Effect of prophenoloxidase expression knockout on the melanization of microfilariae in the mosquito Armigeres subalbatus

The cecropin-prophenoloxidase regulatory mechanism is a cross-species physiological function in mosquitoes

This study's aim was to investigate whether the cecropin-prophenoloxidase regulatory mechanism is a cross-species physiological function among mosquitoes. BLAST and phylogenetic analysis revealed that three mosquito cecropin Bs, namely Aedes albopictus cecropin B (Aalcec B), Armigeres subalbatus cecropin B2 (Ascec B2), and Culex quinquefasciatus cecropin B1 (Cqcec B1), play crucial roles in cuticle formation during pupal development via the regulation of prophenoloxidase 3 (PPO 3). The effects of cecropin B knockdown were rescued in a cross-species manner by injecting synthetic cecropin B peptide into pupae. Further investigations showed that these three cecropin B peptides bind to TTGG(A/C)A motifs within each of the PPO 3 DNA fragments obtained from these three mosquitoes. These results suggest that Aalcec B, Ascec B2, and Cqcec B1 each play an important role as a transcription factor in cuticle formation and that similar cecropin-prophenoloxidase regulatory mechanisms exist in multiple mosquito species.

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Cecropin B is able to regulate PPO 3 expression in the pupae

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Cecropin B binds to TTGG(A/C)A motifs within the PPO 3 DNA

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The knockdown of cecropin B was rescued by sequence-similar cecropin B peptides

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The cecropin B-prophenoloxidase 3 regulatory mechanism is conserved in mosquitoes

Prohemocytes are the main cells infected by dengue virus in Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus

Background

The primary disease vectors for dengue virus (DENV) transmission between humans are the mosquitoes Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus, with Ae. aegypti population size strongly correlated with DENV outbreaks. When a mosquito is infected with DENV, the virus migrates from the midgut to the salivary glands to complete the transmission cycle. How the virus crosses the hemocoel, resulting in systemic infection, is still unclear however. During viral infection and migration, the innate immune system is activated in defense. As part of cellular-mediated immunity, hemocytes are known to defend against bacteria and Plasmodium infection and may also participate in defending against DENV infection. Hemocytes are categorized into three cell types: prohemocytes, granulocytes, and oenocytoids. Here, we investigated which hemocytes can be infected by DENV and compare hemocyte infection between Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus.

Methods

Hemocytes were collected from Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus mosquitoes that were intrathoracically infected with DENV2-GFP. The collected hemocytes were then identified via Giemsa staining and examined microscopically for morphological differences and viral infection.

Results

All three types of hemocytes were infected by DENV, though the predominantly infected cell type was prohemocytes. In Ae. aegypti, the highest and lowest infection rates at 7 days post infection occurred in prohemocytes and granulocytes, respectively. Prohemocytes were also the primary infection target of DENV in Ae. albopictus, with similar infection rates across the other two hemocyte groups. The ratios of hemocyte composition did not differ significantly between non-infected and infected mosquitoes for either species.

Conclusions

In this study, we showed that prohemocytes were the major type of hemocyte infected by DENV in both Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus. The infection rate of prohemocytes in Ae. albopictus was lower than that in Ae. aegypti, which may explain why systemic DENV infection in Ae. albopictus is less efficient than in Ae. aegypti and why Ae. albopictus is less correlated to dengue fever outbreaks. Future work in understanding the mechanisms behind these phenomena may help reduce arbovirus infection prevalence.

Graphical Abstract

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13071-022-05276-w.

Immunity of an insect herbivore to an entomovirus is affected by different host plants

BACKGROUND

Interactions between herbivorous insects and entomoviruses may depend on host plant, perhaps mediated through changes in herbivore innate immunity.

RESULTS

Caterpillars (Spodoptera exigua) fed Glycine max had high viral loads and low melanization rates together with low melanization enzyme [PO, DDC, TH] activities and gene expressions. Caterpillars fed Ipomoea aquatica had low viral loads and high melanization, gene activities and gene expressions while those fed Brassica oleracea or artificial diet had intermediate levels of each. Melanization rates were negatively correlated with viral loads and positively correlated with activity and expression of each of the three enzymes. Some diet effects on enzymes were constitutive because the same diets led to low (G. max) or high (I. aquatica) melanization related gene activities and expressions without infection.

CONCLUSION

Diet influences the interactions between insect herbivores and viruses by shaping the innate immune response both at the onset of infection and afterwards as viral loads accumulate over a period of days. In addition, diets that lead to low viral loads are associated with high activities and gene expressions of a variety of melanization related enzymes suggesting a common causative mechanism. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Molecular cloning, expression and biochemical characterization of hemoglobin gene from ark shell Scapharca broughtonii

Hemoglobin, the main component of haemolymph, is widely distributed in animals. Although its important oxygen transport functions has been extensively reported, studies on the immune function of hemoglobin in mollusc are few. Research on immune of hemoglobin of ark shell Scapharca broughtonii attracted more and more attention due to its ownership of erythrocyte comparing with many other shellfish. In this study, the hemoglobin cDNA of S. broughtonii was cloned by EST and RACE methods (named as SbHb). Sequence analysis revealed that the cDNA was 946 bp in length, including an open reading frame (ORF) of 459 bp which encoded a polypeptide of 152 amino acid residues, and a 5'-untranslated region (UTR) of 313 bp, a 3'-UTR of 174 bp. Sequence and homology analysis showed that the SbHb shared similarity with that of other related species. The mRNA expression profiles of SbHb in tested tissues analyzed by quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) revealed that the mRNA of SbHb could be all detected in foot, gill, mantle, adductor muscle, haemocytes and hepatopancreas, and the highest level was found in the haemocytes, which is 163.2 times higher than that in adductor muscle. Vibrio anguillarum stimulation and hypoxia treatment both had significant impact on the expression of SbHb, which showed the same trends as increasing first to the highest at 16 h after treatment and then followed by declining. Recombinant protein of SbHb (rSbHb) was successfully obtained by prokaryotic expression, and further function analysis indicated obviously that the rSbHb had very strong phenoloxidase-like activity (PO-like activity) and it could remarkably inhibit growth of gram-negative bacteria V. anguillarum. All the data suggested that the SbHb plays a significant role in the process of antibacterial and anoxia tolerance reaction in S. broughtonii, providing the evidence that SbHb is a key immune factor.

Involvement of cecropin B in the formation of the Aedes aegypti mosquito cuticle

In this study, we found a mosquito antimicrobial peptide (AMP), Aedes aegypti cecropin B (Aacec B), was expressed constitutively in pupae. Knockdown in the pupae of Aacec B using double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) resulted in high mortality, the emergence of deformed adults and an impairment of pharate adult cuticle formation with fewer lamellae being deposited and the helicoidal pattern of the chitin microfibrils being disorganized. Simultaneous injection of Aacec B dsRNA and Aacec B peptide into pupae significantly reduced this mortality and no deformed adults then emerged. The expression levels of Ae. aegypti prophenoloxidase (AaPPO) 3 and AaPPO 4 were significantly reduced in the Aacec B knockdown pupae. Exogenous Aacec B peptide significantly enhanced the transcription of AaPPO 3 in pupae. Knockdown of AaPPO 3 in pupae caused effects similar to Aacec B-knockdown. The Aacec B peptide could be detected in both the cytoplasm and nuclei of pupal cells and was able to bind to the TTGG(A/C)A motif in AaPPO 3 DNA both in vitro and in vivo. These findings suggest that Aacec B plays a crucial role in pharate adult cuticle formation via the regulation of AaPPO 3 gene expression in pupae.

The activity of phenoloxidase in haemolymph plasma is not a predictor of Lymantria dispar resistance to its baculovirus

Host innate immunity is one of the factors that determines the resistance of insects to their entomopathogens. In the research reported here we studied whether or not phenoloxidase (PO), a key enzyme in the melanogenesis component of humoral immunity of insects, plays a role in the protection of Lymantria dispar larvae from infection by L. dispar multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus. We studied two types of viral infection: overt and covert. The following lines of investigation were tested: i) the intravital individual estimation of baseline PO activity in haemolymph plasma followed by virus challenging; ii) the specific inhibition of PO activity in vivo by peroral treatment of infected larvae with phenylthiourea (PTU), a competitive inhibitor of PO; iii) the evaluation of PO activity in the haemolymph plasma after larval starvation. Starvation is a stress that activates the covert infection to an overt form. All of these experiments did not show a relationship between PO activity in haemolymph plasma of L. dispar larvae and larval susceptibility to baculovirus. Moreover, starvation-induced activation of covert viral infection to an overt form occurred in 70 percent of virus-carrying larvae against the background of a dramatic increase of PO activity in haemolymph plasma in the insects studied. Our conclusion is that in L. dispar larvae PO activity is not a predictor of host resistance to baculovirus.

Viral Delivery of dsRNA for Control of Insect Agricultural Pests and Vectors of Human Disease: Prospects and Challenges

RNAi is applied as a new and safe method for pest control in agriculture but efficiency and specificity of delivery of dsRNA trigger remains a critical issue. Various agents have been proposed to augment dsRNA delivery, such as engineered micro-organisms and synthetic nanoparticles, but the use of viruses has received relatively little attention. Here we present a critical view of the potential of the use of recombinant viruses for efficient and specific delivery of dsRNA. First of all, it requires the availability of plasmid-based reverse genetics systems for virus production, of which an overview is presented. For RNA viruses, their application seems to be straightforward since dsRNA is produced as an intermediate molecule during viral replication, but DNA viruses also have potential through the production of RNA hairpins after transcription. However, application of recombinant virus for dsRNA delivery may not be straightforward in many cases, since viruses can encode RNAi suppressors, and virus-induced silencing effects can be determined by the properties of the encoded RNAi suppressor. An alternative is virus-like particles that retain the efficiency and specificity determinants of natural virions but have encapsidated non-replicating RNA. Finally, the use of viruses raises important safety issues which need to be addressed before application can proceed.

Effect of 1,3-1,6 β-Glucan on Natural and Experimental Deformed Wing Virus Infection in Newly Emerged Honeybees (Apis mellifera ligustica)

The Western Honeybee is a key pollinator for natural as well as agricultural ecosystems. In the last decade massive honeybee colony losses have been observed worldwide, the result of a complex syndrome triggered by multiple stress factors, with the RNA virus Deformed Wing Virus (DWV) and the mite Varroa destructor playing crucial roles. The mite supports replication of DWV to high titers, which exert an immunosuppressive action and correlate with the onset of the disease. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of 1,3-1,6 β-glucan, a natural innate immune system modulator, on honeybee response to low-titer natural and high-titer experimental DWV infection. As the effects exerted by ß-glucans can be remarkably different, depending on the target organism and the dose administered, two parallel experiments were performed, where 1,3-1,6 ß-glucan at a concentration of 0.5% and 2% respectively, was added to the diet of three cohorts of newly emerged honeybees, which were sampled from a Varroa-free apiary and harboured a low endogenous DWV viral titer. Each cohort was subjected to one of the following experimental treatments: no injection, injection of a high-copy number DWV suspension into the haemocel (experimental DWV infection) or injection of PBS into the haemocoel (physical injury). Control bees fed a ß-glucan-free diet were subjected to the same treatments. Viral load, survival rate, haemocyte populations and phenoloxidase activity of each experimental group were measured and compared. The results indicated that oral administration of 0.5% ß-glucan to naturally infected honeybees was associated with a significantly decrease of the number of infected bees and viral load they carried, and with a significant increase of the survival rate, suggesting that this natural immune modulator molecule might contribute to increase honeybee resistance to viral infection.

Mosquito Phenoloxidase and Defensin Colocalize in Melanization Innate Immune Responses

Mosquitoes mount strong humoral and cellular immune responses against foreign organisms. Two components of the mosquito immune response that have received much attention are the phenoloxidase cascade that leads to melanization and antimicrobial peptides. The purpose of the current study was to use immunocytochemistry and transmission electron microscopy to identify the location of the melanization rate-limiting enzyme phenoloxidase and the antimicrobial peptide defensin in innate immune reactions against Escherichia coli and Micrococcus luteus by the mosquito Aedes aegypti. Our results show that both phenoloxidase and defensin are present at the sites of melanin biosynthesis in immune reactions against bacteria. Furthermore, both proteins are often present inside the same melanotic capsules. When hemocytes were analyzed, phenoloxidase was present in the cytosol of oenocytoids, but no significant amounts of defensin were detected inside any hemocytes. In summary, these data show that phenoloxidase and defensin colocalize in melanization reactions against bacteria and argue for further studies into the potential role of defensin in phenoloxidase-based melanization innate immune responses in mosquitoes.

Insect immunology and hematopoiesis

Insects combat infection by mounting powerful immune responses that are mediated by hemocytes, the fat body, the midgut, the salivary glands and other tissues. Foreign organisms that have entered the body of an insect are recognized by the immune system when pathogen-associated molecular patterns bind host-derived pattern recognition receptors. This, in turn, activates immune signaling pathways that amplify the immune response, induce the production of factors with antimicrobial activity, and activate effector pathways. Among the immune signaling pathways are the Toll, Imd, Jak/Stat, JNK, and insulin pathways. Activation of these and other pathways leads to pathogen killing via phagocytosis, melanization, cellular encapsulation, nodulation, lysis, RNAi-mediated virus destruction, autophagy and apoptosis. This review details these and other aspects of immunity in insects, and discusses how the immune and circulatory systems have co-adapted to combat infection, how hemocyte replication and differentiation takes place (hematopoiesis), how an infection prepares an insect for a subsequent infection (immune priming), how environmental factors such as temperature and the age of the insect impact the immune response, and how social immunity protects entire groups. Finally, this review highlights some underexplored areas in the field of insect immunobiology.

Molecular Characterization and Bioinformatics Analysis of a Prophenoloxidase-1 (PPO1) in Plutella xylostella

Phenoloxidase (PO) is an important enzyme in insect life, which is involved in important physical functions, such as defensive encapsulation and melanization of foreign organisms and wound healing. In this study, we obtained a cDNA sequence of 2838 bp with 2049 open reading frames encoding 682 amino acids. The protein sequence deduced from the cDNA has high homology with the known PPO1 sequences of other lepidopterous insects. There were three conserved regions, including the two copper-binding sites characteristic of arthropod PPOs. The whole PxPPO1 DNA was also obtained with 7202 bp when the five fragments were stitched together and the overlapping sequences were deleted. The PxPPO1 DNA consists of 11 introns and 12 exons, and the homology is 99.9% when the exons are compared with the above cDNA. Moreover, the gene expression levels were also determined by semiquantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR), Western blotting, and real-time quantitative PCR; the results indicated that PxPPO1 transcripts in the eggs and the fourth instar larvae were more abundant, followed by the second and the third instar larvae, prepupae, and pupa.

Climate change, nutrition and immunity: Effects of elevated CO2 and temperature on the immune function of an insect herbivore

Balanced nutrition is fundamental to health and immunity. For herbivorous insects, nutrient-compositional shifts in host plants due to elevated atmospheric CO2 concentrations and temperature may compromise this balance. Therefore, understanding their immune responses to such shifts is vital if we are to predict the outcomes of climate change for plant-herbivore-parasitoid and pathogen interactions. We tested the immune response of Paropsis atomaria Olivier (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) feeding on Eucalyptus tereticornis Sm. seedlings exposed to elevated CO2 (640 μmol mol(-1); CE) and temperature (ambient plus 4 °C; TE). Larvae were immune-challenged with a nylon monofilament in order to simulate parasitoid or pathogen attack without other effects of actual parasitism or pathology. The cellular (in vivo melanisation) and humoral (in vitro phenoloxidase PO activity) immune responses were assessed, and linked to changes in leaf chemistry. CE reduced foliar nitrogen (N) concentrations and increased C:N ratios and concentrations of total phenolics. The humoral response was reduced at CE. PO activity and haemolymph protein concentrations decreased at CE, while haemolymph protein concentrations were positively correlated with foliar N concentrations. However, the cellular response increased at CE and this was not correlated with any foliar traits. Immune parameters were not impacted by TE. Our study revealed that opposite cellular and humoral immune responses occurred as a result of plant-mediated effects at CE. In contrast, elevated temperatures within the tested range had minimal impact on immune responses. These complex interactions may alter the outcomes of parasitoid and pathogen attack in future climates.

The dual roles of Armigeres subalbatus prophenoloxidase V in parasite melanization and egg chorion melanization in the mosquito Ar. subalbatus

Phenoloxidases (POs) play key roles in various physiological functions in insects, e.g., cuticular sclerotization, wound healing, egg tanning, cuticle formation and melanotic encapsulaction of pathogens. Previously, we identified five POs, designated As-pro-PO I-V, from the mosquito Armigeres subalbatus and demonstrated that the functions of As-pro-PO I, II and III, were associated with filarial parasite melanization, blood feeding and cuticle formation, respectively. In the present study, we delineate the dual functions of As-pro-PO V. We found that the level of As-pro-PO V mRNA in mosquitoes was significantly increased after microfilaria challenge or blood feeding, and decreased to normal level after oviposition. Knockdown of As-pro-PO V by dsRNA resulted in significant decreases in the degree of microfilaria melanization, egg chronic melanization rates and egg hatching rates in Ar. subalbatus. Further transfection and electrophoretic mobility-shift assays verified the As-pro-PO V gene might regulated by both AP-1, a putative immune-related regulatory element and CdxA, a developmental regulatory element. The binding of AP-1 and CdxA motif with mosquito nuclear extracts was significantly enhanced after microfilaria challenge and blood-feeding in Ar. subalbatus, respectively. These results indicate that As-pro-PO V is a critical enzyme that is required for both an effective melanization immune response and egg chorion melanization in this mosquito.

Overwintering Is Associated with Reduced Expression of Immune Genes and Higher Susceptibility to Virus Infection in Honey Bees

The eusocial honey bee, Apis mellifera, has evolved remarkable abilities to survive extreme seasonal differences in temperature and availability of resources by dividing the worker caste into two groups that differ in physiology and lifespan: summer and winter bees. Most of the recent major losses of managed honey bee colonies occur during the winter, suggesting that winter bees may have compromised immune function and higher susceptibility to diseases. We tested this hypothesis by comparing the expression of eight immune genes and naturally occurring infection levels of deformed wing virus (DWV), one of the most widespread viruses in A. mellifera populations, between summer and winter bees. Possible interactions between immune response and physiological activity were tested by measuring the expression of vitellogenin and methyl farnesoate epoxidase, a gene coding for the last enzyme involved in juvenile hormone biosynthesis. Our data show that high DWV loads in winter bees correlate with reduced expression of genes involved in the cellular immune response and physiological activity and high expression of humoral immune genes involved in antibacterial defense compared with summer bees. This expression pattern could reflect evolutionary adaptations to resist bacterial pathogens and economize energy during the winter under a pathogen landscape with reduced risk of pathogenic viral infections. The outbreak of Varroa destructor infestation could have overcome these adaptations by promoting the transmission of viruses. Our results suggest that reduced cellular immune function during the winter may have increased honey bee’s susceptibility to DWV. These results contribute to our understanding of honey bee colony losses in temperate regions.

Chikungunya virus and its mosquito vectors

Chikungunya virus (CHIKV), a mosquito-borne alphavirus of increasing public health significance, has caused large epidemics in Africa and the Indian Ocean basin; now it is spreading throughout the Americas. The primary vectors of CHIKV are Aedes (Ae.) aegypti and, after the introduction of a mutation in the E1 envelope protein gene, the highly anthropophilic and geographically widespread Ae. albopictus mosquito. We review here research efforts to characterize the viral genetic basis of mosquito-vector interactions, the use of RNA interference and other strategies for the control of CHIKV in mosquitoes, and the potentiation of CHIKV infection by mosquito saliva. Over the past decade, CHIKV has emerged on a truly global scale. Since 2013, CHIKV transmission has been reported throughout the Caribbean region, in North America, and in Central and South American countries, including Brazil, Columbia, Costa Rica, El Salvador, French Guiana, Guatemala, Guyana, Nicaragua, Panama, Suriname, and Venezuela. Closing the gaps in our knowledge of driving factors behind the rapid geographic expansion of CHIKV should be considered a research priority. The abundance of multiple primate species in many of these countries, together with species of mosquito that have never been exposed to CHIKV, may provide opportunities for this highly adaptable virus to establish sylvatic cycles that to date have not been seen outside of Africa. The short-term and long-term ecological consequences of such transmission cycles, including the impact on wildlife and people living in these areas, are completely unknown.

Infection barriers and responses in mosquito-filarial worm interactions

As a function of size, migration trajectory through the body and developmental site, filarial worm parasites inflict significant damage on the mosquito host. Some mosquitoes are equipped with physical and physiological barriers that confer a refractory state to parasite infection. In a susceptible host, parasites migrate to a developmental site and achieve an intracellular existence; during this process, worms elicit canonical mosquito immune response elements, particularly melanization and antimicrobial peptide (AMP) production. It is clear now that the response to infection also involves mitigating stress and manipulation of host cell machinery to delay necrosis. This review focuses on mechanisms of refractoriness and resistance to Brugia malayi, Brugia pahangi, and Dirofilaria immitis, with emphasis on infection in the mosquito, Aedes aegypti.

Identification of NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductase activity in azoreductases from P. aeruginosa: azoreductases and NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductases belong to the same FMN-dependent superfamily of enzymes

Water soluble quinones are a group of cytotoxic anti-bacterial compounds that are secreted by many species of plants, invertebrates, fungi and bacteria. Studies in a number of species have shown the importance of quinones in response to pathogenic bacteria of the genus Pseudomonas. Two electron reduction is an important mechanism of quinone detoxification as it generates the less toxic quinol. In most organisms this reaction is carried out by a group of flavoenzymes known as NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductases. Azoreductases have previously been separate from this group, however using azoreductases from Pseudomonas aeruginosa we show that they can rapidly reduce quinones. Azoreductases from the same organism are also shown to have distinct substrate specificity profiles allowing them to reduce a wide range of quinones. The azoreductase family is also shown to be more extensive than originally thought, due to the large sequence divergence amongst its members. As both NAD(P)H quinone oxidoreductases and azoreductases have related reaction mechanisms it is proposed that they form an enzyme superfamily. The ubiquitous and diverse nature of azoreductases alongside their broad substrate specificity, indicates they play a wide role in cellular survival under adverse conditions.

The impact of insecticide resistance on Culex pipiens immunity

Because of their role as vectors of diseases, the evolution of insecticide resistance in mosquitoes has been intensively investigated. Insecticide resistance is associated to a wide range of pleiotropic effects on several key life-history traits of mosquitoes such as longevity and behavior. However, despite its potential implications in pathogen transmission, the effects of insecticide resistance on mosquito immunity have received little, if any, attention. Here, we investigate the impact of insecticide resistance in Culex pipiens, an epidemiologically important vector of a wide array of pathogens. Using both isogenic laboratory strains and field-caught mosquitoes, we investigate the impact of two main insecticide resistance mechanisms (metabolic detoxification and target site modification) on the relative transcription of several genes involved in the immune response to pathogens, at both their constitutive and inducible levels. Our results show a discrepancy between the isogenic laboratory lines and field-collected mosquitoes: While in the isogenic strains, insecticide-resistant mosquitoes show a drastic increase in immune gene expression, no such effect appears in the field. We speculate on the different mechanisms that may underlie this discrepancy and discuss the risks of making inferences on the pleiotropic effects of insecticide-resistant genes by using laboratory-selected insecticide-resistant lines.

Impact of tributyltin on immune response and life history traits of Chironomus riparius: single and multigeneration effects and recovery from pollution

Chironomids play an important role in the detritus cycle and as a component in brackish- and freshwater benthic and terrestrial food webs. If TBT is present in their environment, then they may accumulate tributyltin (TBT) during their juvenile period, which negatively affects many of their life history characteristics. The aim of this experiment is to test the effects of three TBT sediment concentrations (nominal 30, 90, and 180 μg/kg) on life history traits (development time, survival, fecundity, and weight) and immune response (number of hemocytes and phenoloxidase activity) of the nonbiting midge, Chironomus riparius. These responses were recorded immediately after one generation of TBT exposure, and in the long run during five consecutive generations. We also assessed recovery from pollution after four generations of TBT exposure. In a single generation, TBT affected all measured parameters, except phenoloxidase activity, when compared to the control. Long-term-effects of TBT lead to extinction of all treatments after the fifth generation. Again, all measured variables significantly differ from the control, although TBT had varying effects on the measured variables. Most of the effects of TBT on population viability were not evident during recovery, once TBT was removed from the sediment. The effect of previous TBT contamination was observed only in delayed larval development, suggesting that TBT has only limited maternal/epigenetic effects on individual condition. However, altered schedules in the life-cycle can have unexpected ecological impacts. TBT decreases the viability of Chironomus riparius and the effect will become stronger if exposure to TBT continues for many generations. Yet, the harmful effect of TBT disappears quickly as the TBT is removed from the environment.

Increased survivorship following bacterial infection by the mosquito Aedes aegypti as compared to Anopheles gambiae correlates with increased transcriptional induction of antimicrobial peptides

Mosquitoes defend themselves from pathogens by mounting cellular and humoral innate immune responses. Bioinformatic analyses have revealed considerable divergence in immune gene repertoires between mosquito species, but interspecies empirical comparisons of immune responses are lacking. Here, we present a comparative analysis of the antimicrobial responses of two distantly related disease vectors: Aedes aegypti and Anopheles gambiae. Survival studies showed that Ae. aegypti are more proficient in surviving a bacterial infection than An. gambiae, and this correlates with Ae. aegypti's superior ability to kill bacteria in their hemocoels. Hemocytes from both species swiftly phagocytose bacteria, but phagocytosis does not explain Ae. aegypti's increased robustness: An. gambiae contain more circulating hemocytes and display a higher phagocytic index, but the phagocytic capacity of individual hemocytes is greater in Ae. aegypti. Then, profiling of 19 immunity genes revealed that transcriptional induction following infection is significantly elevated in Ae. aegypti when compared to An. gambiae, with the largest change seen in the transcription of cecropin and defensin. These data show that Ae. aegypti is better equipped to survive a bacterial infection than An. gambiae, and this correlates with Ae. aegypti's increased transcriptional induction of antimicrobial peptides and other humoral immune factors in response to infection.

Insect immune responses to nematode parasites

Host innate immunity plays a central role in detecting and eliminating microbial pathogenic infections in both vertebrate and invertebrate animals. Entomopathogenic or insect pathogenic nematodes are of particular importance for the control of insect pests and vectors of pathogens, while insect-borne nematodes cause serious diseases in humans. Recent work has begun to use the power of insect models to investigate host-nematode interactions and uncover host antiparasitic immune reactions. This review describes recent findings on innate immune evasion strategies of parasitic nematodes and host cellular and humoral responses to the infection. Such information can be used to model diseases caused by human parasitic nematodes and provide clues indicating directions for research into the interplay between vector insects and their invading tropical parasites.

Mosquito immunity

Throughout their lifetime, mosquitoes are exposed to pathogens during feeding, through breaks in their cuticle and following pathogen-driven cuticular degradation. To resist infection, mosquitoes mount innate cellular and humoral immune responses that are elicited within minutes of exposure and can lead to pathogen death via three broadly defined mechanisms: lysis, melanization and hemocyte-mediated phagocytosis. This chapter reviews our current understanding of the mosquito immune system, with an emphasis on the physical barriers that prevent pathogens from entering the body, the organs and tissues that regulate immune responses and the mechanistic and molecular bases of immunity.

Double subgenomic alphaviruses expressing multiple fluorescent proteins using a Rhopalosiphum padi virus internal ribosome entry site element

Double subgenomic Sindbis virus (dsSINV) vectors are widely used for the expression of proteins, peptides, and RNA sequences. These recombinant RNA viruses permit high level expression of a heterologous sequence in a wide range of animals, tissues, and cells. However, the alphavirus genome structure and replication strategy is not readily amenable to the expression of more than one heterologous sequence. The Rhopalosiphum padi virus (RhPV) genome contains two internal ribosome entry site (IRES) elements that mediate cap-independent translation of the virus nonstructural and structural proteins. Most IRES elements that have been characterized function only in mammalian cells but previous work has shown that the IRES element present in the 5′ untranslated region (UTR) of the RhPV genome functions efficiently in mammalian, insect, and plant systems. To determine if the 5′ RhPV IRES element could be used to express more than one heterologous sequence from a dsSINV vector, RhPV 5′ IRES sequences were placed between genes for two different fluorescent marker proteins in the dsSINV, TE/3′2J/mcs. While mammalian and insect cells infected with recombinant viruses containing the RhPV sequences expressed both fluorescent marker proteins, only single marker proteins were routinely observed in cells infected with dsSINV vectors in which the RhPV IRES had been replaced by a luciferase fragment, an antisense RhPV IRES, or no intergenic sequence. Thus, we report development of a versatile tool for the expression of multiple sequences in diverse cell types.

Comparative analysis of proteome maps of silkworm hemolymph during different developmental stages

Background

The silkworm Bombyx mori is a lepidopteran insect with four developmental stages: egg, larva (caterpillar), pupa, and adult. The hemolymph of the silkworm is in an open system that circulates among all organs, and functions in nutrient and hormone transport, injury, and immunity. To understand the intricate developmental mechanisms of metamorphosis, silkworm hemolymph from different developmental stages, including the 3^rd day of fifth instar, the 6^th day of fifth instar, the 3^rd day of pupation, the 8^th day of pupal stage and the first day of the moth stage, was investigated by two-dimensional electrophoresis and mass spectrometry.

Results

Two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis showed that from the larval to moth stages, silkworm hemolymph proteins changed markedly. Not only did major proteins such as SP1, SP2, and the 30 K lipoprotein change, but other proteins varied greatly at different stages. To understand the functions of these proteins in silkworm development, 56 spots were excised from gels for analysis by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS). We identified 34 proteins involved in metamorphosis, programmed cell death, food digestion, metabolism, and nutrient storage and transport. Most proteins showed different expression at different stages, suggesting functions in development and metamorphosis. An abundance of proteins related to immunity were found, including hemolin, prophenoloxidase, serine proteinase-like protein, paralytic peptide-binding protein, and protease inhibitor.

Conclusions

Proteomics research not only provides the opportunity for direct investigation of protein expression patterns, but also identifies many attractive candidates for further study. Two-dimensional maps of hemolymph proteins expressed during the growth and metamorphosis of the silkworm offer important insights into hemolymph function and insect metamorphosis.

The effects of age and social interactions on innate immunity in a leaf-cutting ant

Both developmental and environmental factors shape investment in costly immune defences. Social insect workers have different selection pressures on their innate immune system compared to non-social insects because workers do not reproduce and their longevity affects the fitness of relatives. Furthermore, hygienic behavioural defences found in social insects can result in increased survival after fungal infection, although it is not known if there is modulation in physiological immune defence associated with group living vs. solitary living. Here we investigated whether physiological immune defence is affected by both age and the short-term presence or absence of nestmates in the leaf-cutting ant Acromyrmex octospinosus. We predicted that older ants would show immune senescence and that group living may result in prophylactic differences in immune defence compared to solitarily kept ants. We kept old and young workers alone or in nestmate groups for 48h and assayed a key innate immune system enzyme, expressing phenoloxidase (PO) and its stored precursor (proPO), a defence that acts immediately, i.e. it is constitutive. Short-term solitary living did not affect PO or proPO levels relative to group living controls and we found no evidence for immunosenescence in proPO. However, we found a significant increase in active PO in older workers, which is consistent with two non-mutually exclusive explanations: it could be an adaptive response or indicative of immunosenescence. Our results suggest that future studies of immunosenescence should consider both active immune effectors in the body, such as PO, and the stored potential to express immune defences, such as proPO.

Inbreeding depression affects life-history traits but not infection by Plasmodium gallinaceum in the Asian tiger mosquito, Aedes albopictus

Emerging and re-emerging vector-borne diseases represent an increasingly significant public health challenge. While geographic variation among populations of vector species for susceptibility to pathogen infection and vector competence has been thoroughly documented, relatively little attention has been devoted to understanding the ultimate evolutionary causes of this intraspecific variation. Local genetic drift is known to influence genetic differentiation among populations for a variety of container-inhabiting mosquito species, including Aedes albopictus. Because genetic drift is expected to reduce genetic variation and lead to the accumulation of (partially) recessive deleterious alleles, we hypothesized that reduced genetic variation might affect susceptibility to pathogen infection in a model pathogen-vector system. We therefore created replicate inbred (two generations of full-sib mating, expected f=0.375) and control (expected f approximately 0.07) lines of Ae. albopictus and measured life-history traits including larval survivorship, adult longevity, and female wing length (body size) as well as susceptibility to infection by a model pathogen, Plasmodium gallinaceum. Inbred mosquitoes had significantly reduced larval survivorship and female adult longevity but inbreeding did not affect male adult longevity or female wing length (body size). Furthermore, there was no effect of inbreeding on susceptibility to infection by P. gallinaceum. Therefore, while our results did not support the hypothesis that reduced genetic variation influences susceptibility to pathogen infection in this system, we did find evidence for an effect of reduced genetic variation on female adult longevity, an important component of vectorial capacity. We suggest that additional research is needed to elucidate the genetic underpinnings of intraspecific variation in traits related to disease transmission and discuss the implications of our results for the efficacy of creating transgenic strains refractory to disease transmission.

Transgenesis and paratransgenesis to control insect-borne diseases: current status and future challenges

Insect-borne diseases cause significant human morbidity and mortality. Current control and preventive methods against vector-borne diseases rely mainly on insecticides. The emergence of insecticide resistance in many disease vectors highlights the necessity to develop new strategies to control these insects. Vector transgenesis and paratransgenesis are novel strategies that aim at reducing insect vectorial capacity, or seek to eliminate transmission of pathogens such as Plasmodium sp., Trypanosoma sp., and Dengue virus currently being developed. Vector transgenesis relies on direct genetic manipulation of disease vectors making them incapable of functioning as vectors of a given pathogen. Paratransgenesis focuses on utilizing genetically modified insect symbionts to express molecules within the vector that are deleterious to pathogens they transmit. Despite the many successes achieved in developing such techniques in the last several years, many significant barriers remain and need to be overcome prior to any of these approaches become a reality. Here, we highlight the current status of these strategies, pointing out advantages and constraints, and also explore issues that need to be resolved before the establishment of transgenesis and paratransgenesis as tools to prevent vector-borne diseases.

Transgenesis approaches for functional analysis of peptidergic cells in the silkworm Bombyx mori

The domestic silkworm, Bombyx mori represents an insect model of great scientific and economic importance. Besides the establishment of a stable germline transformation using the PiggyBac vector, technically feasible methods for in vivo gene delivery and transient gene expression were developed using viral based vectors, especially Sindbis viruses and baculoviruses. The recombinant baculovirus, Autographa californica multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (AcMNPV), commonly used for large-scale protein production in permissive cell lines or insects, has been used for foreign gene transfer into specific peptidergic cells of B. mori in vivo. Since targeted gene expression is essential for functional analysis of neuropeptide genes and their receptors, the baculovirus-mediated gene transfer can serve as a reliable approach in reverse genetic studies in the silkworm. We review various strategies employing the baculovirus vector system for transient expression of molecular markers and transcription factors in specific peptidergic cells to investigate their roles in B. mori. We also use this system for functional analysis of neuropeptide signaling in the ecdysis behavioral sequence. Our data indicate that the AcMNPV vector is suitable for efficient delivery of foreign genes and their expression directed into specific peptidergic neurons and endocrine cells of B. mori larvae and pupae. However, some modifications of the vector and steps for optimization are necessary to minimize negative effects of viral infection on the host development. The transient gene expression using the AcMNPV and other virus vectors are promising tools for analysis of molecular mechanisms underlying various neuroendocrine processes during development of B. mori.

A haemocyte tropism for an arbovirus

Horizontally transmitted mosquito-borne viruses enter the midgut with a blood meal then disseminate to infect the salivary glands. En route to the salivary glands, these viruses encounter the plasma (haemolymph) and blood cells (haemocytes). Haemocytes respond to a variety of micro-organisms, but their role in virus replication and dissemination has not been described. To look for a potential haemocyte tropism for an arbovirus, a Sindbis virus was injected intrathoracically into four species of mosquito. Virus infects haemocytes as early as 6 h post injection (p.i.) and infection was evident in these cells for as long as 4 days p.i. More than 90 % of haemocytes were infected, most often the phagocytic granulocytes. Virus titres in the haemolymph increased from 24 h p.i. through 60 h p.i. Similar results were found when Aedes aegypti mosquitoes were injected with orally infectious Sindbis. These data prove that an arbovirus infects, and replicates in, haemocytes.

Armigeres subalbatus prophenoloxidase III: Cloning, characterization and potential role in morphogenesis

It has long been suggested that phenoloxidases (POs) play key roles in various physiological functions in insects, e.g., cuticular sclerotization, wound healing, egg tanning and melanotic encapsulation of pathogens. Here we report that a mosquito PO, designated Armigeres subalbatus prophenoloxidase III (As-pro-PO III), is likely involved in the morphogenesis in mosquito. Expression profile analysis found that As-pro-PO III mRNA is persistently expressed in adult mosquitoes and is not significantly affected by blood feeding, microfilariae inoculation, or Escherichia coli inoculation, but expression levels of As-pro-PO III fluctuated in larval and pupal stages. Knockdown of As-pro-PO III expression in pupae using double-stranded RNA resulted in high pupal mortality and deformed adults that subsequently died following emergence. Promoter activity analyses by electrophoretic mobility-shift assays and transfection assays suggest that the As-pro-PO III gene is positively regulated by a putative Zeste motif, a developmental regulatory element. These results suggest that As-pro-PO III is associated with morphogenesis of mosquitoes.

Reproductive costs of the immune response of the autogenous mosquito Culex pipiens molestus against inoculated Dirofilaria immitis

Culex pipiens molestus is an autogenous mosquito, a vector of Dirofilaria immitis in Madeira Island, and it mounts a melanotic encapsulation response when inoculated intrathoracically with D. immitis microfilariae (mf). Because Cx. p. molestus is autogenous, this mosquito is a good model from which to gain a better understand the relationship between oviposition and melanization, independent of the signaling pathways related to blood feeding. The present work assessed the impact follicle growth might have on melanization of intrathoracically inoculated mf. The ovaries from mosquitoes undergoing melanotic encapsulation developed more eggs than those that could not melanize the mf. Possible explanations are discussed in this article.

Cloning and characterization of the secreted hemocytic prophenoloxidases of Heliothis virescens

The plasma enzyme phenoloxidase plays an important role in host resistance against viral, bacterial, fungal, filarial, and parasitoid challenge. Two Heliothis virescens prophenoloxidase transcripts, HvPPO-1 and HvPPO-2, were assembled from ESTs derived from a hemocyte cDNA library. The 2,363-bp HvPPO-1 contig encoded a 696-amino acid protein. The 3,255-bp HvPPO-2 contig encoded a 684-amino acid protein. Hemocyte and fat body transcript levels of HvPPO-1 were slightly elevated by bacterial infection in 5th instar larvae; however, HvPPO-2 expression was not significantly elevated above controls by bacterial infection. Per os infection of 4th instar larvae with the baculovirus Helicoverpa zea SNPV (HzSNPV) had a mild but significant suppressive effect upon fat body and hemocytic HvPPO-1 expression when compared to expression in same-aged controls. HvPPO-2 expression levels in fat bodies and hemocytes from 4th instar larvae was not significantly altered by HzSNPV infection. HzSNPV infection of 5th instar larvae caused no significant alteration of HvPPO-1 or of HvPPO-2 expression in either fat bodies or hemocytes. Thus, even though prophenoloxidase subunits are constitutively expressed at high levels in larval H. virescens hemocytes and fat bodies, the subunit HvPPO-1 is differentially regulated by bacterial and baculoviral infection.

Alphavirus transducing systems

Alphavirus transducing systems (ATSs) are important tools for expressing genes of interest (GOI) in mosquitoes and nonvector insects. ATSs are derived from infectious cDNA clones of mosquito-borne RNA viruses (family Togaviridae). The most common ATSs in use are derived from Sindbis viruses; however, ATSs have been derived from other alphaviruses as well. ATSs generate viruses with genomes that contain GOI's that can be expressed from additional viral subgenomic promoters. ATSs in which an exogenous gene sequence is positioned 5' to the viral structural genes is used for stable protein expression in insects. ATSs in which a gene sequence is positioned 3' to the structural genes is used to trigger RNAi and silence expression of that gene in the insect. ATSs are proving to be invaluable tools for understanding vector-pathogen interactions, vector competence, and other components of vector-pathogen amplification and maintenance cycles in nature. These virus-based expression systems also facilitate the researcher's ability to decide which gene-based disease control strategies merit a further investment in time and resources in transgenic mosquitoes.

A transgenic sensor strain for monitoring the RNAi pathway in the yellow fever mosquito, Aedes aegypti

The RNA interference pathway functions as an antiviral defense in invertebrates. In order to generate a phenotypic marker which "senses" the status of the RNAi pathway in Aedes aegypti, transgenic strains were developed to express EGFP and DsRED marker genes in the eye, as well as double-stranded RNA homologous to a portion of the EGFP gene. Transgenic "sensor" mosquitoes exhibited robust eye-specific DsRED expression with little EGFP, indicating RNAi-based silencing. Cloning and high-throughput sequencing of small RNAs confirmed that the inverted-repeat transgene was successfully processed into short-interfering RNAs by the mosquito RNAi pathway. When the A. aegypti homologues of the genes DCR-2 or AGO-2 were knocked down, a clear increase in EGFP fluorescence was observed in the mosquito eyes. Knockdown of DCR-2 was also associated with an increase in EGFP mRNA levels, as determined by Northern blot and real-time PCR. Knockdown of AGO-3, a gene involved in the germline-specific piRNA pathway, did not restore EGFP expression at either the mRNA or protein level. This transgenic sensor strain can now be used to identify other components of the mosquito RNAi pathway and has the potential to be used in the identification of arboviral suppressors of RNAi.

Silencing the genes for dopa decarboxylase or dopachrome conversion enzyme reduces melanization of foreign targets in Anopheles gambiae

The production of melanin is a complex biochemical process in which several enzymes may play a role. Although phenoloxidase and serine proteases are clearly key components, the activity of other enzymes, including dopa decarboxylase and dopachrome conversion enzyme may also be required. We tested the effect of knockdown of gene expression for these two enzymes on melanization of abiotic targets in the mosquito, Anopheles gambiae. Knockdown of dopa decarboxylase and dopachrome conversion enzyme resulted in a significant reduction of melanization of Sephadex beads at 24 h after injection. Knockdown of a third enzyme, phenylalanine hydroxylase, which is involved in endogenous production of tyrosine, had no effect on bead melanization. Quantitative analysis of gene expression demonstrated significant upregulation of phenylalanine hydroxylase, but not the other two genes, following injection.

Mosquito transcriptome changes and filarial worm resistance in Armigeres subalbatus

Background

Armigeres subalbatus is a natural vector of the filarial worm Brugia pahangi, but it rapidly and proficiently kills Brugia malayi microfilariae by melanotic encapsulation. Because B. malayi and B. pahangi are morphologically and biologically similar, the Armigeres-Brugia system serves as a valuable model for studying the resistance mechanisms in mosquito vectors. We have initiated transcriptome profiling studies in Ar. subalbatus to identify molecular components involved in B. malayi refractoriness.

Results

These initial studies assessed the transcriptional response of Ar. subalbatus to B. malayi at 1, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, and 72 hrs after an infective blood feed. In this investigation, we initiated the first holistic study conducted on the anti-filarial worm immune response in order to effectively explore the functional roles of immune-response genes following a natural exposure to the parasite. Studies assessing the transcriptional response revealed the involvement of unknown and conserved unknowns, cytoskeletal and structural components, and stress and immune responsive factors. The data show that the anti-filarial worm immune response by Ar. subalbatus to be a highly complex, tissue-specific process involving varied effector responses working in concert with blood cell-mediated melanization.

Conclusion

This initial study provides a foundation and direction for future studies, which will more fully dissect the nature of the anti-filarial worm immune response in this mosquito-parasite system. The study also argues for continued studies with RNA generated from both hemocytes and whole bodies to fully expound the nature of the anti-filarial worm immune response.

Phenoloxidase Is an Important Component of the Defense against Aeromonas hydrophila Infection in a Crustacean, Pacifastacus leniusculus

The melanization cascade, in which phenoloxidase is the terminal enzyme, appears to play a key role in recognition of and defense against microbial infections in invertebrates. Here, we show that phenoloxidase activity and melanization are important for the immune defense toward a highly pathogenic bacterium, Aeromonas hydrophila, in the freshwater crayfish, Pacifastacus leniusculus. RNA interference-mediated depletion of crayfish prophenoloxidase leads to increased bacterial growth, lower phagocytosis, lower phenoloxidase activity, lower nodule formation, and higher mortality when infected with this bacterium. In contrast, if RNA interference of pacifastin, an inhibitor of the crayfish prophenoloxidase activation cascade, is performed, it results in lower bacterial growth, increased phagocytosis, increased nodule formation, higher phenoloxidase activity, and delayed mortality. Our data therefore suggest that phenoloxidase is required in crayfish defense against an infection by A. hydrophila, a highly virulent and pathogenic bacterium to crayfish.

Recombination-ready Sindbis replicon expression vectors for transgene expression

BACKGROUND

Sindbis viruses have been widely used as tools to study gene function in cells. Despite the utility of these systems, the construction and production of alphavirus replicons is time consuming and inefficient due to potential additional restriction sites within the insert region and lack of directionality for insert ligation. In this report, we present a system useful for producing recombinant Sindbis replicons that uses lambda phage recombination technology to rapidly and specifically construct replicon expression plasmids that contain insert regions in the desired orientation.

RESULTS

Recombination of the gene of interest with the replicon plasmid resulted in nearly 100% recombinants, each of which contained a correctly orientated insert. Replicons were easily produced in cell culture and packaged into pseudo-infectious viral particles. Insect and mammalian cells infected with pseudo-infectious viral particles expressed various transgenes at high levels. Finally, inserts from persistently replicating replicon RNA were easily isolated and recombined back into entry plasmids for sequencing and subsequent analysis.

CONCLUSION

Replication-ready replicon expression plasmids make the use of alphavirus replicons fast and easy as compared to traditional replicon production methods. This system represents a significant step forward in the utility and ease of use of alphavirus replicons in the study of gene function.

Plasmodium yoelii: correlation of up-regulated prophenoloxidase and phenoloxidases with melanization induced by the antimalarial, nitroquine

Although knowledge of the mosquito immune response has recently improved, less is known about the impact of antimalarial drugs on mosquito immunity. In the present study, we found that nitroquine, an effective antimalaria drug, could also induce melanotic encapsulation of Plasmodium by Anopheles stephensi. The melanization rate of the nitroquine treated group was 60.8%. To explore the effect of nitroquine on mosquito immunity, we determined the increase in activity of phenoloxidases (PO) enzyme, the main component of melanotic encapsulation, with nitroquine treatment. Moreover, we cloned prophenoloxidase (PPO) gene, which is accepted as the inactive phenoloxidase form and observed inducible expression of this gene with nitroquine treatment by real-time PCR. Our data implied that up-regulation of PPO gene and PO activity might be correlated with nitroquine. Nevertheless, nitroquine had no effect on the transcription of PPO gene or the activity of PO enzyme in the mosquito fed on a normal blood meal. In our study, we also observed the degenerative effect of 0.1% nitroquine on Plasmodium in the mosquito. This suggests that the degeneration of Plasmodium induced by nitroquine might result in the exposure of pattern-recognition ligands which can active the immune reaction, up-regulate PPO gene expression and PO activity, and induce the melanization.

Beta 1, 3-glucan recognition protein from the mosquito, Armigeres subalbatus, is involved in the recognition of distinct types of bacteria in innate immune responses

The activation of an immune response to invading microorganisms generally requires recognition by pattern recognition receptors. Beta 1, 3-glucan recognition proteins (GRPs) have specific affinity for beta 1, 3-glucan, a component on the surface of fungi and bacteria. In this study, we show that GRP from Armigeres subalbatus mosquitoes (AsGRP) is able to bind different bacterial species, and that this binding varies from species to species and is independent of Gram type. AsGRP knockdown with double-stranded RNA increases the mortality of mosquitoes to those bacteria that strongly bind AsGRP, but not to bacteria that do not detectably bind AsGRP. This increase in susceptibility is partially evidenced by decreased melanization in Salmonella typhimurium. Furthermore, AsGRP expression is differentially affected by the presence of different species of bacteria. These results demonstrate that AsGRP is selective in its affinity to different bacteria and; therefore, plays a role in the antibacterial immune response of mosquitoes.

A role for lysozyme in melanization of Sephadex beads in Anopheles gambiae

Melanization of foreign targets in the mosquito, Anopheles gambiae, was studied using a model Sephadex bead system. A mosquito factor that was deposited on beads and prevented bead melanization (MPF) was purified. The N-terminal sequence of the factor identified it as lysozyme c-1 (Lys c-1). Gene silencing of Lys c-1 mediated by RNA interference resulted in a significant reduction in the MPF activity compared with controls. The purified Lys c-1 protein reduced dopachrome formation by mosquito hemolymph phenoloxidase in solution assays in vitro. In vivo, Lys c-1 might inhibit melanization of beads by blocking attachment of critical factors to the bead surface or by inhibiting PO directly. This work indicates that insect lysozymes can play unexpected roles in mediating melanization of foreign targets.

A genetic module regulates the melanization response of Anopheles to Plasmodium

Two modes of refractoriness to Plasmodium, ookinete lysis and melanization, are known in the malaria vector, Anopheles gambiae. Melanization, a potent insect immune response, is manifested in a genetically selected refractory strain and in susceptible mosquitoes that are depleted of specific C-type lectins (CTLs). Here we use a systematic in vivo RNA interference-mediated reverse genetic screen and other recent results to define a melanization-regulating genetic module or network. It encompasses at least 14 genes, including those that encode five Easter-like clip domain serine proteases and four Masquerade-like serine protease homologues of the mosquito CLIPB and CLIPA subfamilies respectively. We show that several but not all CLIPB genes promote Plasmodium melanization, exhibiting partial functional overlap and synergy. We also report that several CLIPA genes have contrasting roles: CLIPA8 is essential for parasite melanization, while three other CLIPAs are novel synergistic inhibitors of this response. Importantly, the roles of certain CLIPAs and CLIPBs are strain specific, indicating that this network may differ between strains. Finally, we provide evidence that in susceptible mosquitoes melanization induced by knockdown of either CTL4 or CLIPA2/CLIPA5 directly kills ookinetes, in contrast to refractory mosquitoes where it merely disposes of dead parasites.

Gene silencing of serine proteases affects melanization of Sephadex beads in Anopheles gambiae

Serine proteases play an important role in activation of prophenoloxidase (proPO), a critical enzyme in the production of melanin. We tested the effect of knockdown of gene expression for five clip domain serine proteases on melanization of abiotic targets in Anopheles gambiae. Knockdown of CLIPB4 resulted in a striking lack of melanization of Sephadex beads while knockdown of CLIPB8 caused a strong shift towards incompletely melanized beads. Knockdown of CLIPB1, B9 and B10 had lesser effects. CLIPB4 and CLIPB8 are strong candidates for activating enzymes in the proPO enzymatic cascade.

Control of arbovirus diseases: is the vector the weak link?

Arthropod-borne virus (arbovirus) diseases (ABVDs) remain major threats to human health and well-being and, as an epidemiologic group, inflict an unacceptable health and economic burden on humans and animals, including livestock. The developed world has been fortunate to have escaped much of the burden that arboviruses and their arthropod vectors inflict on humans in disease endemic countries, but the introduction and rapid spread of West Nile virus in the Western Hemisphere demonstrated that we can no longer be complacent in the face of these emerging and resurging vector-borne diseases. Unfortunately, as the burdens and threats of ABVDs have increased, the U.S. and international public health capacity to address them has decreased. Vaccines are not available for most of these agents. Previously successful strategies to control ABVDs emphasized vector control, but source reduction and vector control strategies using pesticides have not been sustainable. New insights into vector biology and vector pathogen interactions, and the novel targets that likely will be forthcoming in the vector post-genomics era, provide new targets and opportunities for vector control and disease reduction programs. These findings and approaches must be incorporated into existing strategies if we are to control these important pathogens.

Plasma phenoloxidase of the larval tobacco budworm, Heliothis virescens, is virucidal

Heliothis virescens larval plasma contains high levels of an antiviral activity against the budded form of the Helicoverpa zea single nucleopolyhedrovirus (HzSNPV) in vitro. Preliminary results indicated that phenoloxidase is primarily responsible for this virucidal effect. However it is known that other enzymes that generate antimicrobial reactive oxygen intermediates and reactive nitrogen intermediates are present in hemolymph that could contribute to the observed virucidal activity. To elucidate the contributions of phenoloxidase and other candidate activities to plasma innate immune response against baculovirus infection specific metabolic inhibitors were used. In vitro the general inhibitors of melanization (N-acetyl cysteine, ascorbate and glutathione), and specific inhibitors of phenoloxidase (phenylthiourea and Kojic acid), completely blocked virucidal activity up to the level seen in controls. Addition of the enzyme superoxide dismutase to plasma did not affect virucidal activity; however addition of catalase had an inhibitory effect. Inhibitors of nitric oxide synthase activity did not affect virucidal activity. Our results confirm that phenoloxidase is the predominate activity in larval plasma accounting for inactivation of HzSNPV in vitro, and that phenoloxidase-dependent H(2)O(2) production may contribute to this virucidal activity.

Role of dopachrome conversion enzyme in the melanization of filarial worms in mosquitoes

Melanization is an effective defence reaction of mosquito hosts against invading parasites. In mosquitoes, the biosynthesis of melanin is initiated by the hydroxylation of tyrosine to DOPA by phenoloxidase (PO). DOPA is a branch point of the melanization reaction; it may be oxidized to dopaquinone by PO or be decarboxylated to dopamine by dopa decarboxylase. Further oxidation of dopaquinone by PO produces dopachrome. Dopachrome is then converted to 5, 6-dihydroxyindole by dopachrome conversion enzyme (DCE) to produce melanin. The conversion of dopachrome is a rate-limiting step of the melanization reaction, and the presence of PO and DCE significantly accelerates melanization reactions. In this study, a cDNA encoding DCE was cloned from the mosquito Armigeres subalbatus. Real-time PCR analysis revealed increased transcripts from haemocytes in microfilariae (mf)-inoculated mosquitoes. Gene silencing using double-stranded RNA was used to elucidate the role of DCE in the melanization reaction of parasites in Ar. subalbatus. The levels of both DCE transcripts and protein in gene knockdown mosquitoes were dramatically reduced. Compared with controls, the degree of melanization of mf in DCE-knockdown mosquitoes was significantly decreased. These results suggest that DCE is a critical enzyme that is required for effective melanization immune responses.

Immune cascade of Spodoptera litura: Cloning, expression, and characterization of inducible prophenol oxidase

Haemolymph associated phenol oxidase is a critical component of invertebrate immune reaction and cuticle sclerotization. Phenol oxidase catalyses the conversion of mono-phenols to diphenols and quinones which finally leads to melanin formation. We have cloned the c-DNA encoding phenol oxidase from the haemocytes of Spodoptera litura and expressed it in Escherichia coli. The encoding gene is 2452bp with an open reading frame of 2091 bp translating into a 697 amino acid protein. Multiple alignment analysis of the predicted protein sequence shows close homology to other lepidopeteran PPOII type genes. The transcription of the gene is induced upon microbial challenge of 6th instar larvae with E. coli and is unresponsive to injury. Cloning of the ORF of SLPPO in-frame in the E. coli expression vector pQE30 resulted in its expression. Enzymatic analysis of the recombinant protein reveals that the recombinant protein is catalytically active on 4-methyl pyrocatechol upon activation by cetyl pyridinium chloride.