Expression of metalloproteinases and their inhibitors in primary pulmonary carcinomas

Aberrant TIMP-1 overexpression in tumor-associated fibroblasts drives tumor progression through CD63 in lung adenocarcinoma

Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1) is an important regulator of extracellular matrix turnover that has been traditionally regarded as a potential tumor suppressor owing to its inhibitory effects of matrix metalloproteinases. Intriguingly, this interpretation has been challenged by the consistent observation that increased expression of TIMP-1 is associated with poor prognosis in virtually all cancer types including lung cancer, supporting a tumor-promoting function. However, how TIMP-1 is dysregulated within the tumor microenvironment and how it drives tumor progression in lung cancer is poorly understood. We analyzed the expression of TIMP-1 and its cell surface receptor CD63 in two major lung cancer subtypes: lung adenocarcinoma (ADC) and squamous cell carcinoma (SCC), and defined the tumor-promoting effects of their interaction. We found that TIMP-1 is aberrantly overexpressed in tumor-associated fibroblasts (TAFs) in ADC compared to SCC. Mechanistically, TIMP-1 overexpression was mediated by the selective hyperactivity of the pro-fibrotic TGF-β1/SMAD3 pathway in ADC-TAFs. Likewise, CD63 was upregulated in ADC compared to SCC cells. Genetic analyses revealed that TIMP-1 secreted by TGF-β1-activated ADC-TAFs is both necessary and sufficient to enhance growth and invasion of ADC cancer cells in culture, and that tumor cell expression of CD63 was required for these effects. Consistently, in vivo analyses revealed that ADC cells co-injected with fibroblasts with reduced SMAD3 or TIMP-1 expression into immunocompromised mice attenuated tumor aggressiveness compared to tumors bearing parental fibroblasts. We also found that high TIMP1 and CD63 mRNA levels combined define a stronger prognostic biomarker than TIMP1 alone. Our results identify an excessive stromal TIMP-1 within the tumor microenvironment selectively in lung ADC, and implicate it in a novel tumor-promoting TAF-carcinoma crosstalk, thereby pointing to TIMP-1/CD63 interaction as a novel therapeutic target in lung cancer.

GSK-3 Inhibition Modulates Metalloproteases in a Model of Lung Inflammation and Fibrosis

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is mainly characterized by aberrant extracellular matrix deposition, consequent to epithelial lung injury and myofibroblast activation, and inflammatory response. Glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK-3) is a serine-threonine kinase involved in several pathways, and its inhibition has been already suggested as a therapeutic strategy for IPF patients. There is evidence that GSK-3 is able to induce matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) expression and that its inhibition modulates MMP expression in the tissues. The aim of our study was to investigate the role of GSK-3 and its inhibition in the modulation of MMP-9 and -2 in an in vivo mouse model of lung fibrosis and in vitro using different cell lines exposed to pro-inflammatory or pro-fibrotic stimuli. We found that GSK-3 inhibition down-modulates gene expression and protein levels of MMP-9, MMP-2, and their inhibitors TIMP-1 and TIMP-2 in inflammatory cells harvested from bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) of mice treated with bleomycin as well as in interstitial alveolar macrophages and cuboidalized epithelial alveolar cells. To the same extent, GSK-3 inhibition blunted the increased MMP-9 and MMP-2 activity induced by pro-fibrotic stimuli in a human lung fibroblast cell line. Moreover, the αSMA protein level, a marker of fibroblast-to-myofibroblast transition involved in fibrosis, was decreased in primary fibroblasts treated with TGFβ following GSK-3 inhibition. Our results confirm the implication of GSK-3 in lung inflammation and fibrosis, suggesting that it might play its role by modulating MMP expression and activity but also pushing fibroblasts toward a myofibroblast phenotype and therefore enhancing extracellular matrix deposition. Thus, its inhibition could represent a possible therapeutic strategy.

Pair-wise comparison analysis of differential expression of mRNAs in early and advanced stage primary colorectal adenocarcinomas

OBJECTIVES

To characterise the mRNA expression patterns of early and advanced stage colorectal adenocarcinomas of Malaysian patients.

DESIGN

Comparative expression analysis.

SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS

We performed a combination of annealing control primer (ACP)-based PCR and reverse transcription-quantitative real-time PCR for the identification of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) associated with early and advanced stage primary colorectal tumours. We recruited four paired samples from patients with colorectal cancer (CRC) of Dukes' A and B for the preliminary differential expression study, and a total of 27 paired samples, ranging from CRC stages I to IV, for subsequent confirmatory test. The tumouric samples were obtained from the patients with CRC undergoing curative surgical resection without preoperative chemoradiotherapy. The recruited patients with CRC were newly diagnosed with CRC, and were not associated with any hereditary syndromes, previously diagnosed cancer or positive family history of CRC. The paired non-cancerous tissue specimens were excised from macroscopically normal colonic mucosa distally located from the colorectal tumours.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES

The differential mRNA expression patterns of early and advanced stage colorectal adenocarcinomas compared with macroscopically normal colonic mucosa were characterised by ACP-based PCR and reverse transcription-quantitative real-time PCR.

RESULTS

The RPL35, RPS23 and TIMP1 genes were found to be overexpressed in both early and advanced stage colorectal adenocarcinomas (p<0.05). However, the ARPC2 gene was significantly underexpressed in early colorectal adenocarcinomas, while the advanced stage primary colorectal tumours exhibited an additional overexpression of the C6orf173 gene (p<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

We characterised two distinctive gene expression patterns to aid in the stratification of primary colorectal neoplasms among Malaysian patients with CRC. Further work can be done to assess and compare the mRNA expression levels of these identified DEGs between each CRC stage group, stages I-IV.

Curcumin treatment alters ERK-1/2 signaling in vitro and inhibits nasopharyngeal carcinoma proliferation in mouse xenografts

Curcumin, a plant phenol, has been used for centuries in traditional medicines for its anti-inflammatory and anti-neoplastic properties. The compound is believed to act on a range of proteins involved in cell cycle regulation. In this study, the effect of curcumin on ERK-1/2 pathway protein expression and on proliferation of nasopharyngeal carcinoma cells was investigated. CNE-2Z nasopharyngeal carcinoma cells were cultured with 10, 20, 40, or 80 μM curcumin for 24 h before proliferation was assessed by MTT colorimetry. Cell proliferation was increasingly inhibited as the concentration of curcumin increased (P<0.005). Additionally, Western blotting revealed that expression of p-ERK-1/2, MMP-9, and TIMP-1 was altered following curcumin treatment, also in a dose-dependent manner. Expression of p-ERK-1/2 and MMP-9 decreased, while expression of TIMP-1 increased (P<0.05). Finally, CNE-2Z cells were xenografted under the skin of 18 nude mice. Mice were treated with vehicle only (control), 24 mg/kg curcumin (low-dose group), or 50 mg/kg curcumin (high-dose group) every other day for 40 days beginning 24 h after xenografting. Compared to tumors from the control group, the volume and weight of xenograft tumors was significantly lower in both curcumin groups, with a higher magnitude of difference in the high-dose curcumin group (P<0.05). These results indicate that curcumin treatment can inhibit proliferation of nasopharyngeal carcinoma cells and alter expression of proteins in the ERK-1/2 signaling pathway. Therefore, curcumin warrants further investigation as a potential treatment for nasopharyngeal cancer.

Matrix metalloproteinases and their inhibitors in canine mammary tumors

Background

Malignant canine mammary tumors represent 50% of all neoplasms in female dogs. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) are thought to be involved in tumor progression, and they are also associated with the reactive stroma, which provides structural and vascular support for tumor growth.

Results

MMP-2, MMP-9 and MT1-MMP were expressed at both the mRNA and protein levels in tumor samples. MMP-2 and MMP-9 immunohistochemical reactions were evident both in the epithelial tumor cells and in the stromal compartment to varying degrees; in particular, the intensity of the MMP-2 staining was stronger in the stromal fibroblasts close to epithelial tumor cells in simple carcinomas than in adenomas. These data were supported by gelatin-zymography; bands for the active form of MMP-2 were found in 94% of carcinoma samples, compared with 17% of benign tumor samples. The gene expression and immunohistochemical results for MT1-MMP were comparable to those for MMP-2. The immunoreactivity for MMP-13 and TIMP-2 was lower in carcinomas than in adenomas, confirming the mRNA data for MMP-13 and the other MMP inhibitors that were evaluated. The active form of MMP-9, but not the active form of MMP-2, was identified in the plasma of all of the tested dogs.

Conclusions

Our findings suggest that MMP-9, MMP-2 and MT1-MMP, which are synthesized by epithelial cancer cells and cancer-associated fibroblasts, play an important role in malignant canine mammary tumors. The reduction of MMP-13 and TIMP-2 could also be a significant step in malignant transformation. MMP-2 and MT1-MMP could be further evaluated as future biomarkers for predicting the progression and prognosis of canine mammary tumors.

New enzyme-activated solubility-switchable contrast agent for magnetic resonance imaging: from synthesis to in vivo imaging

We designed and synthesized a novel contrast agent (CA) to image the activity of matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) in a tumor, noninvasively using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). We exploited the concept of solubility-switchable CAs in the design of a protease-modulated CA (PCA), referred to as PCA2-switch. This PCA contains a paramagnetic gadolinium chelate (Gd-DOTA), which was attached to the N-terminus of a MMP-2 cleavable peptide sequence via a hydrophobic chain. The aqueous solubility of the CA depends on the presence of a polyethylene glycol chain (PEG) on the C-terminus of the peptide. Upon proteolytic cleavage of the peptide by MMP-2, the PEG chain is detached from the CA, which becomes less water soluble. This compound and control compounds were successfully tested in an animal model bearing two tumors with different levels of MMP-2 activity.

[Assessment of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases-2 (TIMP-2) in laryngeal cancer]

Metalloproteinases are the proteolytic enzymes that digest components of the extracellular matrix in many physiological and pathological conditions. Their activity is regulated by their natural inhibitors: non-specific alpha2-macroglobulin and specific tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMP). There are four TIMPs. TIMP-2 is the only enzyme that is expressed in constitutive manner and has the ability to inhibit activity of all metalloproteinases. TIMP-2 has been identified in many carcinomas including cancers of lung, oral cavity, breast and colon. There was correlation between TIMP-2 expression and clinical course of the disease observed in most of the neoplasm.

AIM

The aim of the research was to evaluate the expression of TIMP-2 in laryngeal cancer and to assess the prognostic significance of this factor.

MATERIAL AND METHOD

104 patients with laryngeal cancer, that underwent surgical treatment were included in the study. Only cases with at least a 5-year follow-up were included. Immunohistochemical studies were performed on formalin fixed, paraffin embedded sections by using monoclonal antibodies against TIMP-2 antigen and ABC detection system.

RESULTS

TIMP-2 expression was cytoplasmatic, mainly in cancer cells, but also in some stromal cells. There was correlation between TIMP-2 expression and tumor size and grading observed. We didn't find any correlation between TIMP-2 and nodal metastases, recurrence and survival.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results don't suggest that TIMP-2 expression may be used as a prognostic factor in patients with laryngeal cancer. Nevertheless there are more researches needed to explain the role of TIMPs in growth and progression of neoplastic tumors.

Deglycosylation of CD147 down-regulates Matrix Metalloproteinase-11 expression and the adhesive capability of murine hepatocarcinoma cell HcaF in vitro

CD147 is a plasma membrane glycoprotein, enriched on the surface of many malignant tumor cells. As a result of heterogeneous N-glycosylation, CD147 exists in both a highly glycosylated form, HG-CD147 ( approximately 40-60 kDa) and lowly glycosylated form, LG-CD147 ( approximately 32 kDa). This experiment investigated the possible role of CD147 glycosylation in the HcaF, HcaP and Hepa1-6 mouse hepatocarcinoma cell lines, which have high, low and no metastatic potential in the lymph nodes. Western blot analysis showed that the ratio of HG-CD147/LG-CD147 protein expression on HcaF and HcaP were much higher than that on Hepa1-6 cells. By treatment with tunicamycin (TM), an inhibitor of N-glycosylation, the expression level of HG-CD147 decreased and the LG-CD147 disappeared completely in HcaF cells. Meanwhile, Matrixmetallproteinase-11 (MMP-11) protein expression was down-regulated, and the adhesive capability of HcaF cells to endothelial cells in cryosection of mouse lymph nodes decreased. These results indicated that the glycosylation of CD147 plays a crucial role. It is HG-CD147 that may contribute more to tumor progress, invasion and metastasis into lymph node rather than LG-CD147. The results of this study are of biological and clinical importance.

Inhibition of invasion, angiogenesis, tumor growth, and metastasis by adenovirus-mediated transfer of antisense uPAR and MMP-9 in non-small cell lung cancer cells

Lung cancer is currently the leading cause of cancer deaths in the United States. Conventional therapeutic treatments, including surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy, have achieved only limited success. The overexpression of proteases, such as urokinase-type plasminogen activator (uPA), its receptor (uPAR), and matrix metalloproteinases (MMP), is correlated with the progression of lung cancer. In the present study, we used a replication-deficient adenovirus capable of expressing antisense uPAR and antisense MMP-9 transcripts to simultaneously down-regulate uPAR and MMP-9 in H1299 cells. Ad-uPAR-MMP-9 infection of H1299 cells resulted in a dose- and time-dependent decrease of uPAR protein levels and MMP-9 activity as determined by Western blotting and gelatin zymography, respectively. Corresponding immunohistochemical analysis also showed that Ad-uPAR-MMP-9 infection inhibited uPAR and MMP-9 expression. As shown by Boyden chamber assay, Ad-uPAR-MMP-9 infection significantly decreased the invasive capacity of H1299 cells compared with mock and Ad-CMV (empty vector)-infected cells in vitro. Furthermore, Ad-uPAR-MMP-9 infection inhibited capillary-like structure formation in H1299 cells cocultured with endothelial cells in a dose-dependent manner compared with mock- and Ad-CMV-infected cells. Ad-uPAR-MMP-9 injection caused the regression of s.c. induced tumors after s.c. injection with H1299 lung cancer cells and inhibited lung metastasis in the metastatic model with A549 cells. These data suggest that Ad-uPAR-MMP-9 shows its antitumor activity against both established and early phases of lung cancer metastases by causing the destruction of the tumor vasculature. In summary, adenovirus-mediated inhibition of uPA-uPAR interaction and MMP-9 on the cell surface may be a promising anti-invasion and antimetastatic strategy for cancer gene therapy.

Caveolin-1 up-regulates CD147 glycosylation and the invasive capability of murine hepatocarcinoma cell lines

CD147 which is a regulator of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) production on the surface of many malignant tumor cells, shows a highly specific association with caveolin-1 (Cav-1). As a result of heterogeneous N-glycosylation, CD147 exists in both highly glycosylated form, HG-CD147 ( approximately 40-60kDa) and lowly glycosylated form, LG-CD147 ( approximately 32kDa). This study investigated the possible role of Cav-1 in CD147 glycosylation in the HcaF, HcaP and Hepa1-6 mouse hepatocarcinoma cell lines, which have high, low and no metastatic potential in the lymph nodes, respectively, and in the normal mouse liver cell line IAR-20. Using an RNA interference (RNAi) strategy, we showed that the down-regulation of Cav-1 in Hca-F/RNAi cells could suppress the conversion of LG-CD147 to HG-CD147, down-regulate MMP-11 expression and decrease Hca-F/RNAi cell invasion. Conversely, a stable high expression of Cav-1 in Hepa1-6/Cav-1 cell could cause a specific increase of HG-CD147, up-regulate MMP-11 protein expression and enhance Hepa1-6/Cav-1 cell invasion. In conclusion, Cav-1 expression leads to an increased proportion of HG-CD147 relative to LG-CD147, increased production of MMP-11 and a higher invasive capability. Cav-1 is therefore proposed to act as both an oncogene and a tumor suppressor gene, and could represent a new potential target for gene therapy.

Expression of matrix metalloproteinase-9 in pleural effusions of tuberculosis and lung cancer

BACKGROUND

Matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 has been implicated in the development of pleural effusions.

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to assess the expression of MMP-9 in pleural effusions of tuberculosis, lung cancer and transudates.

METHODS

Ninety-one patients (37 tuberculous pleural effusions, 42 malignant pleural effusions of lung cancer and 12 transudates) were included. Concentrations of pleural fluid MMP-9 and tissue inhibitors of matrix metalloproteinase (TIMP)-1 were determined by immunoassay. We also investigated the cellular localization of MMP-9 and TIMP-1 by reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction on lymphocytes from pleural effusions and by immunohistochemical analysis of pleural tissues.

RESULTS

Pleural fluid MMP-9 levels, MMP-9/total protein and MMP-9/TIMP-1 ratios were significantly higher in tuberculous pleural effusions, whilst TIMP-1 levels were similar in the three groups. MMP-9 levels positively correlated with TIMP-1 and lactate dehydrogenase levels, and negatively with pH and glucose levels in pleural effusions. MMP-9 mRNA expression in lymphocytes tended to be higher in malignant pleural effusions of lung cancer than in the other groups without reaching statistical significance. The strongest immunoreactivity for MMP-9 was observed in epithelioid cells of tuberculous pleural tissues. Much lower levels of MMP-9 expression were found in tumor cells of pleural tissues.

CONCLUSIONS

MMP-9 is increased in tuberculous pleural effusions compared with transudates and malignant pleural effusions of lung cancer and is produced predominantly by epithelioid cells in the granulomas of tuberculous pleural tissues.

Expression and localization of mRNAs for matrix metalloproteinases and their inhibitors in mixed bronchioloalveolar carcinomas with invasive components

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are believed to play an essential role in cancer invasion, although detailed differences between noninvasive and invasive lung carcinomas are still unclear. To elucidate the expression and activity patterns of MMPs in noninvasive and invasive carcinoma of the lung, we performed in situ hybridization and real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction to detect messenger RNAs (mRNAs) of MMPs and their tissue inhibitors (TIMPs). The basement membrane was evaluated by immunohistochemistry for type IV collagen. Gelatinase activity was examined by zymography and in situ zymography. A total of 14 surgically resected primary pulmonary adenocarcinomas were used for this study. All the tumors were adenocarcinoma mixed bronchioloalveolar carcinomas according to the 1999 WHO classification. MMP and TIMP2 mRNAs were detected by in situ hybridization in all samples, in both noninvasive and invasive carcinoma components. Signals for MMP mRNAs were significantly higher in both noninvasive and invasive carcinomas than in tumor-free lung tissue. However, the differences were small between noninvasive and invasive carcinomas, not only in the amount of mRNA but also in the activity of the MMPs. In most carcinomas, stromal fibroblast-type cells tended to express levels of MMP and TIMP2 mRNAs that were higher than or at least similar to those expressed in epithelial cells. Our data on mixed adenocarcinoma suggest that noninvasive carcinoma areas already express a molecular mechanism involving MMPs similar to that expressed by invasive carcinoma areas. Stromal fibroblast-type cells seem to be the most important source of MMPs, from the earliest event of tumor invasion by pulmonary adenocarcinomas.

Tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 1 is an independent predictor of prognosis in patients with nonsmall cell lung carcinoma who undergo resection with curative intent

BACKGROUND

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) play a role in the processes of extracellular matrix degradation. Changes in their expression levels have been observed in various tumor types, including lung carcinoma. However, their clinical significance and their prognostic importance in the progression of nonsmall cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) remain to be specified. In this study, mRNA expression levels of MMP-1, MMP-9, TIMP-1, and TIMP-2 were evaluated in patients with resected NSCLC, and their associations with disease progression and prognosis were determined.

METHODS

Between June 1996 and December 1999, 116 patients underwent resection for NSCLC. Expression levels of MMPs and TIMPs were evaluated using Northern blot analysis in these NSCLC tissue samples and in 39 matched samples of normal lung tissue.

RESULTS

MMP-1, MMP-9, and TIMP-1 expression levels were increased in tumor samples compared with matched, corresponding normal tissues. In contrast, TIMP-2 expression was decreased in tumor samples. MMP-1 tumor expression was correlated significantly with the evolution of lymph node status and tumor-lymph node-metastasis (TNM) stage. In contrast, MMP-9 tumor expression was correlated significantly with increased T stage. TIMP-1 overexpression was an independent predictor of worse survival in patients with NSCLC that was not associated with other prognosis factors, such as TNM stage.

CONCLUSIONS

The overexpression of TIMP-1 was an independent prognostic marker in patients with NSCLC, and evaluating TIMP-1 may be important for identifying patients who are at greater risk of disease recurrence.

Matrix metalloproteinase 11 depletion inhibits cell proliferation in gastric cancer cells

Our previous study has shown that matrix metalloproteinase 11 (MMP11) is highly expressed in tumor cell lines and primary tumor of gastric cancer (GC). In order to reveal the correlation between expression of MMP11 and biological features of GC cell, we have constructed the recombinant plasmids producing hairpin small interfering RNA (siRNA) to target MMP11 mRNA using a vector-based RNA interference technology. Stable transfection of recombinants into GC cell line BGC823 specifically depleted the mRNA and protein of MMP11 as demonstrated by RT-PCR and Western blotting analysis. The siRNA-treated cells exhibited significantly decreased growth ability compared with mock transfectants and parental BGC823 cells. Furthermore, colony formation of MMP11 deficient cells was dramatically inhibited in soft agar and tumorigenicity was reduced in nude mice, respectively. These results provide new insights into the function of MMP11 and suggest that MMP11 may play an important role in the control of cell proliferation and tumor development in GC.

Establishment and characterization of a novel human pancreatic cancer cell line (SUIT-4) metastasizing to lymph nodes and lungs in nude mice

A new tumor cell line (SUIT-4) derived from ascites of a patient with carcinoma of the pancreas has been established in tissue culture and in nude mice, and maintained for over 7 years. In tissue culture, the cells grew as a confluent monolayer with piling up of cells in some areas. The population doubling time during the exponential phase of the cell growth was 43.9 h in vitro. Chromosome count ranged from 63 to 68 with a modal number of 67. Subcutaneous injection of cultured cells into the flanks of nude mice resulted in tumor formation with a doubling time of 88.8 h. Histopathologically, xenografts in nude mice were moderately differentiated tubular adenocarcinoma, and the tumor cells showed spontaneous metastasis to the regional lymph nodes in 6 of 21 nude mice and to the lung in 4 of 21. Transmission electron microphotographs confirmed the ductal cell origin of the carcinoma and revealed that the cells had abundant mitochondria and lysosomes. SUIT-4 cells released carcinoembryonic antigen (3.08 x 10(2) ng/1 x 10(6) cells/24 h) and carbohydrate antigen 19-9 (4.75 x 10(4) U/1 x 10(6) cells/24 h) during exponential cell growth in vitro. Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction studies revealed that SUIT-4 cells expressed matrix metalloproteinases 1, 3, 7, 10 and 14.

Upregulation of the tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 protein is associated with progression of human non-small-cell lung cancer

PURPOSE

Tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) are naturally occurring inhibitors of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). It has been shown that TIMP-1 may be a multifunctional protein. Little is known about the role of TIMP-1 in progression and metastasis of human lung cancer (tumor inhibiting or tumor promoting), although studies using a variety of techniques have analyzed the expression of TIMP-1 mRNA and/or protein in human cancers.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We examined the expression of TIMP-1 protein by immunohistochemistry in patients (n = 160) with primary respectable (stage I to IIIA) non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC).

RESULTS

Twenty-seven percent of the tumors (43 of 160) demonstrated elevated expression of this protein. We demonstrate that overexpression of TIMP-1 protein is associated with an adverse outcome. In addition, disease stage, patient's age, and performance status were all significantly related to survival. In multivariate analyses, patients with high TIMP-1 expression had a 90% increased risk of death when compared with those with low expression (relative risk, 1.92; 95% CI, 1.19 to 3.09; P =.008). TIMP-1 expression did not correlate with expression of MMP-2 and MMP-9.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that TIMP-1, independent of its inhibiting activity of MMPs, may have other function(s) critical for NSCLCs. The significance of our results is two-fold. The adverse outcome in patients with overexpression of TIMP-1 indicates its potential prognostic value in NSCLC. Thus, TIMP-1 overexpression may serve to help identify patients with particularly aggressive disease for adjuvant treatments. In addition, the TIMP-1 molecule may represent a novel therapeutic target for treatment of some NSCLCs.

MMP expression profiling in recurred stage IB lung cancer

We aimed to clarify the prime role of recurrence in stage I lung cancer. To determine the expression profiles, quantitative RT-PCR and real-time PCR were performed subsequently to evaluate the validity of meaningful molecules identified by 0.12 K c-DNA array experiment surveys. In all, 10 lung cancer patients presenting with recurrence of stage IB were selected and compared with 10 stage IB lung cancer patients without recurrence since biopsied 3 years previously. On c-DNA microarray data analysis using pairs of recurred and the corresponding nonrecurred patients, the following genes were found to be upregulated in the recurred cases: matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-10 in five cases, MMP-12 in two cases, MMP-11, MMP-14, MMP-15, fos, cyclin E2, E2F3, TGF-alpha in each one case. The most frequently upregulated genes in recurred lung cancers were MMP-10 (stromelysin-2) and MMP-12 (macrophage elastase). On transcriptional assay by quantitative RT-PCR and real-time RT-PCR analysis to validate those molecules, both transcripts of MMP-10 and MMP-12 were significantly more upregulated in recurred stage IB lung cancer than in the non-recurred stage IB lung cancer (P=0.004). Transcript levels were identical to c-DNA array data. The protein levels of these entities were also evaluated by immunohistochemistry of archival slides. By immunohistochemistry, MMP-10 monoclonal antibody showed more intense immunoreactivity in the recurred stage IB lung cancer than in the nonrecurred stage IB lung cancer (P=0.0313). Our approach revealed that MMP-10 plays an important role in the recurrence in stage IB lung cancer, irrespective of the histologic type.

Effect of gamma-synuclein overexpression on matrix metalloproteinases in retinoblastoma Y79 cells

gamma-Synuclein is a small cytoplasmic protein implicated in neurodegenerative diseases and cancer. However, the mechanism of its involvement in diseases is not clear. We studied the role of gamma-synuclein in the regulation of matrix metalloproteinases in retinoblastoma cell culture. Matrix metalloproteinases play important roles in the remodeling of extracellular matrix implicated in tumor progression and in the neurodegenerative diseases. Western blot and zymography data demonstrated a moderate elevation of matrix metalloproteinases-2 and significant upregulation of matrix metalloproteinases-9 in stable cell lines overexpressing gamma-synuclein. No effect of gamma-synuclein overexpression on matrix metalloproteinases-1 level or activity was found. Chloramphenicol-acetyltransferase assay demonstrated that overexpression of gamma-synuclein increases the efficiency of the matrix metalloproteinases-9 promoter. This increment of promoter activity may be mediated by the AP-1 binding site(s), since point mutations in one of these sites (Pr18 or Pr19) and elimination of the distal AP-1 site (Pr14) reduced the increment of promoter activity.

Novel therapies for lung cancer

Lung cancer remains the leading cause of cancer mortality in the US. For the majority of patients with advanced non-small cell lung cancer, chemotherapy with or without radiation therapy is the mainstay of treatment. Despite the modest improvement in survival for these patients, prognosis remains dismal. However, the expanding knowledge of tumor biology in recent years has resulted in the promising development of a new class of "molecularly targeted" agents, which selectively target cancer cells at the molecular, biochemical, and genetic level, thus minimizing toxic effects on normal tissues. A wide range of molecularly targeted agents are being actively investigated in lung cancer therapy as single agents or in combination with conventional modalities. In this review, we discuss some of the agents furthest along in development: epidermal growth factor receptor inhibitors, anti-angiogenic agents, inhibitors of biologically important enzymes such as matrix metalloproteinases and farnesyltransferase, gene therapy including gene replacement and antisense therapy, and cell cycle disruptors.

Prospective, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of marimastat after response to first-line chemotherapy in patients with small-cell lung cancer: a trial of the National Cancer Institute of Canada-Clinical Trials Group and the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer

PURPOSE

Increased expression of metalloproteinases is associated with poor prognosis in small-cell lung cancer (SCLC). This trial was undertaken to determine whether adjuvant treatment with the metalloproteinase inhibitor marimastat could prolong survival in responding patients with SCLC after chemotherapy.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

SCLC patients in complete or partial remission were eligible. They were stratified by radiotherapy (early, late, or none), stage (extensive or limited), response (complete or partial), and cooperative group (National Cancer Institute of Canada-Clinical Trials Group or European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer). They were randomized to receive marimastat 10 mg or placebo orally bid for up to 2 years.

RESULTS

There were 532 eligible patients (266 marimastat and 266 placebo). Stage was limited for 279 patients (52%) and extensive for 253 (48%). Best response to induction therapy was complete remission for 176 patients (33%), partial remission for 341 (64%), and 15 patients (3%) had undergone surgical resection. The median time to progression for marimastat patients was 4.3 months compared with 4.4 months for placebo patients (P =.81). Median survivals for marimastat and placebo patients were 9.3 months and 9.7 months, respectively (P =.90) Toxicity was generally limited to musculoskeletal symptoms (18% grade 3/4 for marimastat). Dose modifications for musculoskeletal toxicity were required in 90 patients (33%) on the marimastat arm, and 87 (32%) permanently stopped marimastat because of toxicity. Patients on marimastat had significantly poorer quality of life at 3 and 6 months.

CONCLUSION

Treatment with marimastat after induction therapy for SCLC did not result in improved survival and had a negative impact on quality of life.

Stromelysin-3 expression by mammary tumor-associated fibroblasts under in vitro breast cancer cell induction

To understand better the influence of the host stromal phenotype on stromal expression of stromelysin-3 (ST3) in breast cancer, we have investigated ST3 expression by host stromal cells isolated from 9 different primary breast carcinomas. These tumor-associated fibroblasts were cocultivated with 3 epithelial cancer cell lines of mammary origin (MDA-MB-231, SK-BR-3 and MCF-7), as well as with normal human mammary epithelial cells (NME and 184A1) and keratinocytes, using both direct and indirect coculture systems. ST3 expression was demonstrated by both in situ hybridization and immunocytochemistry. The results showed that ST3 expression by stromal cells was cancer-specific. Indeed, ST3 expression by tumor-associated stromal cells was induced by 3 malignant cancer cell lines (MDA-MB-231, SK-BR-3 and MCF-7), whereas no ST3 was expressed under normal mammary epithelial cell stimulation. ST3 expression was weak or absent in unstimulated tumor-associated fibroblasts. However, after direct coculture with cancer cells, expression of ST3 transcripts reappeared in 8 of the 9 cases and was observed only in fibroblasts located in close contact with tumor cells. Under similar coculture conditions and using the same cancer cell line stimulation, ST3 expression was, however, quite variable among these 9 cases, reflecting the difference of protease expression observed on the sections of the original tumors. Tumor induction of ST3 expression was much more important by direct cell-cell contact than by indirect stimulation and was not influenced by the addition of basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) and anti-bFGF to the culture medium. Our results suggest that the host stromal cell phenotype may significantly influence host stromal cell protease expression under cancer cell stimulation.

Expression of membrane-type-1-matrix metalloproteinase and metalloproteinase-2 in nonsmall cell lung carcinomas

For the metastasis and invasion of cancer cells, destruction of extracellular matrix is essential. In this process, collagen is broken down by some matrix metalloproteinases. Matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP2) is able to cleave type IV collagen, and membrane-type-1-matrix metalloproteinase (MT1-MMP) induces activation of proMMP2. We investigated the expressions of MT1-MMP and MMP2 and their relation to both clinicopathologic parameters and clinical outcome in non-small cell lung carcinomas (NSCLC). Eighty-nine specimens of NSCLC were examined using in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry. Each metalloproteinase was expressed within the cytoplasm of tumor cells with or without stromal cells in NSCLC. Tumors in which tumor cells strongly stained for MT1-MMP mRNA or protein made up more than 50% of the tumor area were found in 44 and 26% of cases, respectively. The corresponding values for MMP-2 mRNA and protein, were 51 and 26%. Our analysis of clinicopathological findings revealed a significant positive relationship between MT1-MMP mRNA and p-M. The correlation between MMP2 protein-staining status and overall survival rate reached significance in the univariate analysis. However, an association was not demonstrated in the multivariate analysis. The detection of MT1-MMP and MMP2 is likely to be of limited value in informing the prognosis in NSCLC.

Stromelysin-3 is expressed by aggressive meningiomas

BACKGROUND

Stromelysin-3 (ST3) that belongs to the metalloproteinase family is proposed to play a role in tumor invasion. The purpose of this work was to study the variation of ST3 expression in meningiomas.

METHODS

Twenty atypical meningiomas were retrieved from the Pathology Department's files at Hopital de Bellevue, Saint-Etienne, France. They were compared with 20 benign meningiomas randomly selected from the same file. The tumors were classified using standard histologic criteria. Frozen sections of the tumors were immunostained for ST3 and MIB-1 to evaluate the proliferative activity of tumor cells.

RESULTS

The study included 5 fibrous meningiomas, 10 transitional meningiomas, 20 syncitial meningiomas, 2 secretory meningiomas, 2 microcystic meningiomas, and 1 angiomatous meningioma. Stromelysin-3 was expressed within the stromal and neoplastic cells of only 1 benign meningioma and 13 atypical meningiomas. The MIB-1 proliferation index was significantly higher in the meningiomas expressing ST3 (Student t test: P < 0.001). The invasion of bone, muscle, and brain by meningiomas as well the recurrence were statistically correlated with their ST3 expression (Kruskal-Wallis nonparametric correlation test, P = 0.001 and P = 0.008, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

Stromelysin-3 might play an important role in the invasiveness of meningiomas. Therefore, considering, ST3 in association with evaluation of the MIB-1 proliferating index may be an useful tool to assess the behavior of meningiomas.

Expression of type IV collagen and matrix metalloproteinase-2 (type IV collagenase) in relation to nodal status in laryngeal cancer

Laryngeal carcinoma has a lower incidence of neck metastases than other malignant carcinomas of the head and neck region. However, some cases are very aggressive, showing neck metastases even in the early stages. In this study the expression of collagen IV and type IV collagenase (MMP-2) were examined immunohistologically in 50 patients with laryngeal carcinomas, and the results were compared with the incidence of neck metastases and other clinicopathological factors. The correlation between collagen IV expression and the existence of nodal metastases was statistically significant (P < 0.001). There was also significant correlation between collagen IV expression and the histological grading of the tumour. There was a tendency for samples with continuous collagen IV staining to have no matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP-2) immunoreactivity. No significant correlation was seen between MMP-2 protein expression and clinicopathological parameters although the correlation between MMP-2 and existence of nodal metastases was statistically borderline (P = 0.07). Multivariate analysis of the clinicopathological factors that may have an influence on the nodal status in laryngeal cancer revealed that, apart from T stage, collagen IV pattern in the basement membrane surrounding nests of carcinoma is an important prognostic factor.

A comparison of ocular melanocyte and uveal melanoma cell invasion and the implication of alpha1beta1, alpha4beta1 and alpha6beta1 integrins

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Posterior uveal melanoma is the most common intraocular tumour in adults, responsible for the death of approximately 35% of patients. Hepatic metastases are most frequent, and once diagnosed survival is usually less than 1 year. The beta1 family of integrins, alphavbeta3 and MMP-2 and MMP-9 have been implicated in the metastasis of several types of tumour. To study their involvement in uveal melanoma we analysed the expression of the beta1 integrins, alphavbeta3, MMP-2, and MMP-9 in 10 primary posterior uveal melanomas, and correlated expression with invasive potential in vitro. Comparable studies were undertaken on cultures of melanocytes.

METHODS

Expression of integrins was studied by immunohistochemistry, secretion of MMP-2 and MMP-9 by zymography, and the invasive potential was assessed using a transwell model.

RESULTS

MMP-2 was secreted by all uveal melanomas and seven of 10 secreted MMP-9. Among uveal melanoma, invasion levels of 4-25% were observed and the major integrins expressed were alpha1beta1, alpha2beta1, alpha3beta1, alpha5beta1, and avbeta3. Melanocytes did not express alpha1beta1, alpha4beta1, and alpha6beta1.

CONCLUSION

The laminin binding alpha6beta1 integrin was not expressed by either melanocytes or tumours with spindle morphology, which are considered to have a better prognosis. It is possible that expression of the alpha6beta1 integrin may prove useful as a prognostic indicator.

Expression of integrins, degradative enzymes and their inhibitors in uveal melanoma: differences between in vitro and in vivo expression

Posterior uveal melanoma is the most common intraocular malignancy in adults. Metastasis occurs in approximately 40% of all cases and spread is primarily to the liver. Once secondary hepatic disease has developed the prognosis is poor. Metastasis involves a series of adhesion and de-adhesion events, coupled with regulated tissue degradation to facilitate tumour cell invasion and spread to both local and distant sites. These processes are assisted by the expression of integrins and degradative enzymes by both tumour and host cells. Using a series of 10 uveal melanomas, we investigated the expression of a panel of integrins, degradative enzymes and their inhibitors that have been shown to be associated with metastasis. In addition, we undertook to establish if there might be differential expression in response to growth under artificial conditions. All the tumours expressed matrix metalloproteinases (MMP)-2 and-9, tissue inhibitor of metalloproteases (TIMP)-2, urokinase plasminogen activator (u-PA), plasminogen activator inhibitor (PAI)-1 and PAI-2. Differences in the expression of the integrins alpha1beta1, alpha2beta1 and alpha6beta1 were observed; in particular, these differences appeared to relate to expression as a consequence of growth in culture. In summary, uveal melanoma cells express both degradative enzymes and their respective inhibitors, which are important in metastasis. It would appear that differential expression of integrins is present, probably as a response to in vitro stimulation.

Matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP-2) immunoreactive protein is associated with poor grade and survival in brain neoplasms

Matrix metalloproteinases play an important role in the invasion of tumor cells and the progression of cancer. The 72 kDa type IV collagenase, a matrix metalloproteinase 2 (MMP-2) has been shown to contribute to the invasion and metastasis in diverse malignant neoplasms.

OBJECT

To elaborate the potential role of MMP-2 in brain tumor invasion we studied the expression and localization of this enzyme protein in 101 brain tumors representing different types of brain neoplasms. For the first time, we also correlated the expression of MMP-2 protein to patient survival.

METHODS

Using immunohistochemistry and a monoclonal antibody specific for MMP-2 we found that MMP-2 protein was primarily localized in tumor cells and vasculature cells as well as inflammatory cells. The expression of MMP-2 was absent or negligible in benign tumors (pilocytic astrocytoma and meningioma). Thirty-three percent (6/18) of astrocytomas, 38% (3/8) of anaplastic astrocytomas, 14% (1/7) of anaplastic oligodendrogliomas, 54% (19/35) of glioblastomas and 100% (6/6) of metastatic brain tumors were positive for MMP-2. A correlation between MMP-2 expression and survival was found in malignant brain tumors. The mean survival of patients with an MMP-2 negative tumor was 36 months, when it was only 7-14 months in patients with an MMP-2 positive tumor.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggest that MMP-2 is associated with histological malignancy and poor survival in brain tumors.

Elevated level of circulating matrix metalloproteinase-9 in patients with lung cancer

The 72 kDa matrix metalloproteinase (MMP-2) and the 92 kDa matrix metalloproteinase (MMP-9), are type IV collagenases that have been implicated as important factors in cancer invasion and metastasis formation. We have used quantitative zymography and computer-assisted image analysis to measure the levels of MMP-9 and MMP-2 in 19 samples of serum of lung cancer patients and in 23 samples of normal serum. Mean levels of MMP-9 were significantly elevated in cancer samples compared with normal sera (1.33 +/- 0.61 microU microl(-1) vs. 0.37 +/- 0.10 microU microl(-1), P<0.0001). MMP-2 levels did not differ significantly in these two groups. However, there was no significant correlation between serum MMP-9 activity and the disease stage. We found that circulation levels of MMP-9 in lung cancer patients is 3.6-fold higher than in healthy volunteers, however, we do not consider this elevation to be a direct reflection of MMP-9 over-production by tumour cells.

Plasma metalloproteinase activity is enhanced in the euglobulin fraction of breast and lung cancer patients

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) have been implicated in tumor invasion and metastasis. We verified, by gelatin zymography, MMP activity in the euglobulin plasma fraction of 82 healthy controls, 66 patients with benign diseases and 149 patients with breast, lung, colon or brain cancer. The euglobulin fractions assayed showed 4 gelatinolytic bands of 62, 92, 120 and 200 kDa. The median (Md) value for 92 kDa-MMP activity was significantly increased in breast (Md 1.34 arbitrary units [AU]/ml plasma, range 0.0-7.2) and lung cancer patients (Md 1.43 AU/ml, range 0.0-3.6) compared with the controls (Md 0.48 AU/ml, range 0.0-1.8). Patients with colon cancer or gliomas presented values of MMP-9 similar to those of the healthy population. Multivariate analysis indicated that plasma MMP-9 activity was not predicted by the known clinicopathological parameters such as age, stage, tumor size, number of positive lymph nodes, histologic grade, histologic type, nuclear grade or mitotic index. Lung cancer patients also presented high values of MMP-9 (Md 1.43, range 0.0-3.6 [n = 26]), without association with tumor stage or histologic type. The levels of 92 kDa-MMP activity in the plasma euglobulin fraction could be a potentially useful tumor marker in breast and lung cancer.

Differential expression of matrix metalloproteinases and their inhibitors in non-small cell lung cancer

In a comprehensive immunohistochemical study of the expression of ten metalloproteinases (MMPs) and their four inhibitors (TIMPs) in 115 non-small cell lung carcinomas (NSCLCs), the findings have been correlated with the histological and clinical features of the tumours. All MMPs and TIMPs were expressed in tumours, with frequencies ranging from 41% for MMP-2 to 68% for MMP-13. Stromal immunoreactivity ranged from 6% for TIMP-4 to 87% for MMP-13. In some tumours, an overexpression of these proteins, as revealed by stronger staining in cancer cells than in adjacent normal bronchial epithelium, was also observed. The frequency ranged from 1% for MMP-3 to 28% for MMP-13. Compared with squamous cell carcinoma (SqCC), adenocarcinoma (AdC) more frequently overexpressed MMP-1, -11, -13, -14, and TIMP-2, and TIMP-1 and/or TIMP-2 overexpression positively correlated with more advanced stage disease. None of the MMP or TIMP expression correlated with the ras genotype of the tumours. The higher frequency of MMP overexpression in AdC than in SqCC may relate to the greater tendency of the former for systemic metastasis. The association of TIMP-1 overexpression with more advanced disease may suggest a role in prognosis.

Expression and prognostic significance of metalloproteinases and their tissue inhibitors in patients with small-cell lung cancer

PURPOSE

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and their tissue inhibitors (TIMPs) are important in tumor development and progression. MMP expression has been correlated with advanced clinical stage and poor survival in some tumors, but data for small-cell lung cancer (SCLC) are lacking. The aim of this study was to assess the expression of MMPs and TIMPs in SCLC and to evaluate their importance relative to standard prognostic factors.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Expression of MMP-1, -2, -3, -9, -11, -13, and -14 and TIMP-1, -2, -3, and -4 was evaluated by immunohistochemistry (IHC). In situ hybridization was used to confirm expression of specific mRNAs. Clinical data collected included sex, tumor stage, performance status, weight loss, hematology (hemoglobin, WBC, platelets) and biochemistry (sodium, albumin, alkaline phosphatase, lactate dehydrogenase), treatment, and survival.

RESULTS

Samples from 46 patients were evaluated: 30 males, 16 females; 29 limited, 17 extensive stage; 35 Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group performance status 0-1. Positive IHC staining was evident for MMP-1 and -9 in 60% to 70% of tumor cells, and for MMP-11, -13, and -14 and TIMP-2 and -3 in 70% to 100% of tumor cells. Stromal staining of TIMP-1 to -3 was present in less than 30% of specimens. On multivariate analysis, only stage and decreased tumoral expression of TIMP-1 were significant for response (P =.043). Significant factors for survival were tumor stage (P =.0021); weight loss (P =. 013); and high tumor cell expression of MMP-3 (P =.077), MMP-11 (P =. 031), and MMP-14 (P =.019). MMP and TIMP expression did not differ significantly between stages.

CONCLUSION

MMPs and TIMPs are widely expressed in SCLC. Increased tumoral expression of MMP-3, -11, and -14 were independent negative prognostic factors for survival. The results support the evaluation of synthetic MMP inhibitors in patients with SCLC.

Gelatinase-A (MMP-2), gelatinase-B (MMP-9) and membrane type matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MT1-MMP) are involved in different aspects of the pathophysiology of malignant gliomas

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) have been implicated as important factors in gliomas since they may both facilitate invasion into the surrounding brain and participate in neovascularization. We have tested the hypothesis that deregulated expression of gelatinase-A or B, or an activator of gelatinase-A, MT1-MMP, may contribute directly to human gliomas by quantifying the expression of these MMPs in 46 brain tumour specimens and seven control tissues. Quantitative RT-PCR and gelatin zymography showed that gelatinase-A in glioma specimens was higher than in normal tissue; these were significantly elevated in low grade gliomas and remained elevated in GBMs. Gelatinase-B transcript and activity levels were also higher than in normal brain and more strongly correlated with tumour grade. We did not see a close relationship between the levels of expression of MT1-MMP mRNA and amounts of activated gelatinase-A. In situ hybridization localized gelatinase-A and MT1-MMP transcripts to normal neuronal and glia, malignant glioma cells and blood vessels. In contrast, gelatinase-B showed a more restricted pattern of expression; it was strongly expressed in blood vessels at proliferating margins, as well as tumour cells in some cases. These data suggest that gelatinase-A, -B and MT1-MMP are important in the pathophysiology of human gliomas. The primary role of gelatinase-B may lie in remodelling associated with neovascularization, whereas gelatinase-A and MT1-MMP may be involved in both glial invasion and angiogenesis. © 1999 Cancer Research Campaign

Induction and Regulation of Macrophage Metalloelastase by Hyaluronan Fragments in Mouse Macrophages

Although the metalloproteinase murine metalloelastase (MME) has been implicated in lung disorders such as emphysema and pulmonary fibrosis, the mechanisms regulating MME expression are unclear. Low m.w. fragments of the extracellular matrix component hyaluronan (HA) that accumulate at sites of lung inflammation are capable of inducing inflammatory gene expression in macrophages (Mφ). The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of HA fragments on the expression of MME in alveolar Mφ. The mouse alveolar Mφ cell line MH-S was stimulated with HA fragments over time, total RNA was isolated, and Northern blot analysis was performed. HA fragments induced MME mRNA in a time-dependent fashion, with maximal levels at 6 h. HA fragments also induced MME protein expression as well as enzyme activity. The induction of MME gene expression was specific for low m.w. HA fragments and dependent upon new protein synthesis; it occurred at the level of gene transcription. We also examined the effect of HA fragments on MME expression in inflammatory alveolar Mφ from bleomycin-injured rat lungs. Although normal rat alveolar Mφ did not express MME mRNA in response to HA fragments, alveolar Mφ from the bleomycin-treated rats responded to HA fragment stimulation by increasing MME mRNA levels. Furthermore, baseline and HA fragment-induced MME gene expression in alveolar Mφ from bleomycin-treated rats was inhibited by IFN-γ. These data suggest that HA fragments may be an important mechanism for the expression of MME by Mφ in inflammatory lung disorders.

Matrix metalloproteinase-1 and -3 in breast cancer: correlation with progesterone receptors and other clinicopathologic features

Although matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are implicated in breast cancer progression, the contribution of MMP-1 and MMP-3 to this process, has not been thoroughly investigated. Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are important at several points during multistage neoplastic progression. Immunohistochemistry (Strept-ABC-HRP method) and in situ hybridization were performed to detect MMP-1, MMM-3 proteins, and MMP-3 mRNA, respectively, in 77 infiltrative breast carcinomas. MMP-1, MMP-3 protein, and MMP-3 mRNA detection were analyzed in parallel with clinicopathologic features (menopausal status, histological type, nuclear and histological grade, stage) and the immunohistochemical reactivity of estrogen (ER), progesterone (PR) receptors, and c-erbB-2 oncoprotein in breast carcinomas. Statistical analysis was performed using the multiple linear regression test. Immunoreactivity for MMP-1 and MMP-3 was observed in 59 of 77 (77%) and 22 of 77 (28.5%) breast carcinomas and was evaluated separately in cancer cells and in stromal fibroblasts. MMP-3 mRNA was detected in 72 of 77 (93.5%) carcinomas exclusively in stromal cells within the tumors or in the marginal portion of tumors. MMP-1 protein immunoreactivity in stromal fibroblasts but not in cancer cells showed a statistically significant correlation with tumor stage (P=.04). MMP-1 reactivity either in stromal or in cancer cells showed a statistically significant inverse correlation with PR expression (P=.04 and P=.04, respectively). MMP-3 protein immunoreactivity in cancer or stromal cells and MMP-3 mRNA expression was not associated with the clinicopathologic features studied. MMP-3 mRNA was detected more often in ductal carcinomas. These results indicate that MMP-1 may contribute to breast cancer invasiveness. Furthermore, they suggest differential functions for MMP-1 and MMP-3 in breast cancer progression.

Gelatinase-A (MMP-2), gelatinase-B (MMP-9) and membrane type matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MT1-MMP) are involved in different aspects of the pathophysiology of malignant gliomas

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) have been implicated as important factors in gliomas since they may both facilitate invasion into the surrounding brain and participate in neovascularization. We have tested the hypothesis that deregulated expression of gelatinase-A or B, or an activator of gelatinase-A, MT1-MMP, may contribute directly to human gliomas by quantifying the expression of these MMPs in 46 brain tumour specimens and seven control tissues. Quantitative RT-PCR and gelatin zymography showed that gelatinase-A in glioma specimens was higher than in normal tissue; these were significantly elevated in low grade gliomas and remained elevated in GBMs. Gelatinase-B transcript and activity levels were also higher than in normal brain and more strongly correlated with tumour grade. We did not see a close relationship between the levels of expression of MT1-MMP mRNA and amounts of activated gelatinase-A. In situ hybridization localized gelatinase-A and MT1-MMP transcripts to normal neuronal and glia, malignant glioma cells and blood vessels. In contrast, gelatinase-B showed a more restricted pattern of expression; it was strongly expressed in blood vessels at proliferating margins, as well as tumour cells in some cases. These data suggest that gelatinase-A, -B and MT1-MMP are important in the pathophysiology of human gliomas. The primary role of gelatinase-B may lie in remodelling associated with neovascularization, whereas gelatinase-A and MT1-MMP may be involved in both glial invasion and angiogenesis.

Stromelysin-3 (ST-3): immunohistochemical characterization of the matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-11 in benign and malignant skin tumours and other skin disorders

Matrix metalloproteinases (MMP) are involved in remodelling of the extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins suggesting that they play an important role in inflammatory process, in tumour invasion and metastasis. We examined immunohistochemically 330 cases of different skin disorders with the monoclonal antibody against MMP 11, stromelysin-3 (ST-3) protein. We found a positive immunoreactivity in fibroblasts surrounding malignant epithelial tumour cells in 63 of 125 cases (50.4%) of basal cell carcinomas, in four of 25 (16%) squamous cell carcinomas, whereas the tumour cells themselves were negative. Furthermore, the ST-3 protein could be detected in 23 of 40 cases (57.5%) of dermatofibroma, in two of five cases (40%) of atypical fibroxanthoma, in one of eight cases (12.5%) of dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans and, locally, in one of 10 cases (10%) of malignant fibrous histiocytoma. It was not present in the following skin lesions: keratoakanthomas (n = 12), Bowen's disease (n = 10), malignant melanoma (n = 12), melanocytic nevi (n = 28) and Kaposi's sarcomas (n = 25). In eczema (n = 10), psoriasis (n = 10) and virus-induced tissues (i.e. condylomata acuminata, n = 10) we did not observe an expression of ST-3 protein. We conclude first that ST-3 protein is a fibroblastic factor expressed in stromal cells adjacent to carcinoma cells; second, that ST-3 protein seems to be associated with benign fibroblastic tumours; and third, that it does not play a role in eczema, psoriasis or virus-induced skin lesions.

Expression of stromelysin-3 in atherosclerotic lesions: regulation via CD40-CD40 ligand signaling in vitro and in vivo

Stromelysin-3 is an unusual matrix metalloproteinase, being released in the active rather than zymogen form and having a distinct substrate specificity, targeting serine proteinase inhibitors (serpins), which regulate cellular functions involved in atherosclerosis. We report here that human atherosclerotic plaques (n = 7) express stromelysin-3 in situ, whereas fatty streaks (n = 5) and normal arterial specimens (n = 5) contain little or no stromelysin-3. Stromelysin-3 mRNA and protein colocalized with endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, and macrophages within the lesion. In vitro, usual inducers of matrix metalloproteinases such as interleukin-1, interferon-gamma, or tumor necrosis factor alpha did not augment stromelysin-3 in vascular wall cells. However, T cell-derived as well as recombinant CD40 ligand (CD40L, CD154), an inflammatory mediator recently localized in atheroma, induced de novo synthesis of stromelysin-3. In addition, stromelysin-3 mRNA and protein colocalized with CD40L and CD40 within atheroma. In accordance with the in situ and in vitro data obtained with human material, interruption of the CD40-CD40L signaling pathway in low density lipoprotein receptor-deficient hyperlipidemic mice substantially decreased expression of the enzyme within atherosclerotic plaques. These observations establish the expression of the unusual matrix metalloproteinase stromelysin-3 in human atherosclerotic lesions and implicate CD40-CD40L signaling in its regulation, thus providing a possible new pathway that triggers complications within atherosclerotic lesions.

Tumor-derived EMMPRIN (extracellular matrix metalloproteinase inducer) stimulates collagenase transcription through MAPK p38

EMMPRIN (extracellular matrix metalloproteinase inducer) stimulates fibroblast metalloproteinases (MMP) 1, 2 and 3 (Kataoka et al. (1993) Cancer Res. 53, 3154-3158). Here we focus on MMP-1, showing that in lung tumors, MMP-1's cognate mRNA is strongly expressed in stromal fibroblasts adjacent to EMMPRIN-expressing tumor cells. In vitro, EMMPRIN upregulates MMP-1 mRNA expression in a concentration-dependent manner, with a peak accumulation at 24 h. The response is genistein-sensitive, suggesting it is dependent on tyrosine kinase activity. Analysis of tyrosine phosphorylation-dependent MAP kinases ERK 1/2, SAPK/JNK, and p38 showed that the activity of p38 but not that of the other 2 kinases was elevated in response to EMMPRIN. That p38 activity was required for EMMPRIN stimulation of MMP-1 was evident from results showing that the p38 inhibitor SB203580 blocked this response. This is the first available information regarding the mechanism by which tumor-associated molecules upregulate MMP synthesis in stromal fibroblasts.

Enhancement of fibroblast collagenase-1 (MMP-1) gene expression by tumor promoter okadaic acid is mediated by stress-activated protein kinases Jun N-terminal kinase and p38

Collagenase-1 (matrix metalloproteinase-1, MMP-1) is expressed by several types of cells, including fibroblasts, and apparently plays an important role in the remodeling of collagenous extracellular matrix in various physiologic and pathologic situations. Here, we have examined the molecular mechanisms of the activation of fibroblast MMP-1 gene expression by a naturally occurring non-phorbol ester type tumor promoter okadaic acid (OA), a potent inhibitor of serine/threonine protein phosphatase 2A. We show that in fibroblasts OA activates three distinct subgroups of mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPKs): extracellular signal-regulated kinase1,2 (ERK1,2), c-Jun N-terminal-kinase/stress-activated protein kinase (JNK/SAPK) and p38. Activation of MMP-1 promoter by OA is entirely blocked by overexpression of dual-specificity MAPK phosphatase CL100. In addition, expression of kinase-deficient forms of ERK1,2, SAPKbeta, p38, or JNK/SAPK kinase SEK1 strongly inhibited OA-elicited activation of MMP-1 promoter. OA-elicited enhancement of MMP-1 mRNA abundance was also strongly prevented by two chemical MAPK inhibitors: PD 98059, a specific inhibitor of the activation of ERK1,2 kinases MEK1,2; and SB 203580, a selective inhibitor of p38 activity. Results of this study show that MMP-1 gene expression in fibroblasts is coordinately regulated by ERK1,2, JNK/SAPK, and p38 MAPKs and suggest an important role for the stress-activated MAPKs JNK/SAPK and p38 in the activation of MMP-1 gene expression. Based on these observations, it is conceivable that specific inhibition of stress-activated MAPK pathways may serve as a novel therapeutic target for inhibiting degradation of collagenous extracellular matrix.

Matrilysin expression and function in airway epithelium

We report that matrilysin, a matrix metalloproteinase, is constitutively expressed in the epithelium of peribronchial glands and conducting airways in normal lung. Matrilysin expression was increased in airway epithelial cells and was induced in alveolar type II cells in cystic fibrosis. Other metalloproteinases (collagenase-1, stromelysin-1, and 92-kD gelatinase) were not produced by normal or injured lung epithelium. These observations suggest that matrilysin functions in injury-mediated responses of the lung. Indeed, matrilysin expression was increased in migrating airway epithelial cells in wounded human and mouse trachea. In human tissue, epithelial migration was reduced by > 80% by a hydroxamate inhibitor, and in mouse tissue, reepithelialization in trachea from matrilysin-null mice was essentially blocked. In vivo observations and cell culture studies demonstrated that matrilysin was secreted lumenally by lung epithelium, but upon activation or while migrating over wounds, some matrilysin was released basally. The constitutive production of matrilysin in conducting airways, its upregulation after injury, its induction by alveolar epithelium, and its release into both lumenal and matrix compartments suggest that this metalloproteinase serves multiple functions in intact and injured lung, one of which is to facilitate reepithelialization.

Matrix metalloproteinase-1 is induced by epidermal growth factor in human bladder tumour cell lines and is detectable in urine of patients with bladder tumours

The matrix metalloproteinases are a family of enzymes that degrade the extracellular matrix and are considered to be important in tumour invasion and metastasis. The effect of epidermal growth factor (EGF) on matrix metalloproteinase-1 (MMP1) production in two human bladder tumour cell lines, RT112 and RT4, has been investigated. In the RT112 cell line, an increase in MMP1 mRNA levels was found after a 6-h incubation with EGF, and this further increased to 20-fold that of control levels at 24- and 48-h treatment with 50 ng ml(-1) of EGF. MMP2 mRNA levels remained constant over this time period, whereas in the RT4 cells no MMP2 transcripts were detectable, but MMP1 transcripts again increased with 24- and 48-h treatment with 50 ng ml(-1) of EGF. MMP1 protein concentration in the conditioned medium from both cell lines increased with 24- and 48-h treatment of the cells and the total MMP1 was higher in the medium than the cells, demonstrating that the bladder tumour cell lines synthesize and secrete MMP1 protein after continuous stimulation with EGF. MMP1 protein was detected in urine from patients with bladder tumours, with a significant increase in concentration with increased stage and grade of tumour. MMP1 urine concentrations may therefore be a useful prognostic indicator for bladder tumour progression.

Tumor cell contact mediated transcriptional activation of the fibroblast matrix metalloproteinase-9 gene: involvement of multiple transcription factors including Ets and an alternating purine-pyrimidine repeat

The 92-kDa type IV collagenase (MMP-9) is a metalloproteinase frequently localized in both tumor stroma and in tumor cells, particularly at the tumor invasion front. To explore the factors regulating transcriptional activation of MMP-9 in stromal cells, we used a model system in which fibroblast MMP-9 expression can be upregulated by cell-cell contact with metastatic transformed rat embryo cells. Using transient transfection of reporter gene constructs containing 5'-deleted or mutated MMP-9 promoter fragments, as well as electrophoretic mobility shift assays, the upstream NFkappaB, SP-1, and Ets sites and the downstream AP-1 site and retinoblastoma binding element were shown to be necessary for basal transcriptional activity of fibroblast MMP-9. In contrast only Ets or SP-1 appeared to be involved in contact-mediated induction of MMP-9. Mutation of the upstream AP-1 site increased both basal and contact-stimulated promoter activation. Deletion of the alternating purine-pyrimidine repeat in the downstream promoter decreased transcriptional activity. Together these findings suggest that Ets and SP-1 are the central transcriptional activators of MMP-9 gene expression in fibroblasts specifically responding to tumor cell contact, and that promoter conformation may regulate MMP-9 expression.

Association of expression of metalloproteinases and their inhibitors with the metastatic potential of squamous-cell lung carcinomas. A molecular and immunohistochemical study

Matrix metalloproteinases (MPs) constitute a family of proteolytic enzymes (proteases) that degrade extracellular matrix (ECM) and promote the local or metastatic potential of carcinoma cells, and whose action is restrained by special inhibitors (metalloproteinase inhibitors; MIs). We assessed the role of the MPs stromelysin-3 (STR-3), putative metalloproteinase-1 (PUMP-I), and the gelatinases of molecular weights 72 kDa and 92 kDa, as well as the role of their inhibitors tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase-1 (TIMP-1) and TIMP-2, as markers of metastatic potential in 25 fresh biopsies of squamous-cell lung carcinomas (SCLCs). We examined levels of messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) expression for these MPs and inhibitors through Northern blot analysis in 10 carcinomas of high-to-moderate differentiation without lymph-node involvement, and in 15 infiltrative carcinomas of moderate-to-low differentiation with lymph-node involvement. Five cases with significant epithelial atypia and five samples with normal mucosa were used as controls. Expression of STR-3 and TIMP-2 was also assessed immunohistochemically with the avidin-biotin-complex (ABC) technique. We noticed a progressive increase in the expression levels of MPs, especially of STR-3, and of TIMP-2, from the stage of epithelial atypia to the detection of carcinoma, finding the highest values of these substances among carcinomas of low differentiation with nodal metastases. These findings were also confirmed with immunohistochemical analysis. Our results suggest that there is a significant association of the expression of MPs and MIs with both the local and metastatic potential and the degree of cellular differentiation of SCLC, and that this association is clinically important because of its prognostic and therapeutic implications.

Reactivity of antibodies against 10-amino acid residue and pro-domain of stromelysin-3

Stromelysin-3 (ST3) has two highly conserved domains in the pro-domain. In particular, an unusual 10-amino acid residue sandwiched between the pro-domain and the catalytic domain of ST3 exists in ST3 but not in other matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). To specifically detect ST3 expression in human tumors, we have made two kinds of ST3-specific polyclonal antibodies. One was raised against the synthetic 10-amino acid residue (88GLSARNRQKR97) specific to ST3, and the other against recombinant ST3 pro-domain (62APATQEAPRPASSLRPPRCGVPDPSDGLSARNRQKR97) containing the decapeptide and PRCGVPD sequence obtained by expression in Escherichia coli. Two protein species, 59 kDa and 45 kDa which were consistent with those expected for pro-ST3 and the mature form of ST3, were specifically detected in 100-fold concentrated conditioned media of fetal lung fibroblast by Western blot analysis. Immunohistochemical staining indicated that in infiltrating ductal breast carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma of the uterine cervix, reactivity of those antibodies was found not only in fibroblastic cells surrounding cancer cells but also in neoplastic cells. However, reactivity of two ST3 antibodies was inhibited by excess of the synthetic peptide (10-amino acid residue) not only in fibroblastic cells but also in neoplastic cells. These findings suggest that antibodies against the ST3 specific region may cross react with the recently known membrane type-metalloproteinase (MT-MMP), which have RXKR sequences between the pro- and catalytic domain.