Effect of amino acid enriched diets on hemolymph amino acid composition in honey bees

Amino acids (AAs) are an abundant class of nectar solutes, and they are involved in the nectar attractiveness to flower visitors. Among the various AAs, proline is the most abundant proteogenic AA, and γ-amino butyric acid (GABA) and β-alanine are the two most abundant non-proteogenic AAs. These three AAs are known to affect insect physiology, being involved in flight metabolism and neurotransmission. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of artificial diets enriched with either β-alanine, GABA, or proline on consumption, survival, and hemolymph composition in honey bees belonging to two different ages and with different metabolism (i.e., newly emerged and foragers). Differences in feed intake among diets were not observed, while a diet enriched with β-alanine improved the survival rate of newly emerged honey bees compared to the control group. Variations in the hemolymph AA concentrations occurred only in newly emerged honey bees, according to the diet and the time of hemolymph sampling. A greater susceptibility of young honey bees to enriched diets than older honey bees was observed. The variations in the concentrations of hemolymph AAs reflect either the accumulation of dietary AAs or the existence of metabolic pathways that may lead to the conversion of dietary AAs into different ones. This investigation could be an initial contribution to studying the complex dynamics that regulate hemolymph AA composition and its effect on honey bee physiology.

Effects of Virgin Coconut Oil-Enriched Diet on Immune and Antioxidant Enzymatic Activity, Fat and Vitellogenin Contents in Newly Emerged and Forager Bees (Apis mellifera L.) Reared in Cages

Searching for artificial diets positively affecting the survival, immune and antioxidant systems of honey bees is one of main challenges occurring in beekeeping. Among nutrients, lipids play a significant role in insect nutrition as structural components in cell membranes, energy sources and reserves, and are involved in many physiological processes. In this context, the aim of this work was to investigate the effect of 0.5% and 1% coconut oil-enriched diet administration on newly emerged and forager bees survival rate, feed intake, immune system, antioxidant system and both fat and vitellogenin content. In newly emerged bees, supplementation with 1% coconut oil determined a decrease in feed consumption, an increase in survival rate from the 3rd to 14th day of feeding, a short-term decrease in phenoloxidase activity, an increase in body fat and no differences in vitellogenin content. Conversely, supplementation with 0.5% coconut oil determined an increase in survival rate from the 3rd to 15th day of feeding and an increase in fat content in the long term (i.e., 20 days). Regarding the forager bee diet, enrichment with 0.5% and 1% coconut oil only determined an increase in fat content. Therefore, supplementation with coconut oil in honey bee diets at low percentages (0.5 and 1%) determines fat gain. Further investigations to evaluate the use of such supplement foods to prevent the fat loss of weak families during winter are desirable.

Variation of Circulating Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) in Depression: Relationships with Inflammatory Indices, Metabolic Status and Patients' Clinical Features

This study seeks to offer a contribution to the method of subtyping major depressed patients by exploring the possible relationships between circulating brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), different peripheral inflammatory/metabolic markers in the blood and clinical characteristics. Thirty-nine patients, thoroughly diagnosed according to the DSM-5 criteria, underwent a comprehensive set of evaluations encompassing structured interviews, rating scales and a panel of blood tests. Correlation and comparison analyses were carried out by means of non-parametric statistical tests. Concurrently, a principal component analysis was performed to explain biochemical variance. The findings of our research unveiled that leukocyte counts, their ratios and other inflammatory parameters are positively correlated with depression scores. Moreover, we found variations within the BDNF pools of depressed patients. Specifically, higher levels of platelet-poor plasma BDNF (PPP-BDNF) were correlated with augmented inflammatory markers in patients showing specific episode characteristics, whereas reduced platelet BDNF (PLT-BDNF) provided a better indication of the changes that were linked to a diagnosis of long-term depression. Our findings suggest that PPP-BDNF and PLT-BDNF might differentiate depression conditions. They also imply usefulness in appraising peripheral biomarker profiles in patients for a deeper characterization of major depressive episodes. At the same time, it is plausible that they might constitute novel avenues for developing more tailored therapeutic strategies for patients with MDs.

Porcupettes Management at Wildlife Rescue Centers and Liberation into the Wild: Implications for Post-Liberation Success

The crested porcupine is a frequent host species in wildlife rescue centers and no guidelines for its management, liberation and post-liberation monitoring are yet available. Here, captive-grown porcupines' behavior and survival in the wild after liberation were investigated and described for the first time. Management strategies adopted at the centers could affect porcupine adaptation to the natural environment. The detention of porcupettes in single cages and fed only human-supplied food may not ensure ethological welfare, nor a suitable behavioral development compatible with wildlife. The liberation of captive-grown porcupines should also be carefully planned to promote and increase the possibility of post-liberation success.

Host-Parasitoid Relationship between Apis mellifera (Linnaeus, 1758) and Senotainia tricuspis (Meigen, 1838) (Diptera, Sarcophagidae): Fly Aggression Behavior and Infestation Rates of Senotainiosis

Senotainia tricuspis (Meigen, 1838) is a Sarcophagid dipteran endoparasitoid of Apis mellifera L., and myiasis, caused by this fly, is reported in several European, North African and Middle Eastern countries. Nevertheless, very little knowledge concerning the aggression and parasitisation behavior of S. tricuspis toward A. mellifera is available in the scientific literature, and the temporal pattern of aggression remains unclear. The aim of this investigation was to describe the aggressive behavior of S. tricuspis and to provide data on pupation and adult emergence in order to identify further tools for the control of senotainiosis in beekeeping. Data were collected in an apiary in Pisa province (Tuscany, Italy), where observations of aggressive behavior were conducted indirectly by using a VHS camera and also directly by an observer. Four behavioral categories of the attack were described. A total of 55 aggressions, 21 beecatchers, 104 chases and 6 parasitization events were recorded with the camera. Slow-motion recording analyses of the parasitization episodes resulted in contact of at least 1/6 s between the parasitoid and the host. Through four days of direct observations, a total of 1633 aggression events were recorded. The daily temporal pattern of the number of aggressions showed two main peaks: one during the morning hours (i.e., from 10:00 to 11:00) and one in the afternoon (i.e., from 15:00 to 17:00). The morphometric data on the first-instars of S. tricuspis allowed us to hypothesize a penetration in the bee through its prothoracic spiracle as a modality of entrance in the host body. Third-instars successfully pupate when sinking in topsoil or clay soil, and adults emerge when left to a 4 °C overwintering period of six months. Furthermore, the high mortality rate of those larvae that did not sink and did not pupate successfully suggests that reaching a certain depth in the soil is a determining factor for larvae survival and that mulch and/or minimum soil tillage could prevent severe senotainiosis in apiaries.

Bombus terrestris terrestris (Linnaeus, 1758) and hybrids with the endemic Bombus xanthopus spotted on Capraia Island (Tuscan Archipelago, Italy): some conservation management implications

Expansion of wild and managed allochthonous species leads to potential negative consequences for the endemic wildlife, such as resource competition, pathogens spread, hybridization and native species replacements. On Capraia Island, the last sighting of Bombus terrestris terrestris dates back to 1917. All subsequent surveys carried out on the island only reported the presence of B. xanthopus and B. pascuorum melleofacies with B. t. terrestris apparently no longer existing in the area. In 2021 B. t. terrestris was again detected on the island raising two main hypotheses: (i) B. t. terrestris has always been present with a low population density, such as not to be detected in previous investigations, or (ii) its presence is the result of a more recent recolonization. The recolonization event may be promoted by either intentional or unintentional introduction or it may be the result of a natural migration from the mainland or surrounding islands. Hybridization between B. t. terrestris × B. xanthopus on Capraia Island has been also ascertained by the detection of hybrid queens, workers and males. These new finding provides insight on the distribution range of B. t. terrestris in the Tuscan Archipelago and raise concern on the conservation of the endemic B. xanthopus population.

Effect of Ageing in the Mating Behaviour Sequence of Osmia cornuta Latr. (Hymenoptera: Megachilidae)

Osmia cornuta Latr. is largely managed worldwide for the pollination of orchard crops, playing a key role in the maintenance of healthy ecosystems and ensuring economic and social benefits for human society. The management techniques of this pollinator include the possibility of delaying emergence from cocoons after diapause, allowing for the pollination of later-blooming fruit crops. In this study, the mating behaviour of bees emerging at the natural time (Right Emergence Insects) and of late-emerged bees (Aged Emergence Insects) was described in order to test if a delay in emergence could affect the mating sequence of O. cornuta. Markov analysis of the mating behaviour revealed the occurrence of antenna motion episodes that were repeated in a stereotyped manner at regular intervals during the mating sequence of both Right Emergence Insects and in Aged Emergence Insects. Pouncing, rhythmic and continuous emission of sound, motion of antennae, stretching of the abdomen, short and long copulations, scratching, inactivity, and self-grooming were identified as the stereotyped behavioural units of a behavioural sequence. The occurrence of short copulations, the frequency of which increased with the age of bees, could lead to a failure in the reproduction of the mason bee.

The colors of Tuscan bee pollen: phytochemical profile and antioxidant activity

Bee pollen's nutritional and beneficial health properties depend on the botanical origin and storage conditions. Palynological analysis determines the botanical composition of the multiflora and colour fractions. This study aimed to characterize the phytochemical profile and antioxidant activity of Tuscan bee pollen stored at freezing temperature for 2 years to verify the preservation of nutraceutical properties of the multiflora and colour fractions. Polyphenols, flavonoids content, antioxidant activity and volatile compounds profiles were measured. Non-terpene derivatives (acids and aldehydes) represented the main class of volatile compounds in most analysed samples. Among the colour fractions, coral showed significant differences in the antioxidant compounds. In the multiflora were also determined the soluble sugar content (128.33 mg/g of fresh weight) and mineral content, with the prevalence of K, organic N and Ca. The results suggest that the freezing storage of bee pollen for a long period can be still used as food.

Emerging Risk of Cross-Species Transmission of Honey Bee Viruses in the Presence of Invasive Vespid Species

The increase in invasive alien species is a concern for the environment. The establishment of some of these species may be changing the balance between pathogenicity and host factors, which could alter the defense strategies of native host species. Vespid species are among the most successful invasive animals, such as the genera Vespa, Vespula and Polistes. Bee viruses have been extensively studied as an important cause of honey bee population losses. However, knowledge about the transmission of honey bee viruses in Vespids is a relevant and under-researched aspect. The role of some mites such as Varroa in the transmission of honey bee viruses is clearer than in the case of Vespidae. This type of transmission by vectors has not yet been clarified in Vespidae, with interspecific relationships being the main hypotheses accepted for the transmission of bee viruses. A majority of studies describe the presence of viruses or their replicability, but aspects such as the symptomatology in Vespids or the ability to infect other hosts from Vespids are scarcely discussed. Highlighting the case of Vespa velutina as an invader, which is causing huge losses in European beekeeping, is of special interest. The pressure caused by V. velutina leads to weakened hives that become susceptible to pathogens. Gathering this information is necessary to promote further research on the spread of bee viruses in ecosystems invaded by invasive species of Vespids, as well as to prevent the decline of bee populations due to bee viruses.

Detection and pH-Thermal Characterization of Proteinases Exclusive of Honeybee Worker-Fate Larvae (Apis mellifera L.)

The occurrence of the honeybee caste polyphenism arises when a change in diet is transduced into cellular metabolic responses, resulting in a developmental shift mediated by gene expression. The aim of this investigation was to detect and describe the expression profile of water-soluble proteases during the ontogenesis of honeybee worker-fate larvae. The extraction of insect homogenates was followed by the electrophoretic separation of the protein extract in polyacrylamide gels under semi-denaturing condition, precast with gelatin, pollen, or royal jelly protein extracts. The worker-fate honeybee larva showed a proteolytic pattern that varied with aging, and a protease with the highest activity at 72 h after hatching was named PS4. PS4 has a molecular weight of 45 kDa, it remained active until cell sealing, and its enzymatic properties suggest a serine-proteinase nature. To define the process that originates a queen-fate larvae, royal jelly and pollen were analysed, but PS4 was not detected in either of them. The effect of food on the PS4 was investigated by mixing crude extracts of queen and worker-fate larvae with pollen and royal jelly, respectively. Only royal jelly inhibited PS4 in worker-fate larvae. Taken together, our data suggest that PS4 could be involved in caste differentiation.

Zoonotic Giardia duodenalis Genotypes and Other Gastrointestinal Parasites in a Badger Population Living in an Anthropized Area of Central Italy

The Eurasian badger (Meles meles) is widespread in Italy and occupies different habitats. The occurrence and species of gastrointestinal parasites were evaluated in a free-ranging badger population living in a highly anthropic area in central Italy. A total of 43 fecal samples were examined using the flotation test, the Mini-FLOTAC and Baermann techniques, and a rapid immunoassay for the detection of Giardia duodenalis and Cryptosporidium spp. fecal antigens. Molecular investigations were also performed that aimed at identifying Giardia genotypes. Overall, 37/43 samples (86%) were found positive. Specifically, 48.8% (21 samples) were positive for G.duodenalis, 23.2% (10/43) for Cryptosporidium spp., and 7% (3/43) for coccidian oocysts. Strongyloides sp. nematode larvae were detected in 3/43 samples (7%). Ascarid (1/43, 2.3%), capillariid (1/43, 2.3%), and strongyle-type eggs (76.7%, 33/43) were also identified. Among the 11 readable sequences of samples that were positive for G. duodenalis by end-point PCR (18/21), the zoonotic assemblage A sub-assemblage AII and mixed assemblage A and B were identified. This is the first report of zoonotic G. duodenalis genotypes in the Eurasian badger. Moreover, most of identified parasites have zoonotic potential and/or potential impact on the population health of wild badgers and other wild and domestic animals.

Spatio-temporal inhabitation of settlements by Hystrix cristata L., 1758

Settlements are usually shared at different times by semi-fossorial mammals. Porcupine reproductive pair shows high den-site fidelity, but no data are available on the spatio-temporal inhabitation of settlements. In this investigation, the spatio-temporal inhabitation of settlements by crested porcupine families was investigated using camera-trapping as well as the ethological factors affecting the settlements selection. The crested porcupine resulted to be the main inhabitant of settlements surveyed in the present study. Each settlement was inhabited exclusively by one porcupine family. Five out of six porcupine families, each alternatively and complementarily inhabited the same two settlements. In all the five monitored families, settlements selection doesn’t follow a seasonal pattern. Settlement inhabitation of porcupines resulted positively affected by cohabitation with badger, while presence of porcupettes did not affect settlements selection. Long periods of settlement inhabitation were positively affected both by the presence of porcupettes and cohabitation with badger. The pattern of settlements inhabitation in relation to their availability and porcupine population density as well as factors promoting porcupine-badger cohabitation should be further investigated. New ethological knowledge obtained in this investigation could be involved in the evaluation of the ecological epidemiology of infectious diseases between porcupine and badger within a one health approach and may be a useful tool for a sustainable management of semi-fossorial mammals.

Settlement of a stable wolf pack in a highly anthropic area of Pisan hills: Relationship with animal husbandry and hunting in a human-wolf coexistence perspective

Anthropic areas play a pivot role for main wolf conservation challenges. Wolf presence in the higher Pisan hills has been well documented while wolf settlement in the lower Pisan hills is still uncertain. In this study, long-term information on wolf presence in a highly anthropic area of the lower Pisan hills was collected by using non-invasive monitoring techniques. Furthermore, both the relationship of this predator with human activity and the impact of hunting on wolf presence have been investigated. The results obtained indicate the presence of a stable and reproductive wolf pack composed by both Italian wolf and hybrids individuals in the municipalities of Crespina Lorenzana and Casciana Terme Lari. A high impact of wolf on livestock was recorded in this area since no prevention systems were adopted by farmers. Wolf appears not to have a negative impact on wild boar population. Similarly, wild boar drive hunting does not appear to affect the wolf pack presence in the area. Thereby wolf may play a key role as controller of wild population. Prevention strategies improvement becomes instrumental to promote wolf-human coexistence. Further investigation to monitor pack hybridization level and turnover and to assess the impact of packs on wild population and livestock in anthropic areas is desirable.

Reproductive behaviour in free-ranging crested porcupine Hystrix cristata L., 1758

Previous data on crested porcupine reproduction biology were mostly collected in captivity or semi-captivity due to its elusive, burrowing and mainly nocturnal habits. Between 2017 and 2019 the reproductive behaviour (i.e., intrapair mounting and copulation, birth and parental care) of free-ranging crested porcupine was documented and described. Nightly rhythms of single and multiple mounting occurred throughout the year while only two copulation events were recorded. Three months after both copulation events, the birth of porcupettes (porcupine < 5 kg) was recorded. A stochastic phase characterized by an articulate courtship with distinct behavioural patterns always preceded each mounting event. After the stochastic phase, the presenting of the female evoked by Nose-Quill contact behaviour, occurred in 83.8% (n = 182) of mounting events, while in 16.1% (n = 35) a spontaneous presenting of the female occurred. The average duration of copulation lasted 24 s (SD = 7 s) with 17 thrusting (SD = 5.5 thrusting). Births of porcupettes occurred throughout the year from 1 to 3 times per pair per year and the litter size observed ranged from 1 to 2 porcupettes. The first emerging of porcupettes from burrow occurred at 10–15 days after birth. Parents and sub-adults of the family actively perform parental care and the permanence of sub-adults within the family (i.e., from birth to dispersal) resulted to be at least 1 year. This investigation provides new useful insights on porcupine reproductive behaviour in the wild. Such new knowledge may be useful to the management of porcupines in wild, semiwild and captive condition as well as to delineate the key habitat desiderata of this rodent.

Preliminary investigation on enzymatic activity in saliva of Hystrix cristata L., 1758

Mammal's saliva contains a variety of electrolytes and proteins. They carry out an important role in the digestion process, in the antibacterial and antiviral activity, in lubrication and maintenance of oral general health status. It may also contain several enzymes according to dietary habits and general wellness. Sialochemistry is a valid alternative to the haematochemical analysis for the evaluation of animal health and nutritional status. At present, very little knowledge is available on health status and pathology of crested porcupine (Hystrix cristata) and no data are yet available on salivary enzymes. Between 2018 and 2020, a preliminary investigation of enzymatic activity on saliva samples was carried out from captured porcupines. In crested porcupine saliva, enzymatic activity of trypsin, chymotrypsin, N-Aminopeptidase, amylase, lignin peroxidise, cellulase and chitinase were recorded. Superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione S-transferase and alkaline phosphatase activity was also detected. The superoxide dismutase activity resulted higher (3.13 SD 3.58 U/mg proteins) than those of catalase (130.80 SD 110.65 mU/mg proteins) and glutathione S-transferase (20.21 SD 16.62 mM/mg proteins). Alkaline phosphatase activity resulted lower (5.91 SD 6.12 mU/mg proteins) than acidic phosphatase (19.00 SD 16.16 U/mg proteins) with the highest values of saliva alkaline phosphatases recorded in young individuals. These preliminary data bring new knowledge on crested porcupine saliva enzymes and may provide a useful tool for further investigation on the adaptive response of crested porcupine to different environmental condition and diet. Additional investigation concerning a possible alternative use of saliva enzymes as indicator of health and nutritional status of this rodent are desirable.

Effect of Honey and Syrup Diets Enriched with 1,3-1,6 β-Glucans on Honeybee Survival Rate and Phenoloxidase Activity (Apis mellifera L. 1758)

β-glucans can activate the animal innate immune system by acting as immune-modulators and inducing various stimulatory effects. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of 1,3-1,6 β-glucans administered orally for 96 h on Apis mellifera workers (newly emerged and nurse bees). β-glucans were included in honey and syrup. Survival rate and phenoloxidase activity were measured. In both newly emerged and nurse bees, β-glucans supplementation did not affect survival rate (p > 0.05). Conversely, phenoloxidase activity was higher in both newly emerged bees (p = 0.048) and nurse bees (p = 0.014) fed with a honey diet enriched with β-glucans compared to those fed with only honey. In both the newly emerged and nurse bees, no statistical differences in phenoloxidase activity were recorded between the group fed with a syrup-based diet enriched with β-glucans and the control group (p > 0.05). The absence of significant variation in survival suggests that the potential negative effect of β-glucans in healthy bees could be mitigated by their metabolism. Conversely, the inclusion of β-glucans in a honey-based diet determined an increase of phenoloxidase activity, suggesting that the effect of β-glucan inclusion in the diet of healthy bees on phenoloxidase activity could be linked to the type of base-diet. Further investigations on β-glucans metabolism in bees, on molecular mechanism of phenoloxidase activation by 1,3-1,6 β-glucans, and relative thresholds are desirable. Moreover, investigation on the combined action of honey and β-glucans on phenoloxidase activity are needed.

Taeniid cestodes in a wolf pack living in a highly anthropic hilly agro-ecosystem

The Italian wolf population in human-modified landscapes has increased greatly in the last few decades. Anthropisation increases the risk of transmission of many zoonotic infections and in this context, control of taeniid cestode species needs to be addressed from a One Health perspective. Predator-prey interactions are at the root of taeniid cestode transmission, and the wolf plays a key role in the maintenance and transmission of taeniids. To date, all available data on the taeniids of wolves in Italy refer to populations living in a wild habitat. Between 2018 and 2019, we investigated taeniids in a wolf pack living in a highly anthropic hilly agro-ecosystem. Thirty-eight faecal samples were collected and analysed, 4 of which were also genetically characterised for individual wolves and belonged to three different animals. Samples collected were analysed microscopically and by molecular analysis in order to identify the taeniid species. Taeniid eggs were detected in 34.2% (13/38) of samples. Within samples positive to taeniid eggs only Echinococcus granulosus s.s. and Taenia hydatigena were identified in 26.3% and 10.5% of the samples, respectively. On microscopic examination, Capillaria spp., Ancylostomatidae and Toxocara canis eggs, Crenosoma vulpis larvae, and coccidian oocysts were also found. The combination of low biodiversity of taeniid species with a high occurrence of E. granulosus s.s. recorded in this study could be the consequence of a deeper link occurring between wolves and livestock in human-modified landscapes than in wild settings.

Field Chemical Immobilization of Free-Ranging Crested Porcupines with Zoletil®: A Reviewed Dosage

The tiletamine-zolazepam mixture is a widely used anesthetic for chemical immobilization of wild mammals due to its short induction time, good muscle relaxation, smooth recovery with low convulsions occurrence, and minimal effect on respiration. An injection dose of 7–8 mg/kg of tiletamine-zolazepam has been proven to be an effective and safe immobilizing mixture for crested porcupines under field conditions. However, the occurrence of long immobilization and recovery times, with high excitement and convulsion during awakening, were recorded. In order to reduce such side effects after recovery, the effectiveness of a lower dosage (4–6 mg/kg) of tiletamine-zolazepam (Zoletil^®) was tested. The results obtained confirm that the use of tiletamine-zolazepam in crested porcupine immobilization provides a quick induction, wide safety margin, and predictable awakening under field conditions. A smaller injection dosage of 5 mg/kg has been proven to be sufficient to ensure a short induction time (average: 7.1 min), with good muscle relaxation and little excitement of the animals during awakening. The lower dosage of tiletamine-zolazepam, while providing a shorter recovery time (average: 53.6 min), proves to be adequate for standard handling procedures. Furthermore, the smaller amount of tiletamine-zolazepam also ensures safe immobilization for pregnant individuals and porcupettes.

Antibacterial Activity of Honey Samples from Ukraine

The employment of natural substances such as beehive products with a preventive and therapeutic purpose has been a widespread custom since ancient times. In this investigation, the antibacterial activity of 41 honey samples from different Ukraine regions has been evaluated. For each honey, melissopalynological and physico-chemical analysis were performed in order to determine botanical origin, pH, glucose and fructose contents and free acidity. So, antibacterial activity against Staphylococcusaureus CCM 4223, Listeria monocytogenes ATCC 7644, Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium CCM 3807 and Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 was assessed through the determination of MIC (Minimum Inhibitory Concentration) and MBC (Minimum Bactericidal Concentration) values by the microdilutions method. The results show that the most susceptible bacterial strain was L. monocytogenes. Its growth was inhibited at a honey concentration ranging from 0.094 to 0.188 g/mL. The most resistant bacterial strain was S. aureus. As concerns MBC values, L. monocytogenes was the most susceptible bacteria, while S. aureus was the most resistant. Helianthus spp. honeys was the most effective against all tested bacterial strains, followed by Robinia spp. and multifloral honeys. Promising results for MIC tests have been found for Brassica spp.

Isolation of Leptospira serovar Pomona from a crested porcupine (Hystrix cristata, L., 1758)

Pathogenic Leptospira is widespread in rodents, the most studied reservoir and the main hosts involved in its transmission. In Italy, among rodents, Hystrix cristata (crested porcupine) is the largest species and it is distributed all over the country. In this paper, the isolation and characterization of pathogenic Leptospira spp. from the kidney of H. cristata is reported for the first time. During Autumn 2018, Leptospira detection by real-time PCR and isolation were performed from kidneys of two died female porcupines (an adult and a porcupette). Only for porcupette kidney sample, real-time PCR for pathogenic Leptospira tested positive. The isolated strain was identified as Leptospira interrogans serogroup Pomona serovar Pomona, using the three schemes of multilocus sequence typing. The results show that H. cristata could be a Leptospira host. The infection of serovars Pomona could be related to the habitat shared with wild boar, a typical reservoir host for this serovar.

Next generation sequencing study on RNA viruses of Vespa velutina and Apis mellifera sharing the same foraging area

The predator Asian hornet (Vespa velutina) represents one of the major threats to honeybee survival. Viral spillover from bee to wasp has been supposed in several studies, and this work aims to identify and study the virome of both insect species living simultaneously in the same foraging area. Transcriptomic analysis was performed on V. velutina and Apis mellifera samples, and replicative form of detected viruses was carried out by strand-specific RT-PCR. Overall, 6 and 9 different viral types were reported in V. velutina and A. mellifera, respectively, and five of these viruses were recorded in both hosts. Varroa destructor virus-1 and Cripavirus NB-1/2011/HUN (now classified as Triato-like virus) were the most represented viruses detected in both hosts, also in replicative form. In this investigation, Triato-like virus, as well as Aphis gossypii virus and Nora virus, was detected for the first time in honeybees. Concerning V. velutina, we report for the first time the recently detected honeybee La Jolla virus. A general high homology rate between genomes of shared viruses between V. velutina and A. mellifera suggests the efficient transmission of the virus from bee to wasp. In conclusion, our findings highlight the presence of several known and newly reported RNA viruses infecting A. mellifera and V. velutina. This confirms the environment role as an important source of infection and indicates the possibility of spillover from prey to predator.

Evidence of scavenging behaviour in crested porcupine

The vegetarian diet of many herbivorous mammals is supplemented with proteins of animal origin, especially in young individuals and in breeding females, to provide key proteins necessary for both growth and breeding. Among porcupine species, only the Cape porcupine (Hystrix africaeaustralis) has been observed to consume carrion flesh. From June to August 2019, a pigeon carcass was placed together with corn in 7 study settlements and near 2 monitored capture-traps, in order to assess the carrion flesh feeding habits of the crested porcupine (Hystrix cristata). Scavenging behaviour was recorded on four occasions. All the recorded individuals were adults and at least one was female. This demonstrates that the crested porcupine occasionally does eat flesh. Such evidence raises important questions concerning the relationship between feeding habits and the physiological needs of this herbivorous rodent.

Microbial Profile of the Ventriculum of Honey Bee (Apis mellifera ligustica Spinola, 1806) Fed with Veterinary Drugs, Dietary Supplements and Non-Protein Amino Acids

The effects of veterinary drugs, dietary supplements and non-protein amino acids on the European honey bee (Apis mellifera ligustica Spinola, 1806) ventriculum microbial profile were investigated. Total viable aerobic bacteria, Enterobacteriaceae, staphylococci, Escherichia coli, lactic acid bacteria, Pseudomonas spp., aerobic bacterial endospores and Enterococcus spp. were determined using a culture-based method. Two veterinary drugs (Varromed® and Api-Bioxal®), two commercial dietary supplements (ApiHerb® and ApiGo®) and two non-protein amino acids (GABA and beta-alanine) were administered for one week to honey bee foragers reared in laboratory cages. After one week, E. coli and Staphylococcus spp. were significantly affected by the veterinary drugs (p < 0.001). Furthermore, dietary supplements and non-protein amino acids induced significant changes in Staphylococcus spp., E. coli and Pseudomonas spp. (p < 0.001). In conclusion, the results of this investigation showed that the administration of the veterinary drugs, dietary supplements and non-protein amino acids tested, affected the ventriculum microbiological profile of Apis mellifera ligustica.GABA; beta-alanine; oxalic acid; diet effect; microbiota.

Effect of Oral Administration of 1,3-1,6 β-Glucans in DWV Naturally Infected Newly Emerged Bees (Apis mellifera L.)

Honeybee pathogens have an important role in honeybee colony mortality and colony losses; most of them are widely spread and necessitate worldwide solutions to contrast honeybee's decline. Possible accepted solutions to cope with the spread of honeybee's pathogens are focused on the study of experimental protocols to enhance the insect's immune defenses. Honeybee's artificial diet capable to stimulate the immune system is a promising field of investigation as ascertained by the introduction of 1,3-1,6 β-glucans as a dietary supplement. In this work, by collecting faecal samples of honeybees exposed to different dietary conditions of 1,3-1,6 β-glucans (0.5% and 2% w/w), it has been possible to investigate the Deformed wing virus (DWV) viral load kinetic without harming the insects. Virological data obtained by a one-step TaqMan RT-PCR highlighted the ability of 1,3-1,6 β-glucans to reduce the viral load at the 24th day of rearing. The results indicated that the diet supplemented with 1,3-1,6 β-glucans was associated with a dose-dependent activation of phenoloxidase. The control group showed a higher survival rate than the experimental groups. This research confirmed 1,3-1,6 β-glucans as molecules able to modulate honeybees' defense pathways, and this is the first report in which the kinetic of DWV infection in honeybee faeces has been monitored by a RT-qPCR.

Crested Porcupine (Hystrix cristata L.): A New Potential Host for Pathogenic Leptospira Among Semi-Fossorial Mammals

Wildlife plays a pivot role in the epidemiology of leptospirosis and rodents have a reservoir function for several Leptospira serogroups. The crested porcupine is the largest rodent of the Italian fauna and shares the same environment with red foxes, badgers, coypus and wild boars that are known to be infected by Leptospira. Between 2018 and 2019 the seroprevalence of Leptospira in crested porcupine was investigated for the first time. Overall 7 out of 14 sera (50 %) were found positive to Leptospira. Icterohaemorrhagiae resulted as the most detected serogroup (57 %) followed by Pomona, Australis and Sejroe. The highest titer (1:1600) was detected for the serogroup Australis. These results indicate that porcupines could be infected by several serogroup of Leptospira and the role of reservoir or accidental host need to be addressed. Further investigations are necessary in order to clarify the leptospirosis - epidemiology - wildlife framework in light of its potential zoonotic source.

Serological Survey on Bacterial and Viral Pathogens in Wild Boars Hunted in Tuscany

Wild boar (Sus scrofa) is one of the large mammals most spread worldwide, including Italy. This animal is highly adaptable, and its population has rapidly increased in many areas in Europe. Central Italy, as well as Tuscany region, is an area particularly suitable for wild boar. In order to verify the role of this animal species in the epidemiology of some important infectious diseases for livestock and humans, a seroepidemiological survey on Brucella spp., Leptospira spp., Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae, Pseudorabies virus (PrV), and Hepatitis E virus (HEV) has been performed on 374 sera collected from wild boar during 2015/2016 and 2016/2017 hunting seasons. Overall, 2 out of 374 sera (0.53%) tested positive to Brucella spp., 33 out of 374 sera (8.82%) tested positive for Leptospira spp., while 79 out of 374 (21.12%) were positive for M. hyopneumoniae. Considering viral pathogens, serology indicated that 107 out of 374 (28.60%) samples scored positive for PrV, while 186 out of 374 (49.73%) for HEV. This investigation indicated that wild boar free ranging in the study area are potential hosts for different etiological agents. This animal could contribute to maintaining and/or disseminating some bacterial or viral pathogens to humans (especially hunters) and domestic animals, especially in free range farms.

First report of Giardia duodenalis infection in the crested porcupine (Hystrix cristata L., 1758)

Italy is the only European country where the crested porcupine (Hystrix cristata) lives. A parasitological investigation was performed on faecal samples, aimed to evaluate Giardia and other parasites in a free-ranging crested porcupine population in Central Italy. Samples were collected from captured and road-killed individuals as well as from feeding areas and pathways. Collected faecal samples were examined by the Mini-FLOTAC technique and a rapid immunoassay for the search of Giardia and Cryptosporidium spp. faecal antigens. For the identification of Giardia species and genotypes, molecular analysis was performed on Giardia-positive samples, by using PCR protocols able to amplify glutamate dehydrogenase, triosephosphate isomerase and a fragment of the small subunit ribosomal RNA genes. A total of 52 crested porcupine faecal samples were collected and analysed. At microscopical examination, 39 out of 52 samples were found positive for at least a single parasite species and six different parasite taxa were identified. Forty-eight percent (25/52) of faecal samples were positive for Giardia spp. and 1.9% (1/52) for Cryptosporidium spp. at the immunoassay. Among 12 faecal samples belonging to different individuals, 33.3% (4/12) were positive for Giardia spp. By using the Mini-FLOTAC technique, positivity for Trichuris spp. (32.7%, 17/52), gastrointestinal strongyles (32.7%, 17/52), capillariid eggs (3.8%, 2/52) and coccidian oocysts (1.9%; 1/52) was also evidenced. Molecular analysis was performed on 17 out of 25 Giardia-positive isolates. At the SSU rDNA locus, expected bands were achieved for 12 out of 17 isolates and all samples were assigned to Giardia duodenalis assemblage B. Sequencing at tpi locus revealed potentially zoonotic G. duodenalis assemblage AII (two isolates) and assemblage BIV (one isolate). The present study provides the first report of G. duodenalis infection in H. cristata. More in depth studies are needed on the impact and epidemiology of G. duodenalis and other identified parasites in crested porcupines.

Effect of an Italian propolis on the growth of Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus cereus in milk and whey cheese

Propolis antimicrobial activity has been limitedly studied in food, particularly in dairy products. We studied the antimicrobial activity of an alcoholic extract of an Italian propolis in sterile skim milk, pasteurized cow's milk, and cow's and goat's whey cheese (ricotta). Following the determination of the minimal inhibitory concentration on Gram+ and Gram- bacteria, the extract was employed at 2 and 5% (P2, P5), using controls with the same ethanol concentrations (E2, E5) and without any addition. In milk trials, Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, and Pseudomonas fluorescens were tested. P2 and P5 samples registered significant decreases of Gram+ bacteria in skim milk. The same was true for P5 in cows' milk, but only with S. aureus for P2. Ricotta was inoculated with L. monocytogenes, S. aureus and B. cereus and stored at 8.5°C. In cow's milk ricotta, L. monocytogenes counts in P5 were always lower than control during the storage time, significantly so from the 14^th day. In goat's ricotta, L. monocytogenes counts in P5 were at least one logarithm lower than E5, whereas the extract didn't show a significant effect on S. aureus and B. cereus. The antimicrobial activity of propolis, particularly on L. monocytogenes, could be employed in ready-to-eat refrigerated dairy products.

Diurnal motor activity and "sunbathing" behaviour in crested porcupine (Hystrix cristata L., 1758)

The crested porcupine is a mainly nocturnal mammal that shows both moonlight avoidance and some diurnal motor activity, the latter as an extension of its night-time foraging behaviour. Furthermore, a peculiar daytime behaviour, described as "sunbathing", was reported as episodic in H. africaeaustralis. Between 2016 and 2019 a camera-trapping monitoring was performed within 10 porcupine settlements in order to detect the diurnal motor activity and to verify and describe the sunbathing behaviour in crested porcupine. Out of 1,003 trap days, a total of 148 events of diurnal motor activity were recorded. The diurnal motor activity occurred throughout the year mainly between December and June from 15:00 to 16:00, with no statistical difference between cubs, youngsters and adults. The sunbathing behaviour was detected for a total of 36 episodes recorded. Sunbathing was performed mainly by cubs. The sunbathing behaviour occurred only between April and June during the hottest hours of the day (11:00 to 12:00). Diurnal motor activity and sunbathing behaviour of porcupine are discussed in relation to food availability and porcupine physiology.

Detection of replicative Kashmir Bee Virus and Black Queen Cell Virus in Asian hornet Vespa velutina (Lepelieter 1836) in Italy

Information concerning the pathogenic role of honey bee viruses in invasive species are still scarce. The aim of this investigation was to assess the presence of several honey bee viruses, such as Black Queen Cell Virus (BQCV), Kashmir Bee Virus (KBV), Slow Paralysis Virus (SPV), Sac Brood Virus (SBV), Israeli Acute Paralysis Virus (IAPV), Acute Bee Paralysis Virus (ABPV), Chronic Bee Paralysis Virus (CBPV), in Vespa velutina specimens collected in Italy during 2017. Results of this investigation indicate that among pathogens, replicative form of KBV and BQCV were detected, assessing the spillover effect of both these viruses from managed honey bees to hornets.

Dietary supplementation of chestnut and quebracho tannins mix: Effect on caecal microbial communities and live performance of growing rabbits

The interest in antimicrobial compounds as feed additives is currently increasing. Among different options, tannins seem to have several beneficial effects when employed in animals diet. The present study aimed at investigating the influence on caecal microbial communities of the supplementation of a chestnut and quebracho tannins mix in meat rabbit's diet, also considering animals live performances. Four groups of rabbits were fed with a different diet: a control diet (C); a control diet with coccidiostat (CC), and two experimental diets with 0.3% (T0.3) and 0.6% (T0.6) chestnut and quebracho tannins mix. For microbial analysis, culture-dependent and culture-independent methods were employed. Live performances were not significantly affected by tannins mix supplementations, as well as culturable microbial loads of E. coli, Enterobacteriaceae, Bacteroides spp. and Bifidobacterium spp. C. perfringens was always under the detection limit. A consistent result was obtained by qPCR. As for PCR-DGGE analysis, the Richness and evenness (Shannon-Weiner index) of bacterial communities in caecum resulted significantly higher in control samples (C and CC) than in those from rabbit fed with tannin-containing diets. Sequencing analysis revealed that the phylum Firmicutes was less represented in samples from control groups. As for the methanogen archaeal DGGE, no significant differences were found in richness and diversity among different groups, all dominated by Methanobrevibacter spp.. This work highlights the potential antimicrobial effect of chestnut and quebracho tannins mix in an in vivo system revealed by molecular analysis.

A Serological Survey on Swine Brucellosis Using Standard Procedures, Dot Blot, and Western Blot in Finisher Pigs in Central-North Italy

In recent years, Brucella suis has been sporadically reported in Italy in domestic and wild swine. Since standard serological tests can determine false positive results, the development of alternative tests with improved sensitivity and specificity is rather essential. We analyzed 1212 sera collected at slaughterhouse from healthy pigs belonging to 62 farms of North-Central Italy. Sera were tested by Rose Bengal Test, Complement Fixation Test, and subsequently by a Dot Blot (DB) and Western Blot assays (WB). Only one serum resulted positive to all tests, indicating that swine brucellosis has a very limited spread. DB and WB could represent a support to the available serological tests; however, further studies to validate these tests are needed. In the presence of reemerging diseases, a prompt and continuous monitoring design is necessary to acquire epidemiological information for the subsequent application of specific health emergency plans.

Effects of nonprotein amino acids on survival and locomotion of Osmia bicornis

To investigate the effects of two nectar nonprotein amino acids, β-alanine and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), on Osmia bicornis survival and locomotion, two groups of caged bees were fed with sugar syrup enriched with β-alanine and GABA, respectively. A further control group was fed with sugar syrup. Five behavioural categories were chosen according to the principle of parsimony and intrinsic unitary consistency from start to end, and recorded by scan sampling: two states (remaining under paper or in tubes) and three events (walking on net, feeding from flower and flying). We also analysed the amino acid content of haemolymph sampled from an additional 45 bees fed the same diets (15 per diet type). Bees fed with β-alanine had a significantly shorter survival time than those fed with the control and GABA diets. The GABA diet induced higher levels of locomotion than β-alanine. The former nonprotein amino acid was only detected in the haemolymph of bees fed GABA. The results suggest that insects consuming nonprotein amino-acid-rich diets absorb and transfer these substances to the haemolymph and that nonprotein amino acids affect survival and locomotion. Ecological consequences are discussed in the framework of plant reproductive biology.

Proteinase pattern of honeybee prepupae from healthy and American Foulbrood infected bees investigated by zymography

American foulbrood disease (AFB) is the main devastating disease that affects honeybees' brood, caused by Paenibacillus larvae. The trend of the research on AFB has addressed the mechanisms by which P. larvae bacteria kill honeybee larvae. Since prepupae could react to the infection of AFB by increasing protease synthesis, the aim of this work was to compare protease activity in worker prepupae belonging to healthy colonies and to colonies affected by AFB. This investigation was performed by zymography. In gel, proteolytic activity was observed in prepupae extracts belonging only to the healthy colonies. In the prepupae extracts, 2D zimography followed by protein identification by MS allowed to detect Trypsin-1 and Chymotrypsin-1, which were not observed in diseased specimens. Further investigations are needed to clarify the involvement of these proteinases in the immune response of honeybee larvae and the mechanisms by which P. larvae inhibits protease production in its host.

The database of the PREDICTS (Projecting Responses of Ecological Diversity In Changing Terrestrial Systems) project

The PREDICTS project-Projecting Responses of Ecological Diversity In Changing Terrestrial Systems (www.predicts.org.uk)-has collated from published studies a large, reasonably representative database of comparable samples of biodiversity from multiple sites that differ in the nature or intensity of human impacts relating to land use. We have used this evidence base to develop global and regional statistical models of how local biodiversity responds to these measures. We describe and make freely available this 2016 release of the database, containing more than 3.2 million records sampled at over 26,000 locations and representing over 47,000 species. We outline how the database can help in answering a range of questions in ecology and conservation biology. To our knowledge, this is the largest and most geographically and taxonomically representative database of spatial comparisons of biodiversity that has been collated to date; it will be useful to researchers and international efforts wishing to model and understand the global status of biodiversity.

Effect of 1,3-1,6 β-Glucan on Natural and Experimental Deformed Wing Virus Infection in Newly Emerged Honeybees (Apis mellifera ligustica)

The Western Honeybee is a key pollinator for natural as well as agricultural ecosystems. In the last decade massive honeybee colony losses have been observed worldwide, the result of a complex syndrome triggered by multiple stress factors, with the RNA virus Deformed Wing Virus (DWV) and the mite Varroa destructor playing crucial roles. The mite supports replication of DWV to high titers, which exert an immunosuppressive action and correlate with the onset of the disease. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of 1,3-1,6 β-glucan, a natural innate immune system modulator, on honeybee response to low-titer natural and high-titer experimental DWV infection. As the effects exerted by ß-glucans can be remarkably different, depending on the target organism and the dose administered, two parallel experiments were performed, where 1,3-1,6 ß-glucan at a concentration of 0.5% and 2% respectively, was added to the diet of three cohorts of newly emerged honeybees, which were sampled from a Varroa-free apiary and harboured a low endogenous DWV viral titer. Each cohort was subjected to one of the following experimental treatments: no injection, injection of a high-copy number DWV suspension into the haemocel (experimental DWV infection) or injection of PBS into the haemocoel (physical injury). Control bees fed a ß-glucan-free diet were subjected to the same treatments. Viral load, survival rate, haemocyte populations and phenoloxidase activity of each experimental group were measured and compared. The results indicated that oral administration of 0.5% ß-glucan to naturally infected honeybees was associated with a significantly decrease of the number of infected bees and viral load they carried, and with a significant increase of the survival rate, suggesting that this natural immune modulator molecule might contribute to increase honeybee resistance to viral infection.

Predicting bee community responses to land-use changes: Effects of geographic and taxonomic biases

Land-use change and intensification threaten bee populations worldwide, imperilling pollination services. Global models are needed to better characterise, project, and mitigate bees' responses to these human impacts. The available data are, however, geographically and taxonomically unrepresentative; most data are from North America and Western Europe, overrepresenting bumblebees and raising concerns that model results may not be generalizable to other regions and taxa. To assess whether the geographic and taxonomic biases of data could undermine effectiveness of models for conservation policy, we have collated from the published literature a global dataset of bee diversity at sites facing land-use change and intensification, and assess whether bee responses to these pressures vary across 11 regions (Western, Northern, Eastern and Southern Europe; North, Central and South America; Australia and New Zealand; South East Asia; Middle and Southern Africa) and between bumblebees and other bees. Our analyses highlight strong regionally-based responses of total abundance, species richness and Simpson's diversity to land use, caused by variation in the sensitivity of species and potentially in the nature of threats. These results suggest that global extrapolation of models based on geographically and taxonomically restricted data may underestimate the true uncertainty, increasing the risk of ecological surprises.

Beeswax: A minireview of its antimicrobial activity and its application in medicine

Beeswax is the substance that forms the structure of a honeycomb; the bees secrete wax to build the honeycombs where to store honey. Thanks to its rich hydrophobic protective properties, the beeswax is in fact present within cosmetics and body products. Also, beeswax is used in the food industry: as a film to wrap cheese for maturing or as a food additive (E901) to give shine to the products. Exactly as the honey which it contains, beeswax is also characterized by several therapeutic properties of great interest to us; it is thought to be particularly effective in healing bruises, inflammation and burns. Recently, the interest of researchers has moved even on antimicrobial properties of beeswax although there are still few studies in the literature focused only on the action of beeswax. The few studies showed an antimicrobic effectiveness of beeswax against overall Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella enterica, Candida albicans and Aspergillus niger; these inhibitory effects are enhanced synergistically with other natural products such as honey or olive oil. This minireview aims to be a collection of major scientific works that have considered the antimicrobial activity of beeswax alone or in combination with other natural products in recent years.

The PREDICTS database: a global database of how local terrestrial biodiversity responds to human impacts

Biodiversity continues to decline in the face of increasing anthropogenic pressures such as habitat destruction, exploitation, pollution and introduction of alien species. Existing global databases of species’ threat status or population time series are dominated by charismatic species. The collation of datasets with broad taxonomic and biogeographic extents, and that support computation of a range of biodiversity indicators, is necessary to enable better understanding of historical declines and to project – and avert – future declines. We describe and assess a new database of more than 1.6 million samples from 78 countries representing over 28,000 species, collated from existing spatial comparisons of local-scale biodiversity exposed to different intensities and types of anthropogenic pressures, from terrestrial sites around the world. The database contains measurements taken in 208 (of 814) ecoregions, 13 (of 14) biomes, 25 (of 35) biodiversity hotspots and 16 (of 17) megadiverse countries. The database contains more than 1% of the total number of all species described, and more than 1% of the described species within many taxonomic groups – including flowering plants, gymnosperms, birds, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, beetles, lepidopterans and hymenopterans. The dataset, which is still being added to, is therefore already considerably larger and more representative than those used by previous quantitative models of biodiversity trends and responses. The database is being assembled as part of the PREDICTS project (Projecting Responses of Ecological Diversity In Changing Terrestrial Systems – http://www.predicts.org.uk). We make site-level summary data available alongside this article. The full database will be publicly available in 2015.

Infectivity of DWV associated to flower pollen: experimental evidence of a horizontal transmission route

Deformed wing virus (DWV) is a honeybee pathogen whose presence is generally associated with infestation of the colony by the mite Varroa destructor, leading to the onset of infections responsible for the collapse of the bee colony. DWV contaminates bee products such as royal jelly, bee-bread and honey stored within the infected hive. Outside the hive, DWV has been found in pollen loads collected directly from infected as well as uninfected forager bees. It has been shown that the introduction of virus-contaminated pollen into a DWV-free hive results in the production of virus-contaminated food, whose role in the development of infected bees from virus-free eggs has been experimentally demonstrated. The aim of this study was twofold: (i) to ascertain the presence of DWV on pollen collected directly from flowers visited by honeybees and then quantify the viral load and (ii) determine whether the virus associated with pollen is infective. The results of our investigation provide evidence that DWV is present on pollen sampled directly from visited flowers and that, following injection in individuals belonging to the pollinator species Apis mellifera, it is able to establish an active infection, as indicated by the presence of replicating virus in the head of the injected bees. We also provide the first indication that the pollinator species Osmia cornuta is susceptible to DWV infection.

Soluble proteins of chemical communication: an overview across arthropods

Detection of chemical signals both in insects and in vertebrates is mediated by soluble proteins, highly concentrated in olfactory organs, which bind semiochemicals and activate, with still largely unknown mechanisms, specific chemoreceptors. The same proteins are often found in structures where pheromones are synthesized and released, where they likely perform a second role in solubilizing and delivering chemical messengers in the environment. A single class of soluble polypeptides, called Odorant-Binding Proteins (OBPs) is known in vertebrates, while two have been identified in insects, OBPs and CSPs (Chemosensory Proteins). Despite their common name, OBPs of vertebrates bear no structural similarity with those of insects. We observed that in arthropods OBPs are strictly limited to insects, while a few members of the CSP family have been found in crustacean and other arthropods, where however, based on their very limited numbers, a function in chemical communication seems unlikely. The question we address in this review is whether another class of soluble proteins may have been adopted by other arthropods to perform the role of OBPs and CSPs in insects. We propose that lipid-transporter proteins of the Niemann-Pick type C2 family could represent likely candidates and report the results of an analysis of their sequences in representative species of different arthropods.

A proteomic approach to identify seminal plasma proteins in roosters (Gallus gallus domesticus)

Considering the interest in avian semen processing and storage, the objective of this study was to identify the domestic fowl seminal plasma proteins using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE) and mass spectrometry MS/MS. For three times in a 4-month period, seminal plasma was obtained from semen collected from four local male chickens (Gallus gallus domesticus) and prepared for two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. A total of 83 spots were detected across all gels and analyzed by MALDI-TOF/TOF. Among these spots, 17 have been successfully identified. The most intensely stained spots were recognized as serum albumin, ovotransferrin, alpha-enolase, fatty acid binding protein, thioredoxin, trypsin inhibitor CITI-1 and gallinacin-9. From these proteins, two are characteristic of avian seminal plasma, the ovotransferrin and gallinacin-9, and one is specific of the Gallus species, the chicken trypsin inhibitor CITI-1.

Diversity, abundance, and sex-specific expression of chemosensory proteins in the reproductive organs of the locust Locusta migratoria manilensis

Chemosensory proteins (CSPs) are small soluble proteins often associated with chemosensory organs in insects but include members involved in other functions, such as pheromone delivery and development. Although the CSPs of the sensory organs have been extensively studied, little is known on their functions in other parts of the body. A first screening of the available databases has identified 70 sequences encoding CSPs in the oriental locust Locusta migratoria manilensis. Applying proteomic analysis, we have identified 17 of them abundantly expressed in the female reproductive organs, but only one (CSP91) in male organs. Bacterially expressed CSP91 binds fatty acids with a specificity for oleic and linoleic acid, as well as medium-length alcohols and esters. The same acids have been detected as the main gas chromatographic peaks in the dichloromethane extracts of reproductive organs of both sexes. The abundance and the number of CSPs in female reproductive organs indicates important roles for these proteins. We cannot exclude that different functions can be associated with each of the 17 CSPs, including delivery of semiochemicals, solubilization of hormones, direct control of development, or other unknown tasks.