Estelle Bonnin
- INRA UR 1268 Biopolymères, Interactions, Assemblages, F-44316 Nantes, France
| | - Mathilde Orsel
- IRHS, INRA, AGROCAMPUS-Ouest, Université d’Angers, SFR 4207 QUASAV, 42 rue Georges Morel, 49071 Beaucouzé cedex, France
| | - Marc Lahaye
- INRA UR 1268 Biopolymères, Interactions, Assemblages, F-44316 Nantes, France
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24
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Jiang L, Yan S, Yang W, Li Y, Xia M, Chen Z, Wang Q, Yan L, Song X, Liu R, Zhang X. Transcriptomic analysis reveals the roles of microtubule-related genes and transcription factors in fruit length regulation in cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.). Sci Rep 2015; 5:8031. [PMID: 25619948 PMCID: PMC5379036 DOI: 10.1038/srep08031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2014] [Accepted: 12/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) fruit is a type of fleshy fruit that is harvested immaturely. Early fruit development directly determines the final fruit length and diameter, and consequently the fruit yield and quality. Different cucumber varieties display huge variations of fruit length, but how fruit length is determined at the molecular level remains poorly understood. To understand the genes and gene networks that regulate fruit length in cucumber, high throughout RNA-Seq data were used to compare the transcriptomes of early fruit from two near isogenic lines with different fruit lengths. 3955 genes were found to be differentially expressed, among which 2368 genes were significantly up-regulated and 1587 down-regulated in the line with long fruit. Microtubule and cell cycle related genes were dramatically activated in the long fruit, and transcription factors were implicated in the fruit length regulation in cucumber. Thus, our results built a foundation for dissecting the molecular mechanism of fruit length control in cucumber, a key agricultural trait of significant economic importance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Jiang
- Department of Vegetable Sciences, Beijing Key Laboratory of Growth and Developmental Regulation for Protected Vegetable Crops, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Shuangshuang Yan
- Department of Vegetable Sciences, Beijing Key Laboratory of Growth and Developmental Regulation for Protected Vegetable Crops, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Wencai Yang
- Department of Vegetable Sciences, Beijing Key Laboratory of Growth and Developmental Regulation for Protected Vegetable Crops, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Yanqiang Li
- Shanghai Center for Plant Stress Biology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201602, China
| | - Mengxue Xia
- Department of Vegetable Sciences, Beijing Key Laboratory of Growth and Developmental Regulation for Protected Vegetable Crops, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Zijing Chen
- Department of Vegetable Sciences, Beijing Key Laboratory of Growth and Developmental Regulation for Protected Vegetable Crops, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Qian Wang
- Department of Vegetable Sciences, Beijing Key Laboratory of Growth and Developmental Regulation for Protected Vegetable Crops, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Liying Yan
- College of Horticulture Science and Technology, Qinhuangdao 066004, China
| | - Xiaofei Song
- Analysis and Testing Centre, Hebei Normal University of Science and Technology, Qinhuangdao 066004, China
| | - Renyi Liu
- Shanghai Center for Plant Stress Biology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201602, China
| | - Xiaolan Zhang
- Department of Vegetable Sciences, Beijing Key Laboratory of Growth and Developmental Regulation for Protected Vegetable Crops, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
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25
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Leng P, Yuan B, Guo Y. The role of abscisic acid in fruit ripening and responses to abiotic stress. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2014; 65:4577-88. [PMID: 24821949 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/eru204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 172] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The phytohormone abscisic acid (ABA) plays a crucial role not only in fruit development and ripening, but also in adaptive responses to biotic and abiotic stresses. In these processes, the actions of ABA are under the control of complex regulatory mechanisms involving ABA metabolism, signal transduction, and transport. The endogenous ABA content is determined by the dynamic balance between biosynthesis and catabolism, processes which are regulated by 9-cis-epoxycarotenoid dioxygenase (NCED) and ABA 8'-hydroxylase (CYP707A), respectively. ABA conjugation by cytosolic UDP-glucosyltransferases, or release by β-glucosidases, is also important for maintaining ABA homeostasis. Recently, multiple putative ABA receptors localized at different subcellular sites have been reported. Among these is a major breakthrough in the field of ABA signalling-the identification of a signalling cascade involving the PYR/PYL/RCAR protein family, the type 2C protein phosphatases (PP2Cs), and subfamily 2 of the SNF1-related kinases (SnRK2s). With regard to transport, two ATP-binding cassette (ABC) proteins and two ABA transporters in the nitrate transporter 1/peptide transporter (NRT1/PTR) family have been identified. In this review, we summarize recent research progress on the role of ABA in fruit ripening, stress response, and transcriptional regulation, and also the functional verification of both ABA-responsive and ripening-related genes. In addition, we suggest possible commercial applications of genetic manipulation of ABA signalling to improve fruit quality and yields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping Leng
- College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, China Agricultural University, PR China
| | - Bing Yuan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Arizona, 1306 East University BouleVard, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Yangdong Guo
- College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, China Agricultural University, PR China
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26
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Wang S, Lu G, Hou Z, Luo Z, Wang T, Li H, Zhang J, Ye Z. Members of the tomato FRUITFULL MADS-box family regulate style abscission and fruit ripening. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2014; 65:3005-14. [PMID: 24723399 PMCID: PMC4071821 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/eru137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
The tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) protein MADS-RIN plays important roles in fruit ripening. In this study, the functions of two homologous tomato proteins, FUL1 and FUL2, which contain conserved MIKC domains that typify plant MADS-box proteins, and which interact with MADS-RIN, were analysed. Transgenic functional analysis showed that FUL1 and FUL2 function redundantly in fruit ripening regulation, but exhibit distinct roles in the regulation of cellular differentiation and expansion. Over-expression of FUL2 in tomato resulted in a pointed tip at the blossom end of the fruit, together with a thinner pericarp, reduced stem diameter, and smaller leaves, but no obvious phenotypes resulted from FUL1 over-expression. Dual suppression of FUL1 and FUL2 substantially inhibited fruit ripening by blocking ethylene biosynthesis and decreasing carotenoid accumulation. In addition, the levels of transcript corresponding to ACC SYNTHASE2 (ACS2), which plays a key role in ethylene biosynthesis, were significantly decreased in the FUL1/FUL2 knock-down tomato fruits. Overall, our results suggest that FUL proteins can regulate tomato fruit ripening through fine-tuning ethylene biosynthesis and the expression of ripening-related genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shufen Wang
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology, Ministry of Education, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Gang Lu
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology, Ministry of Education, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Zheng Hou
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology, Ministry of Education, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Zhidan Luo
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology, Ministry of Education, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Taotao Wang
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology, Ministry of Education, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Hanxia Li
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology, Ministry of Education, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Junhong Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology, Ministry of Education, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Zhibiao Ye
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology, Ministry of Education, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
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27
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Ogasawara S, Abe K, Nakajima T. Pepper β-Galactosidase 1 (PBG1) Plays a Significant Role in Fruit Ripening in Bell Pepper (Capsicum annuum). Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2014; 71:309-22. [PMID: 17284822 DOI: 10.1271/bbb.60179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
During bell pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) fruit ripening, beta-galactosidase activity increased markedly as compared with other glycosidases. We purified 77.5 kDa exo-1,4-beta-D-galactanase from red bell pepper fruit classified as beta-galactosidase II. A marked decrease in galactose content appeared during fruit ripening, especially in the pectic fraction. The purified enzyme hydrolyzed a considerable amount of galactose residues in this fraction. We isolated bell pepper beta-galactosidase (PBG1) cDNA. This PBG1 protein contained the putative active site, G-G-P-[LIVM]-x-Q-x-E-N-E-[FY], belonging to glycosyl hydrolase family 35. Quantitative RT-PCR revealed that the expression of PBG1 in red fruit was significantly stronger than that from any other tissues. Moreover, expression of PBG1 occurred prior to that of pepper endo-polygalacturonase 1 (PPG1), the major fruit-ripening enzyme. Based on these results, it appears that the hydrolysis of galactose residues in pectic substances is the first event in the ripening process in bell pepper fruit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi Ogasawara
- Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan.
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28
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New insights on plant cell elongation: a role for acetylcholine. Int J Mol Sci 2014; 15:4565-82. [PMID: 24642879 PMCID: PMC3975414 DOI: 10.3390/ijms15034565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2014] [Revised: 03/07/2014] [Accepted: 03/11/2014] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
We investigated the effect of auxin and acetylcholine on the expression of the tomato expansin gene LeEXPA2, a specific expansin gene expressed in elongating tomato hypocotyl segments. Since auxin interferes with clathrin-mediated endocytosis, in order to regulate cellular and developmental responses we produced protoplasts from tomato elongating hypocotyls and followed the endocytotic marker, FM4-64, internalization in response to treatments. Tomato protoplasts were observed during auxin and acetylcholine treatments after transient expression of chimerical markers of volume-control related compartments such as vacuoles. Here we describe the contribution of auxin and acetylcholine to LeEXPA2 expression regulation and we support the hypothesis that a possible subcellular target of acetylcholine signal is the vesicular transport, shedding some light on the characterization of this small molecule as local mediator in the plant physiological response.
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29
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Goh HH, Sloan J, Malinowski R, Fleming A. Variable expansin expression in Arabidopsis leads to different growth responses. JOURNAL OF PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2014; 171:329-339. [PMID: 24144490 DOI: 10.1016/j.jplph.2013.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2013] [Revised: 09/18/2013] [Accepted: 09/18/2013] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Expansins have long been implicated in the control of cell wall extensibility. However, despite ample evidence supporting a role for these proteins in the endogenous mechanism of plant growth, there are also examples in the literature where the outcome of altered expansin gene expression is difficult to reconcile with a simplistic causal linkage to growth promotion. To investigate this problem, we report on the analysis of transgenic Arabidopsis plants in which a heterologous cucumber expansin can be inducibly overexpressed. Our results indicate that the effects of expansin expression on growth depend on the degree of induction of expansin expression and the developmental pattern of organ growth. They support the role of expansin in directional cell expansion. They are also consistent with the idea that excess expansin might itself impede normal activities of cell wall modifications, culminating in both growth promotion and repression depending on the degree of expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hoe-Han Goh
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, United Kingdom; Institute of Systems Biology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, UKM Bangi 43600, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
| | - Jennifer Sloan
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, United Kingdom
| | - Robert Malinowski
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, United Kingdom; Laboratory of Plant Molecular Biology, Polish Academy of Sciences Botanical Garden - Centre for Biodiversity Protection in Powsin, ul Prawdziwka 2, Warsaw 02-973, Poland
| | - Andrew Fleming
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, United Kingdom.
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30
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Zhang S, Xu R, Gao Z, Chen C, Jiang Z, Shu H. A genome-wide analysis of the expansin genes in Malus × Domestica. Mol Genet Genomics 2013; 289:225-36. [PMID: 24378555 DOI: 10.1007/s00438-013-0796-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2013] [Accepted: 11/18/2013] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Expansins were first identified as cell wall-loosening proteins; they are involved in regulating cell expansion, fruits softening and many other physiological processes. However, our knowledge about the expansin family members and their evolutionary relationships in fruit trees, such as apple, is limited. In this study, we identified 41 members of the expansin gene family in the genome of apple (Malus × Domestica L. Borkh). Phylogenetic analysis revealed that expansin genes in apple could be divided into four subfamilies according to their gene structures and protein motifs. By phylogenetic analysis of the expansins in five plants (Arabidopsis, rice, poplar, grape and apple), the expansins were divided into 17 subgroups. Our gene duplication analysis revealed that whole-genome and chromosomal-segment duplications contributed to the expansion of Mdexpansins. The microarray and expressed sequence tag (EST) data showed that 34 Mdexpansin genes could be divided into five groups by the EST analysis; they may also play different roles during fruit development. An expression model for MdEXPA16 and MdEXPA20 showed their potential role in developing fruit. Overall, our study provides useful data and novel insights into the functions and regulatory mechanisms of the expansin genes in apple, as well as their evolution and divergence. As the first step towards genome-wide analysis of the expansin genes in apple, our results have established a solid foundation for future studies on the function of the expansin genes in fruit development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shizhong Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, National Research Center for Apple Engineering and Technology, College of Horticulture Science and Technology, Shandong Agricultural University, Taian, Shandong, 271018, People's Republic of China
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31
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Guerriero G, Giorno F, Folgado R, Printz B, Baric S, Hausman JF. Callose and cellulose synthase gene expression analysis from the tight cluster to the full bloom stage and during early fruit development in Malus × domestica. JOURNAL OF PLANT RESEARCH 2013; 127:173-183. [PMID: 23934062 DOI: 10.1007/s10265-013-0586-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2012] [Accepted: 06/24/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Apple (Malus × domestica) is an economically important temperate fruit-bearing crop which belongs to the family of Rosaceae and its pomaceous fruit is one of the most commonly cultivated. Several studies have demonstrated that the cell wall plays a pivotal role during flower and fruit development. It takes active part in pollen tube growth and contributes to determine the fruit firmness trait through the action of cell wall-related enzymes (i.e. polygalacturonase and pectinmethylesterase). We have investigated the expression of callose and cellulose synthase genes during flowering from tight cluster to anthesis and during early fruit development in domesticated apple. We also link the changes observed in gene expression to the profile of soluble non-structural carbohydrates at different developmental stages of flowers/fruitlets and to the qualitative results linked to wall polysaccharides' composition obtained through near-infrared spectroscopy. This work represents an important addition to the study of tree physiology with respect to the analysis of the expression of callose and cellulose synthase genes during flower and early fruit development in domesticated apple.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gea Guerriero
- Laimburg Research Centre for Agriculture and Forestry, Laimburg 6, Pfatten (Vadena), 39040, Auer (Ora), BZ, Italy,
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32
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M Ller GL, Budde CO, Lauxmann MA, Triassi A, Andreo CS, Drincovich MAF, Lara MAV. Expression profile of transcripts encoding cell wall remodelling proteins in tomato fruit cv. Micro-Tom subjected to 15°C storage. FUNCTIONAL PLANT BIOLOGY : FPB 2013; 40:449-458. [PMID: 32481121 DOI: 10.1071/fp12272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2012] [Accepted: 12/23/2012] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
To extend fruit market life, tomatoes are harvested before red ripe and kept at temperatures below optimum (20°C). In this work, Micro-Tom tomatoes stored at 20°C (normal ripening) were compared with those stored at 15°C or 4°C (chilling injury inducer) for 7 days. In contrast to 4°C, storage at 15°C delayed ripening with the benefit of not enhancing oxidative metabolism and of enabling ripening upon being transferred to 20°C. The transcriptional expression profile of enzymes related to cell wall metabolism was compared at the three temperatures. Although endo-β-1,4-glucanase (Cel1), which is associated with fruit decay, was largely increased after removal from 4°C storage, its expression was not modified in fruits stored at 15°C. Enhanced transcriptional expression of xyloglucan endotransgylcosylase/hydrolases (XTHs) XTH1, -2, -10 and -11, and of two β-xylosidases (Xyl1-2) was detected in fruits stored at 15°C with respect to those at 20°C. Following 2 days at 20°C, these transcripts remained higher in fruits stored at 15°C and XHT3 and -9 also increased. Ethylene evolution was similar in fruits kept at 15°C and 20°C; thus, the changes in the transcript profile and fruit properties between these treatments may be under the control of factors other than ethylene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriela L M Ller
- Centro de Estudios Fotosintéticos y Bioquímicos (CEFOBI). Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas. Suipacha 531. Rosario (2000), Argentina
| | - Claudio O Budde
- Estación Experimental San Pedro, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA), Ruta Nacional n° 9 Km 170, San Pedro, Argentina
| | - Martin A Lauxmann
- Centro de Estudios Fotosintéticos y Bioquímicos (CEFOBI). Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas. Suipacha 531. Rosario (2000), Argentina
| | - Agustina Triassi
- Centro de Estudios Fotosintéticos y Bioquímicos (CEFOBI). Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas. Suipacha 531. Rosario (2000), Argentina
| | - Carlos S Andreo
- Centro de Estudios Fotosintéticos y Bioquímicos (CEFOBI). Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas. Suipacha 531. Rosario (2000), Argentina
| | - Mar A F Drincovich
- Centro de Estudios Fotosintéticos y Bioquímicos (CEFOBI). Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas. Suipacha 531. Rosario (2000), Argentina
| | - Mar A V Lara
- Centro de Estudios Fotosintéticos y Bioquímicos (CEFOBI). Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas. Suipacha 531. Rosario (2000), Argentina
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33
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Ouyang KX, Liu MQ, Pian RQ, Liu SS, Chen XY. Isolation and analysis of α-expansin genes in the tree Anthocephalus chinensis (Rubiaceae). GENETICS AND MOLECULAR RESEARCH 2013; 12:1061-73. [PMID: 23661432 DOI: 10.4238/2013.april.10.2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Expansins are cell wall-associated proteins that induce wall extension and relax stress by disrupting noncovalent bonds between cellulose microfibrils and cross-linking glycan chains, thereby promoting wall creep. Anthocephalus chinensis is a very fast-growing economically important tree found mainly in South Asia. Sixteen cDNAs, designated AcEXPA1 to AcEXPA16 (GenBank accession Nos. FJ417847, JF922686-JF922700) with corresponding genomic DNA sequences (GenBank accession Nos. GQ228823, JF922701-JF922715), were isolated by amplifying conserved domain binding with genomic walking and RACE techniques from four differential growth tissues in A. chinensis. These α-expansin homologues were highly conserved in size and sequence; they had the same sequence structures as an N-terminal signal peptide, three exons and two introns. Their amino acid alignment showed that A. chinensis expansin genes are divided into three subgroups: A, B and C. This study is the first report on expansin genes from A. chinensis. It will be used for a tissue-specific expression model and for studying the relationship between expansin genes, growth rate and wood quality of the xylem in this fast-growing tree.
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Affiliation(s)
- K X Ouyang
- Key Laboratory for Genetics and Breeding of Forest Trees and Ornamental Plants, Ministry of Education, National Engineering Laboratory for Forest Tree Breeding, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing, China
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34
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Carey RE, Hepler NK, Cosgrove DJ. Selaginella moellendorffii has a reduced and highly conserved expansin superfamily with genes more closely related to angiosperms than to bryophytes. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2013; 13:4. [PMID: 23286898 PMCID: PMC3680112 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2229-13-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2012] [Accepted: 12/22/2012] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Expansins are plant cell wall loosening proteins encoded by a large superfamily of genes, consisting of four families named EXPA, EXPB, EXLA, and EXLB. The evolution of the expansin superfamily is well understood in angiosperms, thanks to synteny-based evolutionary studies of the gene superfamily in Arabidopsis, rice, and Populus. Analysis of the expansin superfamily in the moss Physcomitrella patens revealed a superfamily without EXLA or EXLB genes that has evolved considerably and independently of angiosperm expansins. The sequencing of the Selaginella moellendorffii genome has allowed us to extend these analyses into an early diverging vascular plant. RESULTS The expansin superfamily in Selaginella moellendorffii has now been assembled from genomic scaffolds. A smaller (and less diverse) superfamily is revealed, consistent with studies of other gene families in Selaginella. Selaginella has an expansin superfamily, which, like Physcomitrella, lacks EXLA or EXLB genes, but does contain two EXPA genes that are related to a particular Arabidopsis-rice clade involved in root hair development. CONCLUSIONS From sequence-based phylogenetic analysis, most Selaginella expansins lie outside the Arabidopsis-rice clades, leading us to estimate the minimum number of expansins present in the last common ancestor of Selaginella and angiosperms at 2 EXPA genes and 1 EXPB gene. These results confirm Selaginella as an important intermediary between bryophytes and angiosperms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert E Carey
- Department of Biology, Lebanon Valley College, 101 N. College Ave., Annville, PA, 17003, USA
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, 208 Mueller Lab, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Nathan K Hepler
- Program in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Lebanon Valley College, 101 N. College Ave., Annville, PA, 17003, USA
| | - Daniel J Cosgrove
- Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, 208 Mueller Lab, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
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35
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Yu K, Xu Q, Da X, Guo F, Ding Y, Deng X. Transcriptome changes during fruit development and ripening of sweet orange (Citrus sinensis). BMC Genomics 2012; 13:10. [PMID: 22230690 PMCID: PMC3267696 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-13-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2011] [Accepted: 01/10/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The transcriptome of the fruit pulp of the sweet orange variety Anliu (WT) and that of its red fleshed mutant Hong Anliu (MT) were compared to understand the dynamics and differential expression of genes expressed during fruit development and ripening. RESULTS The transcriptomes of WT and MT were sampled at four developmental stages using an Illumina sequencing platform. A total of 19,440 and 18,829 genes were detected in MT and WT, respectively. Hierarchical clustering analysis revealed 24 expression patterns for the set of all genes detected, of which 20 were in common between MT and WT. Over 89% of the genes showed differential expression during fruit development and ripening in the WT. Functional categorization of the differentially expressed genes revealed that cell wall biosynthesis, carbohydrate and citric acid metabolism, carotenoid metabolism, and the response to stress were the most differentially regulated processes occurring during fruit development and ripening. CONCLUSION A description of the transcriptomic changes occurring during fruit development and ripening was obtained in sweet orange, along with a dynamic view of the gene expression differences between the wild type and a red fleshed mutant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keqin Yu
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology of Ministry of Education, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Qiang Xu
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology of Ministry of Education, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Xinlei Da
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology of Ministry of Education, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Fei Guo
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology of Ministry of Education, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Yuduan Ding
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology of Ministry of Education, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
| | - Xiuxin Deng
- Key Laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology of Ministry of Education, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
- National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic Improvement, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430070, China
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Brummell DA, Chen RKY, Harris JC, Zhang H, Hamiaux C, Kralicek AV, McKenzie MJ. Induction of vacuolar invertase inhibitor mRNA in potato tubers contributes to cold-induced sweetening resistance and includes spliced hybrid mRNA variants. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2011; 62:3519-34. [PMID: 21393382 PMCID: PMC3130176 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/err043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2010] [Accepted: 01/27/2011] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Cold storage of tubers of potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) compromises tuber quality in many cultivars by the accumulation of hexose sugars in a process called cold-induced sweetening. This is caused by the breakdown of starch to sucrose, which is cleaved to glucose and fructose by vacuolar acid invertase. During processing of affected tubers, the high temperatures involved in baking and frying cause the Maillard reaction between reducing sugars and free amino acids, resulting in the accumulation of acrylamide. cDNA clones with deduced proteins homologous to known invertase inhibitors were isolated and the two most abundant forms, termed INH1 and INH2, were shown to possess apoplastic and vacuolar localization, respectively. The INH2 gene showed developmentally regulated alternative splicing, so, in addition to the INH2α transcript encoding the full-length protein, two hybrid mRNAs (INH2β*A and INH2β*B) that encoded deduced vacuolar invertase inhibitors with divergent C-termini were detected, the result of mRNA splicing of an upstream region of INH2 to a downstream region of INH1. Hybrid RNAs are common in animals, where they may add to the diversity of the proteome, but are rarely described in plants. During cold storage, INH2α and the hybrid INH2β mRNAs accumulated to higher abundance in cultivars resistant to cold-induced sweetening than in susceptible cultivars. Increased amounts of invertase inhibitor may contribute to the suppression of acid invertase activity and prevent cleavage of sucrose. Evidence for increased RNA splicing activity was detected in several resistant lines, a mechanism that in some circumstances may generate a range of proteins with additional functional capacity to aid adaptability.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Brummell
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited, Food Industry Science Centre, Private Bag 11600, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand.
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Georgelis N, Tabuchi A, Nikolaidis N, Cosgrove DJ. Structure-function analysis of the bacterial expansin EXLX1. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:16814-23. [PMID: 21454649 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.225037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
We made use of EXLX1, an expansin from Bacillus subtilis, to investigate protein features essential for its plant cell wall binding and wall loosening activities. We found that the two expansin domains, D1 and D2, need to be linked for wall extension activity and that D2 mediates EXLX1 binding to whole cell walls and to cellulose via distinct residues on the D2 surface. Binding to cellulose is mediated by three aromatic residues arranged linearly on the putative binding surface that spans D1 and D2. Mutation of these three residues to alanine eliminated cellulose binding and concomitantly eliminated wall loosening activity measured either by cell wall extension or by weakening of filter paper but hardly affected binding to whole cell walls, which is mediated by basic residues located on other D2 surfaces. Mutation of these basic residues to glutamine reduced cell wall binding but not wall loosening activities. We propose domain D2 as the founding member of a new carbohydrate binding module family, CBM63, but its function in expansin activity apparently goes beyond simply anchoring D1 to the wall. Several polar residues on the putative binding surface of domain D1 are also important for activity, most notably Asp82, whose mutation to alanine or asparagine completely eliminated wall loosening activity. The functional insights based on this bacterial expansin may be extrapolated to the interactions of plant expansins with cell walls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikolaos Georgelis
- Department of Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA
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Fujisawa M, Nakano T, Ito Y. Identification of potential target genes for the tomato fruit-ripening regulator RIN by chromatin immunoprecipitation. BMC PLANT BIOLOGY 2011; 11:26. [PMID: 21276270 PMCID: PMC3039564 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2229-11-26] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2010] [Accepted: 01/30/2011] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND During ripening, climacteric fruits increase their ethylene level and subsequently undergo various physiological changes, such as softening, pigmentation and development of aroma and flavor. These changes occur simultaneously and are caused by the highly synchronized expression of numerous genes at the onset of ripening. In tomatoes, the MADS-box transcription factor RIN has been regarded as a key regulator responsible for the onset of ripening by acting upstream of both ethylene- and non-ethylene-mediated controls. However, except for LeACS2, direct targets of RIN have not been clarified, and little is known about the transcriptional cascade for ripening. RESULTS Using immunoprecipitated (IPed) DNA fragments recovered by chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) with anti-RIN antibody from ripening tomato fruit, we analyzed potential binding sites for RIN (CArG-box sites) in the promoters of representative ripening-induced genes by quantitative PCR. Results revealed nearly a 5- to 20-fold enrichment of CArG boxes in the promoters of LeACS2, LeACS4, PG, TBG4, LeEXP1, and LeMAN4 and of RIN itself, indicating direct interaction of RIN with their promoters in vivo. Moreover, sequence analysis and genome mapping of 51 cloned IPed DNAs revealed potential RIN binding sites. Quantitative PCR revealed that four of the potential binding sites were enriched 4- to 17-fold in the IPed DNA pools compared with the controls, indicating direct interaction of RIN with these sites in vivo. Near one of the four CArG boxes we found a gene encoding a protein similar to thioredoxin y1. An increase in the transcript level of this gene was observed with ripening in normal fruit but not in the rin mutant, suggesting that RIN possibly induces its expression. CONCLUSIONS The presented results suggest that RIN controls fruit softening and ethylene production by the direct transcriptional regulation of cell-wall-modifying genes and ethylene biosynthesis genes during ripening. Moreover, the binding of RIN to its own promoter suggests the presence of autoregulation for RIN expression. ChIP-based analyses identified a novel RIN-binding CArG-box site that harbors a gene associated with RIN expression in its flanking region. These findings clarify the crucial role of RIN in the transcriptional regulation of ripening initiation and progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaki Fujisawa
- National Food Research Institute, 2-1-12 Kannondai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8642, Japan
| | - Toshitsugu Nakano
- National Food Research Institute, 2-1-12 Kannondai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8642, Japan
| | - Yasuhiro Ito
- National Food Research Institute, 2-1-12 Kannondai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki 305-8642, Japan
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Sasidharan R, Chinnappa C, Staal M, Elzenga JTM, Yokoyama R, Nishitani K, Voesenek LA, Pierik R. Light quality-mediated petiole elongation in Arabidopsis during shade avoidance involves cell wall modification by xyloglucan endotransglucosylase/hydrolases. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2010; 154:978-90. [PMID: 20688978 PMCID: PMC2949003 DOI: 10.1104/pp.110.162057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2010] [Accepted: 08/02/2010] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Some plants can avoid shaded conditions via rapid shoot elongation, thus growing into better lit areas in a canopy. Cell wall-modifying mechanisms promoting this elongation response, therefore, are important regulatory points during shade avoidance. Two major cell wall-modifying protein families are expansins and xyloglucan endotransglucosylase/hydrolases (XTHs). The role of these proteins during shade avoidance was studied in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). In response to two shade cues, low red to far-red light (implying neighbor proximity) and green shade (mimicking dense canopy conditions), Arabidopsis showed classic shade avoidance features: petiole elongation and leaf hyponasty. Measurement of the apoplastic proton flux in green shade-treated petioles revealed a rapid efflux of protons into the apoplast within minutes, unlike white light controls. This apoplastic acidification probably provides the acidic pH required for the optimal activity of cell wall-modifying proteins like expansins and XTHs. Acid-induced extension, expansin susceptibility, and extractable expansin activity were similar in petioles from white light- and shade-treated plants. XTH activity, however, was high in petioles exposed to shade treatments. Five XTH genes (XTH9, -15, -16, -17, and -19) were positively regulated by low red to far-red light conditions, while the latter four and XTH22 showed a significant up-regulation also in response to green shade. Consistently, knockout mutants for two of these XTH genes also had reduced or absent shade avoidance responses to these light signals. These results point toward the cell wall as a vital regulatory point during shade avoidance.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Ronald Pierik
- Plant Ecophysiology, Institute of Environmental Biology, Utrecht University, 3584 CA Utrecht, The Netherlands (R.S., L.A.C.J.V., R.P.); Department of Biological Sciences, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada T2N 1N4 (C.C.C.); Ecophysiology of Plants, University of Groningen, 9750AA Haren, The Netherlands (M.S., J.T.M.E.); Department of Developmental Biology and Neurosciences, Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai 980–8578, Japan (R.Y., K.N.)
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Park CH, Kim TW, Son SH, Hwang JY, Lee SC, Chang SC, Kim SH, Kim SW, Kim SK. Brassinosteroids control AtEXPA5 gene expression in Arabidopsis thaliana. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2010; 71:380-7. [PMID: 20035956 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2009.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2009] [Revised: 10/25/2009] [Accepted: 11/09/2009] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
To elucidate the spatial and temporal roles of EXPANSIN A5 (AtEXPA5) in growth and development of Arabidopsis thaliana, phenotypic alterations in loss-of-function mutants were observed. Seedlings of the null mutant, expA5-1, had shorter roots and hypocotyls than those of wild-type plants under both light and dark conditions. Compared to wild-type plants, the mutants had smaller rosette leaves. AtEXPA5 was dominantly expressed in aerial parts of A. thaliana, especially in the inflorescence stems and flowers. Expression of AtEXPA5 was enhanced by exogenously applied brassinosteroids. AtEXPA5 expression was reduced in a brassinosteroid-deficient mutant (det2) and a signaling mutant (bri1-301), while it was increased in bzr1-1D, a dominant mutant of a brassinosteroid transcription factor. A double mutant, bzr1-1DXexpA5-1, showed reduced growth compared to the bzr1-1D mutant. In addition, the brassinazole resistance of bzr1-1D was impaired in the double mutant. These findings indicate that AtEXPA5 is a growth-regulating gene whose expression is controlled by brassinosteroid signaling downstream of BZR1 in A. thaliana.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chan Ho Park
- Department of Life Science, Chung-Ang University, Seoul 156-756, Republic of Korea
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41
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Lizana XC, Riegel R, Gomez LD, Herrera J, Isla A, McQueen-Mason SJ, Calderini DF. Expansins expression is associated with grain size dynamics in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2010; 61:1147-57. [PMID: 20080826 PMCID: PMC2826655 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erp380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2009] [Revised: 12/01/2009] [Accepted: 12/08/2009] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Grain weight is one of the most important components of cereal yield and quality. A clearer understanding of the physiological and molecular determinants of this complex trait would provide an insight into the potential benefits for plant breeding. In the present study, the dynamics of dry matter accumulation, water uptake, and grain size in parallel with the expression of expansins during grain growth in wheat were analysed. The stabilized water content of grains showed a strong association with final grain weight (r(2)=0.88, P <0.01). Grain length was found to be the trait that best correlated with final grain weight (r(2)=0.98, P <0.01) and volume (r(2)=0.94, P <0.01). The main events that defined final grain weight occurred during the first third of grain-filling when maternal tissues (the pericarp of grains) undergo considerable expansion. Eight expansin coding sequences were isolated from pericarp RNA and the temporal profiles of accumulation of these transcripts were monitored. Sequences showing high homology with TaExpA6 were notably abundant during early grain expansion and declined as maturity was reached. RNA in situ hybridization studies revealed that the transcript for TaExpA6 was principally found in the pericarp during early growth in grain development and, subsequently, in both the endosperm and pericarp. The signal in these images is likely to be the sum of the transcript levels of all three sequences with high similarity to the TaExpA6 gene. The early part of the expression profile of this putative expansin gene correlates well with the critical periods of early grain expansion, suggesting it as a possible factor in the final determination of grain size.
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Affiliation(s)
- X Carolina Lizana
- Graduate School, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Universidad Austral de Chile, Campus Isla Teja, Valdivia, Chile.
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Sloan J, Backhaus A, Malinowski R, McQueen-Mason S, Fleming AJ. Phased control of expansin activity during leaf development identifies a sensitivity window for expansin-mediated induction of leaf growth. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2009; 151:1844-54. [PMID: 19789287 PMCID: PMC2786001 DOI: 10.1104/pp.109.144683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2009] [Accepted: 09/22/2009] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Expansins are cell wall proteins associated with the process of plant growth. However, investigations in which expansin gene expression has been manipulated throughout the plant have often led to inconclusive results. In this article, we report on a series of experiments in which overexpression of expansin was targeted to specific phases of leaf growth using an inducible promoter system. The data indicate that there is a restricted window of sensitivity when increased expansin gene expression leads to increased endogenous expansin activity and an increase in leaf growth. This phase of maximum expansin efficacy corresponds to the mid phase of leaf growth. We propose that the effectiveness of expansin action depends on the presence of other modulating factors in the leaf and we suggest that it is the control of expression of these factors (in conjunction with expansin gene expression) that defines the extent of leaf growth. These data help to explain some of the previously observed variation in growth response following manipulation of expansin gene expression and highlight a potential linkage of the expression of modifiers of expansin activity with the process of exit from cell division.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Andrew J. Fleming
- Department of Animal and Plant Sciences, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, United Kingdom (J.S., A.B., R.M., A.J.F.); and Centre for Novel Agricultural Products, University of York, York YO10 5YW, United Kingdom (S.M.-M.)
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Gupta V, Mathur S, Solanke AU, Sharma MK, Kumar R, Vyas S, Khurana P, Khurana JP, Tyagi AK, Sharma AK. Genome analysis and genetic enhancement of tomato. Crit Rev Biotechnol 2009; 29:152-81. [PMID: 19319709 DOI: 10.1080/07388550802688870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The Solanaceae is an important family of vegetable crops, ornamentals and medicinal plants. Tomato has served as a model member of this family largely because of its enriched cytogenetic, genetic, as well as physical, maps. Mapping has helped in cloning several genes of importance such as Pto, responsible for resistance against bacterial speck disease, Mi-1.2 for resistance against nematodes, and fw2.2 QTL for fruit weight. A high-throughput genome-sequencing program has been initiated by an international consortium of 10 countries. Since heterochromatin has been found to be concentrated near centromeres, the consortium is focusing on sequencing only the gene-rich euchromatic region. Genomes of the members of Solanaceae show a significant degree of synteny, suggesting that the tomato genome sequence would help in the cloning of genes for important traits from other Solanaceae members as well. ESTs from a large number of cDNA libraries have been sequenced, and microarray chips, in conjunction with wide array of ripening mutants, have contributed immensely to the understanding of the fruit-ripening phenomenon. Work on the analysis of the tomato proteome has also been initiated. Transgenic tomato plants with improved abiotic stress tolerance, disease resistance and insect resistance, have been developed. Attempts have also been made to develop tomato as a bioreactor for various pharmaceutical proteins. However, control of fruit quality and ripening remains an active and challenging area of research. Such efforts should pave the way to improve not only tomato, but also other solanaceous crops.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vikrant Gupta
- Interdisciplinary Centre for Plant Genomics, Department of Plant Molecular Biology, University of Delhi South Campus, New Delhi, India
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Payasi A, Mishra NN, Chaves ALS, Singh R. Biochemistry of fruit softening: an overview. PHYSIOLOGY AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY OF PLANTS : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF FUNCTIONAL PLANT BIOLOGY 2009; 15:103-13. [PMID: 23572919 PMCID: PMC3550369 DOI: 10.1007/s12298-009-0012-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Softening is a developmentally programmed ripening process, associated with biochemical changes in cell wall fractions involving hydrolytic processes resulting in breakdown of cell-wall polymers such as cellulose, hemicelluloses and pectin etc. Various hydrolytic reactions are brought about by polygalacturonase, pectin methyl esterase, pectate lyase, rhamnogalacturonase, cellulase and β-galactosidase etc. Besides these enzymes, expansin protein also plays an important role in softening. Textural changes during ripening help in determining the shelf life of a fruit. An understanding of these changes would help in formulating procedures for controlling fruit softening vis-à-vis enhancing shelf life of fruits. In the present review an attempt has been made to coalesce recent findings on biochemistry of fruit softening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anurag Payasi
- />Department of Biotechnology, S.J.M. Institute of Engineering and Technology, Radaur, 135133 Yamunanagar India
- />Departmento de Bioquimica, Universidade de Federal, Pelotas, RS Brazil
| | - Nagendra Nath Mishra
- />Department of Biotechnology, S.J.M. Institute of Engineering and Technology, Radaur, 135133 Yamunanagar India
- />Division of Infectious Diseases, LA Biomedical Research Institute at Harbor-UCLA, 1124 West Carson Street, Bldg. RB2, Room 225, Torrance, CA 90502 USA
| | | | - Randhir Singh
- />Department of Biotechnology, S.J.M. Institute of Engineering and Technology, Radaur, 135133 Yamunanagar India
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Yamada K, Norikoshi R, Suzuki K, Nishijima T, Imanishi H, Ichimura K. Cell Division and Expansion Growth during Rose Petal Development. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.2503/jjshs1.78.356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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46
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Yamada K, Takahashi R, Fujitani C, Mishima K, Yoshida M, Joyce DC, Yamaki S. Cell Wall Extensibility and Effect of Cell-Wall-Loosening Proteins during Rose Flower Opening. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.2503/jjshs1.78.242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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47
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Kunyamee S, Ketsa S, Imsabai W, van Doorn WG. The transcript abundance of an expansin gene in ripe sapodilla (Manilkara zapota) fruit is negatively regulated by ethylene. FUNCTIONAL PLANT BIOLOGY : FPB 2008; 35:1205-1211. [PMID: 32688867 DOI: 10.1071/fp08168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2008] [Accepted: 09/01/2008] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
After harvest, mature fruit of sapodilla (Manilkara zapota van Royen) exhibit rapid softening. The decrease in fruit firmness was hastened by ethylene and delayed by 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP). Two genes encoding expansins (called MzEXP1 and MzEXP2) were isolated. In both cultivars studied (Makok-Yai and Kra-Suay), MzEXP1 was transiently expressed early during fruit development on the plant. This suggests that it is involved in cell wall loosening during early fruit growth. In cv. Makok-Yai, MzEXP2 was expressed between 1 day before harvest and day 4 after harvest. In cv. Kra-Suay, the expression of MzEXP2 started 8 weeks before the normal harvest stage, and ended on day 3 after harvest. When the fruit of both cultivars was treated with ethylene (50 µL L-1 for 20 h at 25°C) just after harvest, the expression of MzEXP2 became undetectable. After treatment with 1-MCP MzEXP2 mRNA was highly abundant until day 5 after harvest, when in controls the transcript abundance had become undetectable. The onset of MzEXP2 expression seems not regulated by ethylene, as the concomitant ethylene levels are very low. The data strongly indicate that the decrease of MzEXP2 transcript abundance is due to ethylene production by the fruit, which is by then high. The expression of MzEXP2 ceased, both in controls and in ethylene-treated material, when the fruit had reached a rather low threshold firmness. The data suggest that the protein has a supporting and cooperative role in fruit softening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sutin Kunyamee
- Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Agriculture, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
| | - Saichol Ketsa
- Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Agriculture, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
| | - Wachiraya Imsabai
- Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Agriculture at Kamphaeng Saen Campus, Kasetsart University, Nakhorn Pathom 73140, Thailand
| | - Wouter G van Doorn
- Mann Laboratory, Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis CA 95616, USA
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Fudali S, Sobczak M, Janakowski S, Griesser M, Grundler FMW, Golinowski W. Expansins are among plant cell wall modifying agents specifically expressed during development of nematode-induced syncytia. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2008; 3:969-71. [PMID: 19704422 PMCID: PMC2633745 DOI: 10.4161/psb.6169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2008] [Accepted: 04/21/2008] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Cyst nematodes are economically important pests. As obligatory biotrophic endoparasites they invade host roots and induce formation of syncytia, structures that serve them as the only source of nutrients. During syncytium development, extensive cell wall modifications take place. Cell wall dissolution occurs during cell wall opening formation, cell walls expand during hypertrophy of syncytial elements and local cell wall synthesis leads to the thickening of syncytial cell wall and the formation of cell wall ingrowths. Numerous studies revealed that nematodes change expression of plant genes encoding cell wall modifying proteins including expansins. Expansins poses unique abilities to induce cell wall extension in acidic pH. Recently, we demonstrated that two alpha-expansin genes LeEXPA4 and LeEXPA5 are upregulated in tomato roots infected with potato cyst nematode (Globodera rostochiensis). In this addendum, we present the most recent results concerning involvement of plant cell wall modifying genes in syncytium development and discuss possible practical applications of this knowledge for developing plants with resistance against nematodes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylwia Fudali
- Department of Botany; Warsaw University of Life Sciences (SGGW); Warsaw Poland
| | - Miroslaw Sobczak
- Department of Botany; Warsaw University of Life Sciences (SGGW); Warsaw Poland
| | - Slawomir Janakowski
- Department of Botany; Warsaw University of Life Sciences (SGGW); Warsaw Poland
| | - Michaela Griesser
- Institute of Plant Protection; Department of Applied Plant Sciences and Plant Biotechnology; University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences; Vienna Austria
| | - Florian MW Grundler
- Institute of Plant Protection; Department of Applied Plant Sciences and Plant Biotechnology; University of Natural Resources and Applied Life Sciences; Vienna Austria
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Fudali S, Janakowski S, Sobczak M, Griesser M, Grundler FMW, Golinowski W. Two tomato alpha-expansins show distinct spatial and temporal expression patterns during development of nematode-induced syncytia. PHYSIOLOGIA PLANTARUM 2008; 132:370-83. [PMID: 18275468 DOI: 10.1111/j.1399-3054.2007.01017.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Cyst nematodes induce specific syncytial feeding structures within the root which develop from an initial cell by successive incorporation of neighbouring cells through local cell wall dissolutions followed by hypertrophy of included cells. Expansins are known to induce cell wall relaxation and extension in acidic pH, and they are involved in many processes requiring wall modification from cell expansion to cell wall disassembly. We studied the expression pattern of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum L., cv. Money Maker) expansins during development of syncytia induced by the potato cyst nematode (Globodera rostochiensis Woll.). Based on semi-quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction, two expansin genes, LeEXPA4 and LeEXPA5, were selected for detailed examinations because their expression was either elevated in infected roots (LeEXPA4) or specifically induced in the root upon nematode infection (LeEXPA5). Both genes have distinct spatial and temporal expression patterns that may reflect their different roles in syncytium development. LeEXPA4 transcripts were localized predominantly in parenchymatous vascular cylinder cells surrounding syncytia. This finding suggests that LeEXPA4 might be involved in cell wall disassembly or relaxation, mediating syncytium expansion and/or development of conductive tissues. By contrast, LeEXPA5 transcripts were localized in enlarging syncytial elements. Similarly, in immunogold localization experiments, polyclonal antibodies localized the LeEXPA5 protein in cell walls of syncytial elements. This expression pattern suggests that LeEXPA5 gene is specifically involved in enlargement of cells incorporated into syncytium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sylwia Fudali
- Department of Botany, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (SGGW), Nowoursynowska 159, Building 37, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland
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Saladié M, Matas AJ, Isaacson T, Jenks MA, Goodwin SM, Niklas KJ, Xiaolin R, Labavitch JM, Shackel KA, Fernie AR, Lytovchenko A, O'Neill MA, Watkins CB, Rose JKC. A reevaluation of the key factors that influence tomato fruit softening and integrity. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2007; 144:1012-28. [PMID: 17449643 PMCID: PMC1914194 DOI: 10.1104/pp.107.097477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2007] [Accepted: 04/12/2007] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
The softening of fleshy fruits, such as tomato (Solanum lycopersicum), during ripening is generally reported to result principally from disassembly of the primary cell wall and middle lamella. However, unsuccessful attempts to prolong fruit firmness by suppressing the expression of a range of wall-modifying proteins in transgenic tomato fruits do not support such a simple model. 'Delayed Fruit Deterioration' (DFD) is a previously unreported tomato cultivar that provides a unique opportunity to assess the contribution of wall metabolism to fruit firmness, since DFD fruits exhibit minimal softening but undergo otherwise normal ripening, unlike all known nonsoftening tomato mutants reported to date. Wall disassembly, reduced intercellular adhesion, and the expression of genes associated with wall degradation were similar in DFD fruit and those of the normally softening 'Ailsa Craig'. However, ripening DFD fruit showed minimal transpirational water loss and substantially elevated cellular turgor. This allowed an evaluation of the relative contribution and timing of wall disassembly and water loss to fruit softening, which suggested that both processes have a critical influence. Biochemical and biomechanical analyses identified several unusual features of DFD cuticles and the data indicate that, as with wall metabolism, changes in cuticle composition and architecture are an integral and regulated part of the ripening program. A model is proposed in which the cuticle affects the softening of intact tomato fruit both directly, by providing a physical support, and indirectly, by regulating water status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Montserrat Saladié
- Department of Plant Biology , Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, USA
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