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Young AR, Stobart CC. Emergence, Tropism, Disease, and Treatment of Australian Bat Lyssavirus Infections in Humans. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2023; 23:486-494. [PMID: 37335942 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2022.0089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Australian bat lyssavirus (ABLV) is a negative-sense, single-stranded RNA rhabdovirus capable of causing fatal acute encephalitis in humans with similar pathogenesis to its closest serologic relative, rabies virus (RABV). In this review, we describe emergence and classification of ABLV, its known virology, reservoirs, and hosts, as well as both the pathogenesis and treatment approaches currently employed for presumed infections. ABLV was first identified in New South Wales, Australia in 1996 and emerged in humans months later in Queensland, Australia. Only five known bat reservoirs, all of which fall within the Pteropus and Saccolaimus genera, have been identified to date. Although ABLV antigens have been identified in bats located outside of Australia, the three known human ABLV infections to date have occurred within Australia. As such, there remains a potential for ABLV to expand its presence within and beyond Australia. ABLV infections are currently treated as if they were RABV infections by administering neutralizing antibodies against RABV at the site of the wound and employing the rabies vaccine upon possible exposures. Due to its recent emergence, there is still much left unknown about ABLV, posing concerns with how to safely and effectively address current and future ABLV infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Audrey R Young
- Department of Biological Sciences, Butler University, Indianapolis, Indiana, USA
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2
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Isolation and Characterization of Cross-Reactive Human Monoclonal Antibodies That Potently Neutralize Australian Bat Lyssavirus Variants and Other Phylogroup 1 Lyssaviruses. Viruses 2021; 13:v13030391. [PMID: 33804519 PMCID: PMC8001737 DOI: 10.3390/v13030391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2021] [Revised: 02/25/2021] [Accepted: 02/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Australian bat lyssavirus (ABLV) is a rhabdovirus that circulates in four species of pteropid bats (ABLVp) and the yellow-bellied sheath-tailed bat (ABLVs) in mainland Australia. In the three confirmed human cases of ABLV, rabies illness preceded fatality. As with rabies virus (RABV), post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) for potential ABLV infections consists of wound cleansing, administration of the rabies vaccine and injection of rabies immunoglobulin (RIG) proximal to the wound. Despite the efficacy of PEP, the inaccessibility of human RIG (HRIG) in the developing world and the high immunogenicity of equine RIG (ERIG) has led to consideration of human monoclonal antibodies (hmAbs) as a passive immunization option that offers enhanced safety and specificity. Using a recombinant vesicular stomatitis virus (rVSV) expressing the glycoprotein (G) protein of ABLVs and phage display, we identified two hmAbs, A6 and F11, which completely neutralize ABLVs/ABLVp, and RABV at concentrations ranging from 0.39 and 6.25 µg/mL and 0.19 and 0.39 µg/mL respectively. A6 and F11 recognize overlapping epitopes in the lyssavirus G protein, effectively neutralizing phylogroup 1 lyssaviruses, while having little effect on phylogroup 2 and non-grouped diverse lyssaviruses. These results suggest that A6 and F11 could be effective therapeutic and diagnostic tools for phylogroup 1 lyssavirus infections.
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Manning LK, Srivastava M, Bingham J, Curran GC, Westermann T, Cook RW. Neuronal inclusions resembling Negri bodies in the thalamus of a red kangaroo (Macropus rufus). Aust Vet J 2021; 99:178-180. [PMID: 33559148 DOI: 10.1111/avj.13057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2020] [Revised: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 01/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Eosinophilic intracytoplasmic neuronal inclusions resembling Negri bodies, but not associated with lyssaviral infection, were detected in the ventrolateral thalamus of a young-adult, male red kangaroo (Macropus rufus). Similar neuronal inclusions, also with a regional distribution in the brain, have been reported as an incidental, possibly age-related finding in other animal species.
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Affiliation(s)
- L K Manning
- Department of Primary Industries, Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute, Menangle, New South Wales, 2568, Australia
| | - M Srivastava
- Department of Primary Industries, Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute, Menangle, New South Wales, 2568, Australia
| | - J Bingham
- CSIRO Australian Centre for Disease Preparedness, East Geelong, Victoria, 3219, Australia
| | - G C Curran
- Animal and Climate Investigations, Broken Hill, New South Wales, 2880, Australia
| | - T Westermann
- Department of Primary Industries, Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute, Menangle, New South Wales, 2568, Australia
| | - R W Cook
- Department of Primary Industries, Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute, Menangle, New South Wales, 2568, Australia
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Iglesias R, Cox-Witton K, Field H, Skerratt LF, Barrett J. Australian Bat Lyssavirus: Analysis of National Bat Surveillance Data from 2010 to 2016. Viruses 2021; 13:v13020189. [PMID: 33513882 PMCID: PMC7911197 DOI: 10.3390/v13020189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Revised: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Australian bat lyssavirus (ABLV) was first described in 1996 and has been regularly detected in Australian bats since that time. While the virus does not cause population level impacts in bats and has minimal impacts on domestic animals, it does pose a public health risk. For this reason, bats are monitored for ABLV and a national dataset is collated and maintained by Wildlife Health Australia. The 2010–2016 dataset was analysed using logistic regression and time-series analysis to identify predictors of infection status in bats and the factors associated with human exposure to bats. In common with previous passive surveillance studies, we found that little red flying-foxes (Pteropus scapulatus) are more likely than other species to be infected with ABLV. In the four Australian mainland species of flying-fox, there are seasonal differences in infection risk that may be associated with reproductive cycles, with summer and autumn the seasons of greatest risk. The risk of human contact was also seasonal, with lower risk in winter. In line with other studies, we found that the circumstances in which the bat is encountered, such as exhibiting abnormal behaviour or being grounded, are risk factors for ABLV infection and human contact and should continue be key components of public health messaging. We also found evidence of biased recording of some types of information, which made interpretation of some findings more challenging. Strengthening of “One Health” linkages between public health and animal health services at the operational level could help overcome these biases in future, and greater harmonisation nationally would increase the value of the dataset.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Iglesias
- Australian Government Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment, Canberra, ACT 2600, Australia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +61-2-6272-5975
| | | | - Hume Field
- EcoHealth Alliance, New York, NY 10018, USA;
- School of Veterinary Science, The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Lee F. Skerratt
- One Health Research Group, Melbourne Veterinary School, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010, Australia;
| | - Janine Barrett
- Queensland Department of Agriculture and Fisheries, Brisbane, QLD 4000, Australia;
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Parize P, Travecedo Robledo IC, Cervantes‐Gonzalez M, Kergoat L, Larrous F, Serra‐Cobo J, Dacheux L, Bourhy H. Circumstances of Human–Bat interactions and risk of lyssavirus transmission in metropolitan France. Zoonoses Public Health 2020; 67:774-784. [DOI: 10.1111/zph.12747] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2019] [Revised: 05/18/2020] [Accepted: 05/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Perrine Parize
- Unit Lyssavirus Dynamics and Host Adaptation Institut Pasteur National Reference Center for Rabies and WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Rabies Paris France
| | - Isabel Cristina Travecedo Robledo
- Unit Lyssavirus Dynamics and Host Adaptation Institut Pasteur National Reference Center for Rabies and WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Rabies Paris France
| | - Minerva Cervantes‐Gonzalez
- Unit Lyssavirus Dynamics and Host Adaptation Institut Pasteur National Reference Center for Rabies and WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Rabies Paris France
| | - Lauriane Kergoat
- Unit Lyssavirus Dynamics and Host Adaptation Institut Pasteur National Reference Center for Rabies and WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Rabies Paris France
| | - Florence Larrous
- Unit Lyssavirus Dynamics and Host Adaptation Institut Pasteur National Reference Center for Rabies and WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Rabies Paris France
| | - Jordi Serra‐Cobo
- Department of Evolutionary Biology, Ecology and Environmental Sciences Biodiversity Research Institute (IRBIO) University of Barcelona Barcelona Spain
| | - Laurent Dacheux
- Unit Lyssavirus Dynamics and Host Adaptation Institut Pasteur National Reference Center for Rabies and WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Rabies Paris France
| | - Hervé Bourhy
- Unit Lyssavirus Dynamics and Host Adaptation Institut Pasteur National Reference Center for Rabies and WHO Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Rabies Paris France
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Shipley R, Wright E, Selden D, Wu G, Aegerter J, Fooks AR, Banyard AC. Bats and Viruses: Emergence of Novel Lyssaviruses and Association of Bats with Viral Zoonoses in the EU. Trop Med Infect Dis 2019; 4:tropicalmed4010031. [PMID: 30736432 PMCID: PMC6473451 DOI: 10.3390/tropicalmed4010031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2019] [Revised: 01/31/2019] [Accepted: 02/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Bats in the EU have been associated with several zoonotic viral pathogens of significance to both human and animal health. Virus discovery continues to expand the existing understating of virus classification, and the increased interest in bats globally as reservoirs or carriers of zoonotic agents has fuelled the continued detection and characterisation of new lyssaviruses and other viral zoonoses. Although the transmission of lyssaviruses from bat species to humans or terrestrial species appears rare, interest in these viruses remains, through their ability to cause the invariably fatal encephalitis—rabies. The association of bats with other viral zoonoses is also of great interest. Much of the EU is free of terrestrial rabies, but several bat species harbor lyssaviruses that remain a risk to human and animal health. Whilst the rabies virus is the main cause of rabies globally, novel related viruses continue to be discovered, predominantly in bat populations, that are of interest purely through their classification within the lyssavirus genus alongside the rabies virus. Although the rabies virus is principally transmitted from the bite of infected dogs, these related lyssaviruses are primarily transmitted to humans and terrestrial carnivores by bats. Even though reports of zoonotic viruses from bats within the EU are rare, to protect human and animal health, it is important characterise novel bat viruses for several reasons, namely: (i) to investigate the mechanisms for the maintenance, potential routes of transmission, and resulting clinical signs, if any, in their natural hosts; (ii) to investigate the ability of existing vaccines, where available, to protect against these viruses; (iii) to evaluate the potential for spill over and onward transmission of viral pathogens in novel terrestrial hosts. This review is an update on the current situation regarding zoonotic virus discovery within bats in the EU, and provides details of potential future mechanisms to control the threat from these deadly pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Shipley
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector-borne Diseases Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), KT15 3NB Weybridge-London, UK.
- School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, BN1 9QG Brighton, UK.
| | - Edward Wright
- School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, BN1 9QG Brighton, UK.
| | - David Selden
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector-borne Diseases Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), KT15 3NB Weybridge-London, UK.
| | - Guanghui Wu
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector-borne Diseases Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), KT15 3NB Weybridge-London, UK.
| | - James Aegerter
- APHA - National Wildlife Management Centre, Wildlife Epidemiology and Modelling, Sand Hutton, YO41 1LZ York, UK.
| | - Anthony R Fooks
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St. George's Hospital Medical School, University of London, London, SW17 0RE, UK.
- Department of Clinical Infection, Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 7BE, UK.
| | - Ashley C Banyard
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector-borne Diseases Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency (APHA), KT15 3NB Weybridge-London, UK.
- School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Falmer, BN1 9QG Brighton, UK.
- Institute for Infection and Immunity, St. George's Hospital Medical School, University of London, London, SW17 0RE, UK.
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Mendez D, Foyle L, Cobbold R, Speare R. Survey of rabies vaccination status of Queensland veterinarians and veterinary students. Aust Vet J 2018; 96:155-160. [PMID: 29691859 DOI: 10.1111/avj.12692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2015] [Revised: 11/04/2015] [Accepted: 11/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND To determine the rabies vaccination status of Queensland veterinarians and veterinary students and their perception of zoonotic risk from Australian bat lyssavirus (ABLV). DESIGN Cross-sectional questionnaire surveys. METHODS Questionnaires were sent by post in 2011 to veterinary surgeons registered in Queensland, to final-year veterinary students at James Cook University via SurveyMonkey® in 2013 and to final-year veterinary students at James Cook University and University of Queensland via SurveyMonkey® in 2014. RESULTS The response rate for registered veterinarians was 33.5% and for veterinary students 33.3% and 30% in 2013 and 2014, respectively. Of the 466 registered veterinary surgeons, 147 (31.5%) had been vaccinated, with 72 (15.5%) currently vaccinated. For veterinary students the rabies vaccination rate was 20.0% (4/20) and 13.0% (6/46) in the 2013 and 2014 surveys, respectively. More than 95% of veterinary students had received the mandatory Q fever vaccine. Both veterinarians and students regarded bats and horses as high-risk species for zoonoses. CONCLUSIONS Queensland veterinarians and veterinary students have low levels of protection against ABLV. Although incidents of ABLV spilling over from a bat to a domestic mammal are likely to remain rare, they pose a significant human health and occupational risk given the outcome of infection in humans is high consequence. Principals of veterinary practices and veterinary authorities in Australia should implement a policy of rabies vaccination for clinical staff and veterinary students.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Mendez
- College of Public Health, Medical and Veterinary Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
| | - L Foyle
- College of Public Health, Medical and Veterinary Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
| | - R Cobbold
- School of Veterinary Science, University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD, Australia
| | - R Speare
- College of Public Health, Medical and Veterinary Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia.,Tropical Health Solutions Pty Ltd, Townsville, QLD, Australia
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Lee HS, Thiem VD, Anh DD, Duong TN, Lee M, Grace D, Nguyen-Viet H. Geographical and temporal patterns of rabies post exposure prophylaxis (PEP) incidence in humans in the Mekong River Delta and Southeast Central Coast regions in Vietnam from 2005 to 2015. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0194943. [PMID: 29634746 PMCID: PMC5892892 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0194943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2017] [Accepted: 03/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In Vietnam, rabies has been a notifiable disease for more than 40 years. Over the last five years, on average, more than 350,000 people per year have been bitten by dogs and cats while more than 80 human deaths have been reported yearly. No studies have been conducted to evaluate the geographical and temporal patterns of rabies in humans in Vietnam. Therefore, the main objective of this study was to assess the geographical and temporal distributions of rabies post exposure prophylaxis (PEP) incidence in humans in Vietnam from 2005 to 2015. METHODS Average incidence rabies (AIR) PEP rates for every 3 or 4 years (2005-2008, 2009-2012 and 2013-2015) were calculated to describe the spatial distribution of rabies PEP. Hotspot analysis was implemented to identify patterns of spatial significance using the Getis-Ord Gi statistic. For temporal pattern analysis, two regions [Mekong River Delta (MRD) and Southeast Central Coast (SCC)], with the highest incidence rates, and the seasonal-decomposition procedure based on loess (STL), were compared to assess their temporal patterns of rabies PEP. FINDINGS We found hotspots in southern Vietnam and coldspots in northern Vietnam during the study period. Rabies cases were limited to specific areas. In addition, the hotspot analysis showed that new risk areas were identified in each period which were not observed in incidence rate maps. The seasonal plots showed seasonal patterns with a strong peak in February/July and a minor peak in October/December in the MRD region. However, in the SCC, a small peak was detected at the early part of each year and a strong peak in the middle of each year. CONCLUSION Our findings provide insight into understanding the geographical and seasonal patterns of rabies PEP in Vietnam. This study provides evidence to aid policy makers when making decisions and investing resources. Such information may also be utilized to raise public awareness to prevent rabies exposures and reduce unnecessary PEP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hu Suk Lee
- International Livestock Research Institute, Hanoi, Vietnam
- * E-mail:
| | - Vu Dinh Thiem
- National Institute of Hygiene and Epidemiology, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Dang Duc Anh
- National Institute of Hygiene and Epidemiology, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Tran Nhu Duong
- National Institute of Hygiene and Epidemiology, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Mihye Lee
- Medical Microbiology Department, The Royal Bournemouth Hospital, Bournemouth, United Kingdom
| | - Delia Grace
- International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya
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Begeman L, GeurtsvanKessel C, Finke S, Freuling CM, Koopmans M, Müller T, Ruigrok TJH, Kuiken T. Comparative pathogenesis of rabies in bats and carnivores, and implications for spillover to humans. THE LANCET. INFECTIOUS DISEASES 2017; 18:e147-e159. [PMID: 29100899 DOI: 10.1016/s1473-3099(17)30574-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2017] [Revised: 08/23/2017] [Accepted: 09/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Bat-acquired rabies is becoming increasingly common, and its diagnosis could be missed partly because its clinical presentation differs from that of dog-acquired rabies. We reviewed the scientific literature to compare the pathogenesis of rabies in bats and carnivores-including dogs-and related this pathogenesis to differences in the clinical presentation of bat-acquired and dog-acquired rabies in human beings. For bat-acquired rabies, we found that the histological site of exposure is usually limited to the skin, the anatomical site of exposure is more commonly the face, and the virus might be more adapted for entry via the skin than for dog-acquired rabies. These factors could help to explain several differences in clinical presentation between individuals with bat-acquired and those with dog-acquired rabies. A better understanding of these differences should improve the recording of a patient's history, enable drawing up of a more sophisticated list of clinical characteristics, and therefore obtain an earlier diagnosis of rabies after contact with a bat or carnivore that has rabies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lineke Begeman
- Department of Viroscience, Postgraduate School Molecular Medicine, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Corine GeurtsvanKessel
- Department of Viroscience, Postgraduate School Molecular Medicine, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Stefan Finke
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies, Greifswald, Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Conrad M Freuling
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies, Greifswald, Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Marion Koopmans
- Department of Viroscience, Postgraduate School Molecular Medicine, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Thomas Müller
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Molecular Virology and Cell Biology, WHO Collaborating Centre for Rabies Surveillance and Research, OIE Reference Laboratory for Rabies, Greifswald, Insel Riems, Germany
| | - Tom J H Ruigrok
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Thijs Kuiken
- Department of Viroscience, Postgraduate School Molecular Medicine, Erasmus University Medical Centre, Rotterdam, Netherlands.
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Cantlay JC, Ingram DJ, Meredith AL. A Review of Zoonotic Infection Risks Associated with the Wild Meat Trade in Malaysia. ECOHEALTH 2017; 14:361-388. [PMID: 28332127 PMCID: PMC5486459 DOI: 10.1007/s10393-017-1229-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2016] [Revised: 01/21/2017] [Accepted: 01/24/2017] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
The overhunting of wildlife for food and commercial gain presents a major threat to biodiversity in tropical forests and poses health risks to humans from contact with wild animals. Using a recent survey of wildlife offered at wild meat markets in Malaysia as a basis, we review the literature to determine the potential zoonotic infection risks from hunting, butchering and consuming the species offered. We also determine which taxa potentially host the highest number of pathogens and discuss the significant disease risks from traded wildlife, considering how cultural practices influence zoonotic transmission. We identify 51 zoonotic pathogens (16 viruses, 19 bacteria and 16 parasites) potentially hosted by wildlife and describe the human health risks. The Suidae and the Cervidae families potentially host the highest number of pathogens. We conclude that there are substantial gaps in our knowledge of zoonotic pathogens and recommend performing microbial food safety risk assessments to assess the hazards of wild meat consumption. Overall, there may be considerable zoonotic risks to people involved in the hunting, butchering or consumption of wild meat in Southeast Asia, and these should be considered in public health strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Caroline Cantlay
- The Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and The Roslin Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Roslin, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, UK.
- Independent Researcher, Unit 6301, No 1, Lane 600, Central Yincheng Road, Pudong District, Shanghai, 200120, People's Republic of China.
| | - Daniel J Ingram
- School of Life Sciences, University of Sussex, Brighton, BN1 9GQ, UK
| | - Anna L Meredith
- The Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies and The Roslin Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush Campus, Roslin, Midlothian, EH25 9RG, UK
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Abstract
Rabies is a zoonotic disease that is usually transmitted to humans by animal bites. Dogs are the most important vector worldwide. There are encephalitic and paralytic forms of the disease. There are differences in the clinical features of the disease acquired from dogs and bats. Neuroimaging is non-specific. Confirmatory diagnostic laboratory tests for rabies include detection of neutralizing anti-rabies virus antibodies in serum or cerebrospinal fluid and rabies virus antigen or RNA in tissues or fluids. Rabies is preventable after recognized exposures with wound cleansing and administration of rabies vaccine and rabies immune globulin. Rabies is virtually always fatal after clinical disease develops, and there have only been rare survivors. The Milwaukee protocol, which includes therapeutic coma, has been shown to be ineffective and should no longer be used. The development of novel therapeutic approaches may depend on a better understanding of basic mechanisms underlying the disease.
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Abstract
Recent studies have clearly shown that bats are the reservoir hosts of a wide diversity of novel viruses with representatives from most of the known animal virus families. In many respects bats make ideal reservoir hosts for viruses: they are the only mammals that fly, thus assisting in virus dispersal; they roost in large numbers, thus aiding transmission cycles; some bats hibernate over winter, thus providing a mechanism for viruses to persist between seasons; and genetic factors may play a role in the ability of bats to host viruses without resulting in clinical disease. Within the broad diversity of viruses found in bats are some important neurological pathogens, including rabies and other lyssaviruses, and Hendra and Nipah viruses, two recently described viruses that have been placed in a new genus, Henipaviruses in the family Paramyxoviridae. In addition, bats can also act as alternative hosts for the flaviviruses Japanese encephalitis and St Louis encephalitis viruses, two important mosquito-borne encephalitogenic viruses, and bats can assist in the dispersal and over-wintering of these viruses. Bats are also the reservoir hosts of progenitors of SARS and MERS coronaviruses, although other animals act as spillover hosts. This chapter presents the physiological and ecological factors affecting the ability of bats to act as reservoirs of neurotropic viruses, and describes the major transmission cycles leading to human infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carol Shoshkes Reiss
- Departments of Biology and Neural Science, New York University, New York, New York USA
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Shetty U, Phillips M, Francis JR, Walsh M. Paediatric Australian bat lyssavirus encephalomyelitis - sequential MRI appearances from symptom onset to death. Pediatr Radiol 2015; 45:1716-21. [PMID: 26081671 DOI: 10.1007/s00247-015-3371-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2014] [Revised: 02/24/2015] [Accepted: 04/20/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Human infection with Australian bat lyssavirus is extremely rare. Here we present the craniospinal findings in a fatal case of Australian bat lyssavirus infection in an 8-year-old child. MRI plays a very important role, not only in the diagnostic work-up of Australian bat lyssavirus infection but also in the prognostic assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Umesh Shetty
- Mater Hospital and Lady Cilento Children's Hospital Medical Imaging Department, Raymond Terrace, Brisbane, Australia, , QLD, 4101.
| | - Mark Phillips
- Mater Hospital and Lady Cilento Children's Hospital Medical Imaging Department, Raymond Terrace, Brisbane, Australia, , QLD, 4101
| | - Joshua R Francis
- Department of Paediatrics, Royal Darwin Hospital, Darwin, Australia
| | - Mark Walsh
- Mater Hospital and Lady Cilento Children's Hospital Medical Imaging Department, Raymond Terrace, Brisbane, Australia, , QLD, 4101
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Voigt CC, Kingston T. Zoonotic Viruses and Conservation of Bats. BATS IN THE ANTHROPOCENE: CONSERVATION OF BATS IN A CHANGING WORLD 2015. [PMCID: PMC7122997 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-25220-9_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Many of the recently emerging highly virulent zoonotic diseases have a likely bat origin, for example Hendra, Nipah, Ebola and diseases caused by coronaviruses. Presumably because of their long history of coevolution, most of these viruses remain subclinical in bats, but have the potential to cause severe illnesses in domestic and wildlife animals and also humans. Spillovers from bats to humans either happen directly (via contact with infected bats) or indirectly (via intermediate hosts such as domestic or wildlife animals, by consuming food items contaminated by saliva, faeces or urine of bats, or via other environmental sources). Increasing numbers of breakouts of zoonotic viral diseases among humans and livestock have mainly been accounted to human encroachment into natural habitat, as well as agricultural intensification, deforestation and bushmeat consumption. Persecution of bats, including the destruction of their roosts and culling of whole colonies, has led not only to declines of protected bat species, but also to an increase in virus prevalence in some of these populations. Educational efforts are needed in order to prevent future spillovers of bat-borne viruses to humans and livestock, and to further protect bats from unnecessary and counterproductive culling.
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Francis JR, McCall BJ, Hutchinson P, Powell J, Vaska VL, Nourse C. Australian bat lyssavirus: implications for public health. Med J Aust 2015; 201:647-9. [PMID: 25495308 DOI: 10.5694/mja13.00261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2013] [Accepted: 06/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Australian bat lyssavirus (ABLV) infection in humans is rare but fatal, with no proven effective therapy. ABLV infection can be prevented by administration of a post-exposure prophylaxis regimen of human rabies immunoglobulin and rabies vaccine. All Australian bats (flying foxes and microbats) should be considered to be carrying ABLV unless proven otherwise. Any bat-related injury (bite, scratch or mucosal exposure to bat saliva or neural tissue) should be notified immediately to the relevant public health unit - no matter how small the injury or how long ago it occurred. Human-to-human transmission of ABLV has not been reported but is theoretically possible. Standard infection control precautions should be employed when managing patients with suspected or confirmed ABLV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua R Francis
- Department of Paediatrics, Royal Darwin Hospital, Darwin, NT, Australia.
| | - Bradley J McCall
- Metro South Public Health Unit, Queensland Health, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Penny Hutchinson
- Darling Downs Public Health Unit, Queensland Health, Toowoomba, QLD, Australia
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16
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Britton PN, Dale RC, Booy R, Jones CA. Acute encephalitis in children: Progress and priorities from an Australasian perspective. J Paediatr Child Health 2015; 51:147-58. [PMID: 24953748 DOI: 10.1111/jpc.12650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Encephalitis is a complex neurological syndrome caused by inflammation of the brain that occurs with highest incidence in children. It is challenging to diagnose and manage due to the variety of aetiologies and non-specific clinical presentations. We discuss the recent progress in clinical case definitions; review recent, large, prospective epidemiological studies; and describe aetiologies. We emphasise infectious causes relevant to children in Australasia but also consider emerging immune-mediated syndromes responsive to immune therapies. We identify priorities for future research in children, given the potential for climate change and international travel to influence the emergence of infectious agents in our region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip N Britton
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, The Children's Hospital at Westmead, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia; Discipline of Paediatrics and Child Health, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia; Marie Bashir Institute for Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity (MBI), University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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17
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Mehle A. Unusual influenza A viruses in bats. Viruses 2014; 6:3438-49. [PMID: 25256392 PMCID: PMC4189031 DOI: 10.3390/v6093438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2014] [Revised: 09/09/2014] [Accepted: 09/10/2014] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Influenza A viruses infect a remarkably diverse number of hosts. Two completely new influenza A virus subtypes were recently discovered in bats, dramatically expanding the host range of the virus. These bat viruses are extremely divergent from all other known strains and likely have unique replication cycles. Phylogenetic analysis indicates long-term, isolated evolution in bats. This is supported by a high seroprevalence in sampled bat populations. As bats represent ~20% of all classified mammals, these findings suggests the presence of a massive cryptic reservoir of poorly characterized influenza A viruses. Here, we review the exciting progress made on understanding these newly discovered viruses, and discuss their zoonotic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Mehle
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Immunology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA.
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18
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Annand EJ, Reid PA. Clinical review of two fatal equine cases of infection with the insectivorous bat strain of Australian bat lyssavirus. Aust Vet J 2014; 92:324-32. [DOI: 10.1111/avj.12227] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- EJ Annand
- Randwick Equine Centre; Sydney New South Wales Australia
| | - PA Reid
- Brisbane Queensland Australia
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19
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Australian bat lyssavirus infection in two horses. Vet Microbiol 2014; 173:224-31. [PMID: 25195190 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2014.07.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2014] [Revised: 07/11/2014] [Accepted: 07/27/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
In May 2013, the first cases of Australian bat lyssavirus infections in domestic animals were identified in Australia. Two horses (filly-H1 and gelding-H2) were infected with the Yellow-bellied sheathtail bat (YBST) variant of Australian bat lyssavirus (ABLV). The horses presented with neurological signs, pyrexia and progressing ataxia. Intra-cytoplasmic inclusion bodies (Negri bodies) were detected in some Purkinje neurons in haematoxylin and eosin (H&E) stained sections from the brain of one of the two infected horses (H2) by histological examination. A morphological diagnosis of sub-acute moderate non-suppurative, predominantly angiocentric, meningo-encephalomyelitis of viral aetiology was made. The presumptive diagnosis of ABLV infection was confirmed by the positive testing of the affected brain tissue from (H2) in a range of laboratory tests including fluorescent antibody test (FAT) and real-time PCR targeting the nucleocapsid (N) gene. Retrospective testing of the oral swab from (H1) in the real-time PCR also returned a positive result. The FAT and immunohistochemistry (IHC) revealed an abundance of ABLV antigen throughout the examined brain sections. ABLV was isolated from the brain (H2) and oral swab/saliva (H1) in the neuroblastoma cell line (MNA). Alignment of the genome sequence revealed a 97.7% identity with the YBST ABLV strain.
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20
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García-Pérez R, Ibáñez C, Godínez JM, Aréchiga N, Garin I, Pérez-Suárez G, de Paz O, Juste J, Echevarría JE, Bravo IG. Novel papillomaviruses in free-ranging Iberian bats: no virus-host co-evolution, no strict host specificity, and hints for recombination. Genome Biol Evol 2014; 6:94-104. [PMID: 24391150 PMCID: PMC3914694 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evt211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Papillomaviruses (PVs) are widespread pathogens. However, the extent of PV infections in bats remains largely unknown. This work represents the first comprehensive study of PVs in Iberian bats. We identified four novel PVs in the mucosa of free-ranging Eptesicus serotinus (EserPV1, EserPV2, and EserPV3) and Rhinolophus ferrumequinum (RferPV1) individuals and analyzed their phylogenetic relationships within the viral family. We further assessed their prevalence in different populations of E. serotinus and its close relative E. isabellinus. Although it is frequent to read that PVs co-evolve with their host, that PVs are highly species-specific, and that PVs do not usually recombine, our results suggest otherwise. First, strict virus–host co-evolution is rejected by the existence of five, distantly related bat PV lineages and by the lack of congruence between bats and bat PVs phylogenies. Second, the ability of EserPV2 and EserPV3 to infect two different bat species (E. serotinus and E. isabellinus) argues against strict host specificity. Finally, the description of a second noncoding region in the RferPV1 genome reinforces the view of an increased susceptibility to recombination in the E2-L2 genomic region. These findings prompt the question of whether the prevailing paradigms regarding PVs evolution should be reconsidered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel García-Pérez
- Infections and Cancer Laboratory, Catalan Institute of Oncology (ICO), Barcelona, Spain
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21
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Francis JR, Nourse C, Vaska VL, Calvert S, Northill JA, McCall B, Mattke AC. Australian Bat Lyssavirus in a child: the first reported case. Pediatrics 2014; 133:e1063-7. [PMID: 24590754 DOI: 10.1542/peds.2013-1782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Human infection with Australian Bat Lyssavirus is extremely rare and has not previously been reported in a child. We describe a fatal case of Australian Bat Lyssavirus in an 8-year-old child, and review the literature pertaining to the diagnosis and management of lyssavirus infection with consideration of its applicability to this emerging strain.
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22
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Weir DL, Annand EJ, Reid PA, Broder CC. Recent observations on Australian bat lyssavirus tropism and viral entry. Viruses 2014; 6:909-26. [PMID: 24556791 PMCID: PMC3939488 DOI: 10.3390/v6020909] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2014] [Revised: 01/25/2014] [Accepted: 02/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Australian bat lyssavirus (ABLV) is a recently emerged rhabdovirus of the genus lyssavirus considered endemic in Australian bat populations that causes a neurological disease in people indistinguishable from clinical rabies. There are two distinct variants of ABLV, one that circulates in frugivorous bats (genus Pteropus) and the other in insectivorous microbats (genus Saccolaimus). Three fatal human cases of ABLV infection have been reported, the most recent in 2013, and each manifested as acute encephalitis but with variable incubation periods. Importantly, two equine cases also arose recently in 2013, the first occurrence of ABLV in a species other than bats or humans. Similar to other rhabdoviruses, ABLV infects host cells through receptor-mediated endocytosis and subsequent pH-dependent fusion facilitated by its single fusogenic envelope glycoprotein (G). Recent studies have revealed that proposed rabies virus (RABV) receptors are not sufficient to permit ABLV entry into host cells and that the unknown receptor is broadly conserved among mammalian species. However, despite clear tropism differences between ABLV and RABV, the two viruses appear to utilize similar endocytic entry pathways. The recent human and horse infections highlight the importance of continued Australian public health awareness of this emerging pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dawn L Weir
- Department of Microbiology, Uniformed Services University, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA.
| | - Edward J Annand
- Equine Veterinary Surgeon, Randwick Equine Centre, Sydney 2031, Australia.
| | - Peter A Reid
- Equine Veterinary Surgeon, Brisbane, Queensland 4034, Australia.
| | - Christopher C Broder
- Department of Microbiology, Uniformed Services University, Bethesda, MD 20814, USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alan C Jackson
- Departments of Internal Medicine (Neurology) and of Medical Microbiology, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.
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Kardamanidis K, Cashman P, Durrheim DN. Travel and non-travel associated rabies post exposure treatment in New South Wales residents, Australia, 2007-2011: a cross-sectional analysis. Travel Med Infect Dis 2013; 11:421-6. [PMID: 24211239 DOI: 10.1016/j.tmaid.2013.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2013] [Revised: 09/24/2013] [Accepted: 09/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Australian Bat Lyssavirus is endemic in Australian bats. More Australians are travelling to rabies (Lyssavirus 1) endemic countries. The nature and frequency of lyssavirus exposures and characteristics of New South Wales (NSW) residents exposed have not previously been described. METHOD Access to free rabies post-exposure treatment (PET) can only be arranged through Public Health Units in NSW. Details of people receiving PET after potential exposures to rabies or ABLV from 1 January 2007 to 31 December 2011 were extracted from an NSW Ministry of Health web-based database and analysed to better understand lyssavirus exposure epidemiology. RESULTS Of 1195 people receiving PET, 415 exposures were in Australia and 780 abroad; 78.3% occurring in Southeast Asia, mainly Indonesia (47.6%) where most were on the island of Bali (95.2%). PET use increased substantially for domestic and international exposures. In Australia, most bat exposures were to members of the public (76.0%), rather than to people who work with bats professionally or as volunteers, with 54.1% due to bat rescue attempts. Injuries abroad were mainly from monkeys (49.4%) and from dogs (35.8%). Only 4.0% of international travellers were vaccinated prior to their exposure. CONCLUSIONS Increasing rates of PET in travelling and non-travelling Australians emphasise the need for more effective communication about appropriate animal avoidance and the measures required if exposed. Opportunities for increasing pre-exposure treatment amongst individuals likely to be exposed should be promoted.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Kardamanidis
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Postbus 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, Netherlands.
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25
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Conroy N, Vlack S, Williams JM, Patten JJ, Horvath RL, Lambert SB. Using serology to assist with complicated post-exposure prophylaxis for rabies and Australian bat lyssavirus. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2013; 7:e2066. [PMID: 23469301 PMCID: PMC3584984 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2012] [Accepted: 01/04/2013] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Australia uses a protocol combining human rabies immunoglobulin (HRIG) and rabies vaccine for post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) of rabies and Australian bat lyssavirus (ABLV), with the aim of achieving an antibody titre of ≥0.5 IU/ml, as per World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines, as soon as possible. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS We present the course of PEP administration and serological testing for four men with complex requirements. Following dog bites in Thailand, two men (62 years old, 25 years old) received no HRIG and had delayed vaccine courses: 23 days between dose two and three, and 18 days between dose one and two, respectively. Both seroconverted following dose four. Another 62-year-old male, who was HIV-positive (normal CD4 count), also suffered a dog bite and had delayed care receiving i.m. rabies vaccine on days six and nine in Thailand. Back in Australia, he received three single and one double dose i.m. vaccines followed by another double dose of vaccine, delivered intradermally and subcutaneously, before seroconverting. A 23-year-old male with a history of allergies received simultaneous HRIG and vaccine following potential ABLV exposure, and developed rash, facial oedema and throat tingling, which was treated with a parenteral antihistamine and tapering dose of steroids. Serology showed he seroconverted following dose four. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE These cases show that PEP can be complicated by exposures in tourist settings where reliable prophylaxis may not be available, where treatment is delayed or deviates from World Health Organization recommendations. Due to the potentially short incubation time of rabies/ABLV, timely prophylaxis after a potential exposure is needed to ensure a prompt and adequate immune response, particularly in patients who are immune-suppressed or who have not received HRIG. Serology should be used to confirm an adequate response to PEP when treatment is delayed or where a concurrent immunosuppressing medical condition or therapy exists.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niall Conroy
- Public Health Registrar, Queensland Health, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Susan Vlack
- Moreton Bay Public Health Unit, Queensland Health, Redcliffe, Queensland, Australia
| | - Julian M. Williams
- Royal Brisbane and Women's Hospital, Queensland Health, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - John J. Patten
- Brisbane Sexual Health Clinic & AIDS Medical Unit, Queensland Health, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Robert L. Horvath
- Prince Charles Hospital, Queensland Health, Chermside, Queensland, Australia
| | - Stephen B. Lambert
- Queensland Children's Medical Research Institute, The University of Queensland and Queensland Children's Health Services, Queensland Health, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia, and Immunisation Program, Communicable Diseases Branch, Queensland Health, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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Abstract
Encephalitis is a serious and potentially treatable infection of the central nervous system. A pathogen is identified in less than 50% of cases. The differential diagnosis includes acute infection, immune-mediated causes, and other central nervous system processes. Emergent investigations include blood work, cerebrospinal fluid analysis, and neuroimaging. Empiric acyclovir and antibiotics should be started immediately to maximize the child's chance of neurologic recovery.
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Abstract
Bats are the second most species rich and abundant group of mammals and display an array of unique characteristics but are also among the most poorly studied mammals. They fill an important ecological niche and have diversified into a wide range of habitats. In recent years, bats have been implicated as reservoirs for some of the most highly pathogenic emerging and re-emerging infectious diseases reported to date, including SARS-like coronavirus, Ebola, Hendra and Nipah viruses. The ability of bats to harbour these viruses in the absence of clinical signs of disease has resulted in a resurgence of interest in bat biology and virus–host interactions. Interest in bats, in Australia in particular, has intensified following the identification of several novel bat-borne viruses from flying-foxes, including Hendra virus, which is capable of spillover from bats to horses and subsequently to humans with potentially fatal consequences. As we continue to encroach on the natural habitats of bats, a better understanding of bat biology, ecology and virus–host interactions has never before been so critical. In this review, we focus on the biology of Australian pteropid bats and the pathogens they harbour, summarising current knowledge of bat-borne diseases, bat ecology, ethology and immunology.
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Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of the global epidemiology of rabies, focusing on major changes over the past half-century and highlighting recent discoveries. This chapter also describes the natural and iatrogenic routes of transmission, as well as the risk and necessary actions for the prevention of rabies following an exposure. It reviews the methods for rabies diagnosis and the biologics for prevention, in addition to differences in rabies prophylaxis recommendations among advisory committees. The chapter also considers epidemiology and trends in global human rabies and the dynamics of the corresponding mammalian reservoir hosts for each area. Furthermore, it considers the phylogenetics of rabies virus, other lyssaviruses, and specific rabies virus variants in the context of regional rabies and the potential for novel emergences. Special attention is paid to developed countries, where existing surveillance and diagnostic infrastructure have provided detailed insights into the nature changing patterns in rabies epidemiology-patterns expected to be increasingly relevant to other less-developed nations based on current trends. Special attention is afforded to canine rabies, as dogs remain responsible for over 99% of all human exposures to the virus, including the methods and problems associated with intentional and unintentional movement of dogs at national and international levels. Finally, the chapter discusses the economic burden of rabies in terms of human and infrastructure support.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cathleen A. Hanlon
- Kansas State University Rabies Laboratory, 2005 Research Park Circle, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA
| | - James E. Childs
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health Yale University School of Medicine, 60 College Street, P.O. Box 208034, New Haven, CT 06520, USA
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Epidemiology and aetiology of encephalitis in Canada, 1994-2008: a case for undiagnosed arboviral agents? Epidemiol Infect 2012; 141:2243-55. [PMID: 23148910 DOI: 10.1017/s095026881200252x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Encephalitis is a clinical syndrome often associated with infectious agents. This study describes the epidemiology and disease burden associated with encephalitis in Canada and explores possible associations with arboviral causes. Encephalitis-associated hospitalizations, 1994-2008, were analysed according to aetiological category (based on ICD-9/ICD-10 codes) and other factors using multivariate logistic regression for grouped (blocked) data and negative binomial regression. A discrete Poisson model tested spatio-temporal clustering of hospitalizations associated with unclassified and arboviral encephalitis aetiologies. Encephalitis accounted for an estimated 24028 hospitalizations in Canada (5·2/100 000 population) and unknown aetiologies represented 50% of these hospitalizations. In 2003, clusters of unclassified encephalitis were identified in the summer and early autumn months signifying potential underlying arboviral aetiologies. Spatio-temporal patterns in encephalitis hospitalizations may help us to better understand the disease burden associated with arboviruses and other zoonotic pathogens in Canada and to develop appropriate surveillance systems.
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Furr SR, Marriott I. Viral CNS infections: role of glial pattern recognition receptors in neuroinflammation. Front Microbiol 2012; 3:201. [PMID: 22723794 PMCID: PMC3379540 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2012.00201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2012] [Accepted: 05/15/2012] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Viruses are the major causative agents of central nervous system (CNS) infection worldwide. RNA and DNA viruses trigger broad activation of glial cells including microglia and astrocytes, eliciting the release of an array of mediators that can promote innate and adaptive immune responses. Such responses can limit viral replication and dissemination leading to infection resolution. However, a defining feature of viral CNS infection is the rapid onset of severe neuroinflammation and overzealous glial responses are associated with significant neurological damage or even death. The mechanisms by which microglia and astrocytes perceive neurotropic RNA and DNA viruses are only now becoming apparent with the discovery of a variety of cell surface and cytosolic molecules that serve as sensors for viral components. In this review we discuss the role played by members of the Toll-like family of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) in the inflammatory responses of glial cells to the principle causative agents of viral encephalitis. Importantly, we also describe the evidence for the involvement of a number of newly described intracellular PRRs, including retinoic acid-inducible gene I and DNA-dependent activator of IFN regulatory factors, that are thought to function as intracellular sensors of RNA and DNA viruses, respectively. Finally, we explore the possibility that cross-talk exists between these disparate viral sensors and their signaling pathways, and describe how glial cytosolic and cell surface/endosomal PRRs could act in a cooperative manner to promote the fulminant inflammation associated with acute neurotropic viral infection.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ian Marriott
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Charlotte,Charlotte, NC, USA
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31
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Paterson BJ, Mackenzie JS, Durrheim DN, Smith D. A review of the epidemiology and surveillance of viral zoonotic encephalitis and the impact on human health in Australia. NEW SOUTH WALES PUBLIC HEALTH BULLETIN 2011; 22:99-104. [PMID: 21781616 DOI: 10.1071/nb10076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Human encephalitis in Australia causes substantial mortality and morbidity, with frequent severe neurological sequelae and long-term cognitive impairment. This review discusses a number of highly pathogenic zoonotic viruses which have recently emerged in Australia, including Hendra virus and Australian bat lyssavirus which present with an encephalitic syndrome in humans. Encephalitis surveillance currently focuses on animals at sentinel sites and animal disease or definitive diagnosis of notifiable conditions that may present with encephalitis. This is inadequate for detecting newly emerged viral encephalatides. Hospital-based sentinel surveillance may aid in identifying increases in known pathogens or emergence of new pathogens that require a prompt public health response.
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Moore PR, Jansen CC, Graham GC, Smith IL, Craig SB. Emerging tropical diseases in Australia. Part 3. Australian bat lyssavirus. ANNALS OF TROPICAL MEDICINE AND PARASITOLOGY 2011; 104:613-21. [PMID: 21144181 DOI: 10.1179/136485910x12851868779948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Since its discovery in a juvenile black flying fox (Pteropus alecto) in 1996, Australian bat lyssavirus (ABLV) has become the cause of a potentially important emerging disease for health authorities in Australia, with two human deaths (one in 1996 and one in 1998) attributed to the virus in the north-eastern state of Queensland. In Australia, the virus has been isolated from all four species of flying fox found on the mainland (i.e. P. alecto, P. scapulatus, P. poliocephalus and P. conspicillatus) as well as a single species of insectivorous bat (Saccolaimus flaviventris). Australian bat lyssavirus belongs to the Lyssavirus genus and is closely related, genetically, to the type strain of Rabies virus (RABV). Clinically, patients infected with ABLV have displayed the 'classical' symptoms of rabies and a similar disease course. This similarity has led to the belief that the infection and dissemination of ABLV in the body follows the same pathways as those followed by RABV. Following the two ABLV-related deaths in Queensland, protocols based on the World Health Organization's guidelines for RABV prophylaxis were implemented and, presumably in consequence, no human infection with ABLV has been recorded since 1998. ABLV will, however, probably always have an important part to play in the health of Australians as the density of the human population in Australia and, consequently, the level of interaction between humans and flying foxes increase.
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Affiliation(s)
- P R Moore
- Public Health Virology, Queensland Health Forensic and Scientific Services, P.O. Box 594, Archerfield, Queensland, 4108, Australia.
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Dendle C, Looke D. Review article: Animal bites: an update for management with a focus on infections. Emerg Med Australas 2010; 20:458-67. [PMID: 19125823 DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-6723.2008.01130.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Animal bites are a significant public health problem, with an estimated 2% of the population bitten each year. The majority of bites are from dogs and risk factors include young children, men, certain dog breeds and unrestrained dogs. The risk of infection following bites differs among animal species and is dependent on animal dentition and oral flora. Recent studies have demonstrated a broad range of pathogens isolated from infected bite wounds, with Pasteurella species being the predominant isolate from dog and cat bite wounds. Controversy exists about the use of prophylactic antibiotics; however, they are currently only recommended for high-risk bite wounds. Two fatal cases of Australian bat lyssavirus have been reported and bats are the only identified reservoir in Australia. All bat bites are of high risk and should receive post-exposure prophylaxis for rabies. Workers handling bats should be offered routine immunization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Dendle
- Infectious Diseases Department, Austin Health, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia
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34
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Huppatz C, Durrheim DN, Levi C, Dalton C, Williams D, Clements MS, Kelly PM. Etiology of encephalitis in Australia, 1990-2007. Emerg Infect Dis 2010; 15:1359-65. [PMID: 19788802 PMCID: PMC2819877 DOI: 10.3201/eid1509.081540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Unexplained disease etiology in hospitalized patients highlights the importance of surveillance to detect emerging novel pathogens. Encephalitis is a clinical syndrome commonly caused by emerging pathogens, which are not under surveillance in Australia. We reviewed rates of hospitalization for patients with encephalitis in Australia’s most populous state, New South Wales, from January 1990 through December 2007. Encephalitis was the primary discharge diagnosis for 5,926 hospital admissions; average annual hospitalization rate was 5.2/100,000 population. The most commonly identified pathogen was herpes simplex virus (n = 763, 12.9%). Toxoplasma encephalitis and subacute sclerosing panencephalitis showed notable declines. The average annual encephalitis case-fatality rate (4.6%) and the proportion of patients hospitalized with encephalitis with no identified pathogen (69.8%, range 61.5%–78.7%) were stable during the study period. The nonnotifiable status of encephalitis in Australia and the high proportion of this disease with no known etiology may conceal emergence of novel pathogens. Unexplained encephalitis should be investigated, and encephalitis hospitalizations should be subject to statutory notification in Australia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clare Huppatz
- Hunter New England Population Health, Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia
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35
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Abstract
The first part of this review ended with a discussion of new niches for known viruses as illustrated by viral central nervous system (CNS) disease associated with organ transplant and the syndrome of human herpesvirus 6-associated posttransplant acute limbic encephalitis. In this part, we begin with a continuation of this theme, reviewing the association of JC virus-associated progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy (PML) with novel immunomodulatory agents. This part then continues with emerging viral infections associated with importation of infected animals (monkeypox virus), then spread of vectors and enhanced vector competence (chikungunya virus [CHIK]), and novel viruses causing CNS infections including Nipah and Hendra viruses and bat lyssaviruses (BLV).
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenneth L Tyler
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado Denver Health Sciences Center, Aurora, CO 80045, USA.
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Nadin-Davis SA, Sheen M, Wandeler AI. Development of real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction methods for human rabies diagnosis. J Med Virol 2009; 81:1484-97. [PMID: 19551825 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.21547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
To improve timely ante-mortem human rabies diagnosis, methods to detect viral RNA by TaqMan-based quantitative reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reactions (qRT-PCRs) have been developed. Three sets of two primers and one internal dual-labeled probe for each primer set that target distinct conserved regions of the rabies virus N gene were designed and evaluated. Using a collection of 203 isolates representative of the world-wide diversity of rabies virus, all three primers/probe sets were shown to detect a wide range of rabies virus strains with very few detection failures; the RABVD1 set in particular was the most broadly reactive. These qRT-PCR assays were shown to be quantitative over a wide range of viral titer and were 100-1,000 times more sensitive than nested RT-PCR; however, both the standard and real-time PCR methods yielded concordant results when used to test a collection of archived human suspect samples. The qRT-PCR assay was employed to monitor virus load in the saliva of a rabies virus-infected patient undergoing the Milwaukee treatment protocol. However in this case it would appear that reduction of the viral load in the patient's saliva over time did not appear to correlate well with clearance of viral components from the brain.
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Misra V, Dumonceaux T, Dubois J, Willis C, Nadin-Davis S, Severini A, Wandeler A, Lindsay R, Artsob H. Detection of polyoma and corona viruses in bats of Canada. J Gen Virol 2009; 90:2015-2022. [PMID: 19357225 DOI: 10.1099/vir.0.010694-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Several instances of emerging diseases in humans appear to be caused by the spillover of viruses endemic to bats, either directly or through other animal intermediaries. The objective of this study was to detect, identify and characterize viruses in bats in the province of Manitoba and other regions of Canada. Bats were sampled from three sources: live-trapped Myotis lucifugus from Manitoba, rabies-negative Eptesicus fuscus, M. lucifugus, M. yumanensis, M. septentrionalis, M. californicus, M. evotis, Lasionycteris (L.) noctivagans and Lasiurus (Las.) cinereus, provided by the Centre of Expertise for Rabies of the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA), and L. noctivagans, Las. cinereus and Las. borealis collected from a wind farm in Manitoba. We attempted to isolate viruses from fresh tissue samples taken from trapped bats in cultured cells of bat, primate, rodent, porcine, ovine and avian origin. We also screened bat tissues by PCR using primers designed to amplify nucleic acids from members of certain families of viruses. We detected RNA of a group 1 coronavirus from M. lucifugus (3 of 31 animals) and DNA from an as-yet undescribed polyomavirus from female M. lucifugus (4 of 31 animals) and M. californicus (pooled tissues from two females).
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Affiliation(s)
- Vikram Misra
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, 52 Campus Road, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK S7N 5B4, Canada
| | - Timothy Dumonceaux
- National Microbiology Laboratory, Canadian Science Centre for Human and Animal Disease, 1015 Arlington Street, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3R2, Canada
| | - Jack Dubois
- Manitoba Conservation, Wildlife and Ecosystem Protection Branch, Box 24, 200 Saulteaux Crescent, Winnipeg, MB R3J 3W3, Canada
| | - Craig Willis
- Department of Biology and Centre for Forest Interdisciplinary Research, University of Winnipeg, 515 Portage Avenue, Winnipeg, MB R3B 2E9, Canada
| | - Susan Nadin-Davis
- Centre of Expertise for Rabies, Ottawa Laboratory-Fallowfield, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 3851 Fallowfield Road, Ottawa, ON K2H 8P9, Canada
| | - Alberto Severini
- National Microbiology Laboratory, Canadian Science Centre for Human and Animal Disease, 1015 Arlington Street, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3R2, Canada
| | - Alex Wandeler
- Centre of Expertise for Rabies, Ottawa Laboratory-Fallowfield, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, 3851 Fallowfield Road, Ottawa, ON K2H 8P9, Canada
| | - Robbin Lindsay
- National Microbiology Laboratory, Canadian Science Centre for Human and Animal Disease, 1015 Arlington Street, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3R2, Canada
| | - Harvey Artsob
- National Microbiology Laboratory, Canadian Science Centre for Human and Animal Disease, 1015 Arlington Street, Winnipeg, MB R3E 3R2, Canada
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Philbey AW, Kirkland PD, Ross AD, Field HE, Srivastava M, Davis RJ, Love RJ. Infection with Menangle virus in flying foxes (Pteropus spp.) in Australia. Aust Vet J 2009; 86:449-54. [PMID: 18959537 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.2008.00361.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To examine flying foxes (Pteropus spp.) for evidence of infection with Menangle virus. DESIGN Clustered non-random sampling for serology, virus isolation and electron microscopy (EM). PROCEDURE Serum samples were collected from 306 Pteropus spp. in northern and eastern Australia and tested for antibodies against Menangle virus (MenV) using a virus neutralisation test (VNT). Virus isolation was attempted from tissues and faeces collected from 215 Pteropus spp. in New South Wales. Faecal samples from 68 individual Pteropus spp. and four pools of faeces were examined by transmission EM following routine negative staining and immunogold labelling. RESULTS Neutralising antibodies (VNT titres > or = 8) against MenV were detected in 46% of black flying foxes (P. alecto), 41% of grey-headed flying foxes (P. poliocephalus), 25% of spectacled flying foxes (P. conspicillatus) and 1% of little red flying foxes (P. scapulatus) in Australia. Positive sera included samples collected from P. poliocephalus in a colony adjacent to a piggery that had experienced reproductive disease caused by MenV. Virus-like particles were observed by EM in faeces from Pteropus spp. and reactivity was detected in pooled faeces and urine by immunogold EM using sera from sows that had been exposed to MenV. Attempts to isolate the virus from the faeces and tissues from Pteropus spp. were unsuccessful. CONCLUSION Serological evidence of infection with MenV was detected in Pteropus spp. in Australia. Although virus-like particles were detected in faeces, no viruses were isolated from faeces, urine or tissues of Pteropus spp.
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Affiliation(s)
- A W Philbey
- New South Wales Department of Primary Industries, Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute, Menangle NSW, Australia.
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Harris S, Brookes S, Jones G, Hutson A, Racey P, Aegerter J, Smith G, McElhinney L, Fooks A. European bat lyssaviruses: Distribution, prevalence and implications for conservation. BIOLOGICAL CONSERVATION 2006; 131:193-210. [PMID: 32226078 PMCID: PMC7096730 DOI: 10.1016/j.biocon.2006.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Worldwide, there are more than 1100 species of the Order Chiroptera, 45 of which are present in Europe, and 16 in the UK. Bats are reservoirs of, or can be infected by, several viral diseases, including rabies virus strains (in the Lyssavirus genus). Within this genus are bat variants that have been recorded in Europe; European bat lyssavirus 1 (EBLV-1), European bat lyssavirus 2 (EBLV-2) and, four currently unclassified isolates. Since 1977, 783 cases of EBLVs (by isolation of viral RNA) have been recorded in Europe. EBLV-1 or EBLV-2 has been identified in 12 bat species, with over 95% of EBLV-1 infections identified in Eptesicus serotinus. EBLV-2 is associated with Myotis species (Myotis daubentonii and Myotis dasycneme). A programme of passive surveillance in the United Kingdom between 1987 and 2004 tested 4871 bats for lyssaviruses. Of these, four M. daubentonii (3.57% of submitted M. daubentonii) were positive for EBLV-2. Potential bias in the passive surveillance includes possible over-representation of synanthropic species and regional biases caused by varying bat submission numbers from different parts of the UK. In 2003, active surveillance in the UK began, and has detected an antibody prevalence level of 1-5% of EBLV-2 in M. daubentonii (n = 350), and one bat with antibodies to EBLV-1 in E. serotinus (n = 52). No cases of live lyssavirus infection or lyssavirus viral RNA have been detected through active surveillance. Further research and monitoring regarding prevalence, transmission, pathogenesis and immunity is required to ensure that integrated bat conservation continues throughout Europe, whilst enabling informed policy decision regarding both human and wildlife health issues.
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Affiliation(s)
- S.L. Harris
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Woodland Road, Bristol BS8 1UG, UK
- Rabies and Wildlife Zoonoses Group, Veterinary Laboratories Agency (Weybridge), WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterisation of Rabies and Rabies-Related Viruses, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - S.M. Brookes
- Rabies and Wildlife Zoonoses Group, Veterinary Laboratories Agency (Weybridge), WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterisation of Rabies and Rabies-Related Viruses, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - G. Jones
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Woodland Road, Bristol BS8 1UG, UK
| | - A.M. Hutson
- Winkfield, Station Road, Plumpton Green, East Sussex, BN7 3BU, UK
| | - P.A. Racey
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB24 2TZ, UK
| | - J. Aegerter
- Central Science Laboratory, Sand Hutton, York, YO41 1LZ, UK
| | - G.C. Smith
- Central Science Laboratory, Sand Hutton, York, YO41 1LZ, UK
| | - L.M. McElhinney
- Rabies and Wildlife Zoonoses Group, Veterinary Laboratories Agency (Weybridge), WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterisation of Rabies and Rabies-Related Viruses, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
| | - A.R. Fooks
- Rabies and Wildlife Zoonoses Group, Veterinary Laboratories Agency (Weybridge), WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterisation of Rabies and Rabies-Related Viruses, New Haw, Addlestone, Surrey KT15 3NB, UK
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Calisher CH, Childs JE, Field HE, Holmes KV, Schountz T. Bats: important reservoir hosts of emerging viruses. Clin Microbiol Rev 2006; 19:531-45. [PMID: 16847084 PMCID: PMC1539106 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00017-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 946] [Impact Index Per Article: 52.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Bats (order Chiroptera, suborders Megachiroptera ["flying foxes"] and Microchiroptera) are abundant, diverse, and geographically widespread. These mammals provide us with resources, but their importance is minimized and many of their populations and species are at risk, even threatened or endangered. Some of their characteristics (food choices, colonial or solitary nature, population structure, ability to fly, seasonal migration and daily movement patterns, torpor and hibernation, life span, roosting behaviors, ability to echolocate, virus susceptibility) make them exquisitely suitable hosts of viruses and other disease agents. Bats of certain species are well recognized as being capable of transmitting rabies virus, but recent observations of outbreaks and epidemics of newly recognized human and livestock diseases caused by viruses transmitted by various megachiropteran and microchiropteran bats have drawn attention anew to these remarkable mammals. This paper summarizes information regarding chiropteran characteristics and information regarding 66 viruses that have been isolated from bats. From these summaries, it is clear that we do not know enough about bat biology; we are doing too little in terms of bat conservation; and there remain a multitude of questions regarding the role of bats in disease emergence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles H Calisher
- Arthropod-borne and Infectious Diseases Laboratory, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA.
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Tjørnehøj K, Fooks AR, Agerholm JS, Rønsholt L. Natural and experimental infection of sheep with European bat lyssavirus type-1 of Danish bat origin. J Comp Pathol 2006; 134:190-201. [PMID: 16545840 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcpa.2005.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2005] [Accepted: 10/30/2005] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
In 1998 and 2002, European bat lyssavirus type-1 (EBLV-1) was demonstrated in brain tissue of five Danish sheep suffering from neurological disorders. Four of the five sheep also had encephalic listeriosis. The animals originated from four flocks on pastures within a limited area of western Jutland. In a serological investigation in two of the herds, from which three of the diseased animals originated, EBLV-1 neutralizing antibodies were detected in only one of 69 sheep. In follow-up surveys, 2110 sheep sera collected at Danish slaughterhouses during 2000 were all negative for EBLV-1-antibodies, and EBLV-1 was not demonstrated in 87 ruminants displaying neurological symptoms. To investigate the pathogenic effects of EBLV-1, four sheep were inoculated intralabially with either brain material from one of the naturally infected sheep or virus isolated from the same sheep. These animals developed EBLV-1 neutralizing antibodies at 5-9 weeks post-inoculation but did not exhibit neurological signs during a 33-week observation period. It was speculated that the immune response prevented viral dissemination to the brain, resulting in an abortive peripheral infection. It was concluded that EBLV-1 can infect sheep under natural conditions as an incidental event.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Tjørnehøj
- Department of Virology, Danish Institute for Food and Veterinary Research, Lindholm, DK-4771 Kalvehave, Denmark
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Abstract
The last decade of the 20th Century saw the introduction of an unprecedented number of encephalitic viruses emerge or spread in the Southeast Asian and Western Pacific regions (Mackenzie et al, 2001; Solomon, 2003a). Most of these viruses are zoonotic, either being arthropod-borne viruses or bat-borne viruses. Thus Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), a mosquito-borne flavivirus, has spread through the Indonesian archipelago to Papua New Guinea (PNG) and to the islands of the Torres Strait of northern Australia, to Pakistan, and to new areas in the Indian subcontinent; a strain of tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) was described for the first time in Hokkaido, Japan; and a novel mosquito-borne alphavirus, Me Tri virus, was described from Vietnam. Three novel bat-borne viruses emerged in Australia and Malaysia; two, Hendra and Nipah viruses, represent the first examples of a new genus in the family Paramyxoviridae, the genus Henipaviruses, and the third, Australian bat lyssavirus (ABLV) is new lyssavirus closely related to classical rabies virus. These viruses will form the body of this brief review.
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Affiliation(s)
- John S Mackenzie
- Australian Biosecurity CRC, Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Western Australia, Australia.
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Abstract
Australian bat lyssavirus (ABLV), first identified in 1996, has been associated with two human fatalities. ABLV is genetically and serologically distinct from, but is closely related to, classical rabies. It has a bullet-shaped morphology by electron microscopy. There are two strains of ABLV known: one circulates in frugivorous bats, sub-order Megachiroptera, and the other circulates in the smaller, mainly insectivorous bats, sub-order Microchiroptera. Each strain has been associated with one human fatality. Surveillance indicates infected bats are widespread at a low frequency on the Australian mainland. It is unclear how long ABLV has been present in Australia, although molecular clock studies suggest the two strains separated 950 or 1,700 years ago based on synonymous or non-synonymous nucleotide changes, respectively. Recent serological surveys suggest a closely related virus may exist in the Philippines. Due to demonstrated cross-protection in mice, rabies vaccine is used to prevent infection. Rabies post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) protocols have been adopted for when a human is scratched or bitten by a suspect bat. A long-term commitment to public health programs that test bats that have been involved in scratch or bite incidents, followed by PEP if appropriate, will be necessary to minimise further human infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Warrilow
- Public Health Virology Laboratory, Queensland Health Scientific Services, 39 Kessels Rd, 4108 Coopers Plains, Queensland, Australia.
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Callan RJ, Van Metre DC. Viral diseases of the ruminant nervous system. Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract 2004; 20:327-62, vii. [PMID: 15203229 DOI: 10.1016/j.cvfa.2004.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
This article presents the etiology, epidemiology, clinical features,and diagnosis of the primary viral neurologic diseases observed in ruminants. In general, these viral neurologic diseases are uncommon but often fatal. Rabies virus is perhaps the most important cause of encephalitis in cattle because of the public health implications. Other viral encephalitis diseases in ruminants include bovine herpesvirus encephalomyelitis, pseudorabies, malignant catarrhal fever, ovine and caprine lentiviral encephalitis, West Nile virus encephalitis, Borna disease, paramyxoviral sporadic bovine encephalomyelitis,and ovine encephalomyelitis (louping-ill).
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert J Callan
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Colorado State University, 300 West Drake Road, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA.
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Mackenzie JS, Field HE. Emerging encephalitogenic viruses: lyssaviruses and henipaviruses transmitted by frugivorous bats. ARCHIVES OF VIROLOGY. SUPPLEMENTUM 2004:97-111. [PMID: 15119765 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-7091-0572-6_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Three newly recognized encephalitogenic zoonotic viruses spread from fruit bats of the genus Pteropus (order Chiroptera, suborder Megachiroptera) have been recognised over the past decade. These are: Hendra virus, formerly named equine morbillivirus, which was responsible for an outbreak of disease in horses and humans in Brisbane, Australia, in 1994; Australian bat lyssavirus, the cause of a severe acute encephalitis, in 1996; and Nipah virus, the cause of a major outbreak of encephalitis and pulmonary disease in domestic pigs and people in peninsula Malaysia in 1999. Hendra and Nipah viruses have been shown to be the first two members of a new genus, Henipavirus, in the family Paramyxoviridae, subfamily Paramyxovirinae, whereas Australian bat lyssavirus is closely related antigenically to classical rabies virus in the genus Lyssavirus, family Rhabdoviridae, although it can be distinguished on genetic grounds. Hendra and Nipah viruses have neurological and pneumonic tropisms. The first humans and equids with Hendra virus infections died from acute respiratory disease, whereas the second human patient died from an encephalitis. With Nipah virus, the predominant clinical syndrome in humans was encephalitic rather than respiratory, whereas in pigs, the infection was characterised by acute fever with respiratory involvement with or without neurological signs. Two human infections with Australian bat lyssavirus have been reported, the clinical signs of which were consistent with classical rabies infection and included a diffuse, non-suppurative encephalitis. Many important questions remain to be answered regarding modes of transmission, pathogenesis, and geographic range of these viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- J S Mackenzie
- Department of Microbiology and Parasitology, School of Molecular and Microbial Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia.
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Abstract
The full scale of the global burden of human rabies is unknown, owing to inadequate surveillance of this fatal disease. However, the terror of hydrophobia, a cardinal symptom of rabies encephalitis, is suffered by tens of thousands of people each year. The recent discovery of enzootic European bat lyssavirus infection in the UK is indicative of our expanding awareness of the Lyssavirus genus. The main mammalian vector species vary geographically, so the health problems created by the lyssaviruses and their management differ throughout the world. The methods by which these neurotropic viruses hijack neurophysiological mechanisms while evading immune surveillance is beginning to be unravelled by, for example, studies of molecular motor transport systems. Meanwhile, enormous challenges remain in the control of animal rabies and the provision of accessible, appropriate human prophylaxis worldwide.
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Affiliation(s)
- M J Warrell
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford OX3 9DU, UK.
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Fooks AR, McElhinney LM, Pounder DJ, Finnegan CJ, Mansfield K, Johnson N, Brookes SM, Parsons G, White K, McIntyre PG, Nathwani D. Case report: isolation of a European bat lyssavirus type 2a from a fatal human case of rabies encephalitis. J Med Virol 2003; 71:281-9. [PMID: 12938204 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.10481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
A 55-year-old bat conservationist was admitted to Ninewells Hospital, Dundee, Scotland, on November 11, 2002, with an acute haematemesis. He gave a 5-day history of pain and paraesthesia in the left arm, followed by increasing weakness of his limbs with evidence of an evolving encephalitis with cerebellar involvement. The patient had never been vaccinated against rabies and did not receive postexposure treatment. Using a hemi-nested reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), saliva samples taken intravitam from different dates proved positive for rabies. A 400-bp region of the nucleoprotein gene was sequenced for confirmation and identified a strain of European bat lyssavirus (EBLV) type 2a. The diagnosis was confirmed using the fluorescent antibody test (FAT) and by RT-PCR on three brain samples (cerebellum, medulla, and hippocampus) taken at autopsy. In addition, a mouse inoculation test (MIT) was performed. Between 13 and 17 days postinfection, clinical signs of a rabies-like illness had developed in all five inoculated mice. Brain smears from each infected animal were positive by the FAT and viable virus was isolated. This fatal incident is only the second confirmed case of an EBLV type-2 infection in a human after exposure to bats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony R Fooks
- Rabies Research and Diagnostic Group, Veterinary Laboratories Agency (Weybridge) [WHO Collaborating Centre for the Characterisation of Rabies and Rabies-Related Viruses], Surrey, United Kingdom.
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Abstract
Significant advances have been made in our understanding of the natural history and pathogenesis of viral encephalitides. The development of PCR has greatly increased our ability to diagnose viral infections of the central nervous system, particularly for herpes and enteroviral infections. Advancing knowledge has led to the recognition that some encephalitides can be reliably prevented by vaccination (eg, Japanese encephalitis and rabies). For other pathogens such as the arboviruses, the focus has been on prevention by vector control. Finally, effective therapy has been established for a very limited number of viral infections (eg, acyclovir for herpes simplex encephalitis). Other potentially useful treatments, such as pleconaril for enteroviral meningoencephalitis are under clinical evaluation. We review current understanding of viral encephalitides with particular reference to emerging viral infections and the availability of existing treatment regimens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Whitley
- Department of Pediatrics, Microbiology and Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, USA.
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Hanna JN, Carney IK, Smith GA, Tannenberg AE, Deverill JE, Botha JA, Serafin IL, Harrower BJ, Fitzpatrick PF, Searle JW. Australian bat lyssavirus infection: a second human case, with a long incubation period. Med J Aust 2000; 172:597-9. [PMID: 10914106 DOI: 10.5694/j.1326-5377.2000.tb124126.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In December 1998, a 37-year-old Queensland woman died from a rabies-like illness, 27 months after being bitten by a flying fox (fruit bat). Molecular techniques enabled diagnosis of infection with Australian bat lyssavirus (ABL), the second human case to be recognised and the first to be acquired from a flying fox. It must be assumed that any bat in Australia could transmit ABL; anyone bitten or scratched by a bat should immediately wash the wounds thoroughly with soap and water and promptly seek medical advice.
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Affiliation(s)
- J N Hanna
- Tropical Public Health Unit, Queensland Health, Cairns.
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