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Mecklenburg L, Ducore R, Boyle M, Newell A, Boone L, Luft J, Romeike A, Haverkamp AK, Mansfield K, Penraat KA, Baczenas JJ, Minor N, O'Connor SL, O'Connor DH. A new genotype of hepatitis A virus causing transient liver enzyme elevations in Mauritius-origin laboratory-housed Macaca fascicularis. Vet Pathol 2024; 61:488-496. [PMID: 37953600 DOI: 10.1177/03009858231209691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2023]
Abstract
Hepatitis A virus (HAV) infects humans and nonhuman primates, typically causing an acute self-limited illness. Three HAV genotypes have been described so far for humans, and three genotypes have been described for nonhuman primates. We observed transiently elevated liver enzymes in Mauritius-origin laboratory-housed macaques in Germany and were not able to demonstrate an etiology including HAV by serology and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). HAV is a rare pathogen in cynomolgus macaques, and since all employees were routinely vaccinated against HAV, it was not a part of the routine vaccination and screening program. A deep sequencing approach identified a new HAV genotype (referred to as Simian_HAV_Macaca/Germany/Mue-1/2022) in blood samples from affected animals. This HAV was demonstrated by reverse transcription PCR in blood and liver and by in situ hybridization in liver, gall bladder, and septal ducts. A commercial vaccine was used to protect animals from liver enzyme elevation. The newly identified simian HAV genotype demonstrates 80% nucleotide sequence identity to other simian and human HAV genotypes. There was deeper divergence between Simian_HAV_Macaca/Germany/Mue-1/2022 and other previously described HAVs, including both human and simian viruses. In situ hybridization indicated persistence in the biliary epithelium up to 3 months after liver enzymes were elevated. Vaccination using a commercial vaccine against human HAV prevented reoccurrence of liver enzyme elevations. Because available assays for HAV did not detect this new HAV genotype, knowledge of its existence may ameliorate potential significant epidemiological and research implications in laboratories globally.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Rebecca Ducore
- Labcorp Early Development Laboratories Inc., Chantilly, VA
| | - Molly Boyle
- Labcorp Early Development Laboratories Inc., Somerset, NJ
| | - Andrew Newell
- Labcorp Early Development Laboratories Ltd., Harrogate, UK
| | - Laura Boone
- Labcorp Early Development Laboratories Inc., Greenfield, IN
| | - Joerg Luft
- Labcorp Early Development Services GmbH, Muenster, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Nick Minor
- University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI
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2
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Ohta E. Pathologic characteristics of infectious diseases in macaque monkeys used in biomedical and toxicologic studies. J Toxicol Pathol 2023; 36:95-122. [PMID: 37101957 PMCID: PMC10123295 DOI: 10.1293/tox.2022-0089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2022] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 04/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Nonhuman primates (NHPs), which have many advantages in scientific research and are often the only relevant animals to use in assessing the safety profiles and biological or pharmacological effects of drug candidates, including biologics. In scientific or developmental experiments, the immune systems of animals can be spontaneously compromised possibly due to background infection, experimental procedure-associated stress, poor physical condition, or intended or unintended mechanisms of action of test articles. Under these circumstances, background, incidental, or opportunistic infections can seriously can significantly complicate the interpretation of research results and findings and consequently affect experimental conclusions. Pathologists and toxicologists must understand the clinical manifestations and pathologic features of infectious diseases and the effects of these diseases on animal physiology and experimental results in addition to the spectrum of infectious diseases in healthy NHP colonies. This review provides an overview of the clinical and pathologic characteristics of common viral, bacterial, fungal, and parasitic infectious diseases in NHPs, especially macaque monkeys, as well as methods for definitive diagnosis of these diseases. Opportunistic infections that can occur in the laboratory setting have also been addressed in this review with examples of cases of infection disease manifestation that was observed or influenced during safety assessment studies or under experimental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Etsuko Ohta
- Global Drug Safety, Eisai Co., Ltd., 5-1-3 Tokodai,
Tsukuba-shi, Ibaraki 300-2635, Japan
- *Corresponding author: E Ohta (e-mail: )
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3
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Cullen JM, Lemon SM. Comparative Pathology of Hepatitis A Virus and Hepatitis E Virus Infection. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2019; 9:cshperspect.a033456. [PMID: 29712683 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a033456] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Hepatitis A virus (HAV) and hepatitis E virus (HEV) cause acute, self-limiting hepatic infections that are usually spread by the fecal-oral route in humans. Naturally occurring and experimental infections are possible in a variety of nonhuman primates and, in the case of HEV, a number of other species. Many advances in understanding the pathogenesis of these viruses have come from studies in experimental animals. In general, animals infected with these viruses recapitulate the histologic lesions seen in infected humans, but typically with less severe clinical and histopathological manifestations. This review describes the histopathologic changes associated with HAV and HEV infection in humans and experimental animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- John M Cullen
- Department of Population Health and Pathobiology, North Carolina State University College of Veterinary Medicine, Raleigh, North Carolina 27607
| | - Stanley M Lemon
- Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, Departments of Medicine and Microbiology & Immunology, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7030
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Rasche A, Sander AL, Corman VM, Drexler JF. Evolutionary biology of human hepatitis viruses. J Hepatol 2019; 70:501-520. [PMID: 30472320 PMCID: PMC7114834 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhep.2018.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2018] [Revised: 11/09/2018] [Accepted: 11/10/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Hepatitis viruses are major threats to human health. During the last decade, highly diverse viruses related to human hepatitis viruses were found in animals other than primates. Herein, we describe both surprising conservation and striking differences of the unique biological properties and infection patterns of human hepatitis viruses and their animal homologues, including transmission routes, liver tropism, oncogenesis, chronicity, pathogenesis and envelopment. We discuss the potential for translation of newly discovered hepatitis viruses into preclinical animal models for drug testing, studies on pathogenesis and vaccine development. Finally, we re-evaluate the evolutionary origins of human hepatitis viruses and discuss the past and present zoonotic potential of their animal homologues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Rasche
- Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Institute of Virology, 10117 Berlin, Germany,German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Germany
| | - Anna-Lena Sander
- Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Institute of Virology, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Victor Max Corman
- Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Institute of Virology, 10117 Berlin, Germany,German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Germany
| | - Jan Felix Drexler
- Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Corporate Member of Freie Universität Berlin, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, and Berlin Institute of Health, Institute of Virology, 10117 Berlin, Germany; German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Germany.
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5
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Lanford RE, Walker CM, Lemon SM. Nonhuman Primate Models of Hepatitis A Virus and Hepatitis E Virus Infections. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 2019; 9:cshperspect.a031815. [PMID: 29686041 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a031815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Although phylogenetically unrelated, human hepatitis viruses share an exclusive or near exclusive tropism for replication in differentiated hepatocytes. This narrow tissue tropism may contribute to the restriction of the host ranges of these viruses to relatively few host species, mostly nonhuman primates. Nonhuman primate models thus figure prominently in our current understanding of the replication and pathogenesis of these viruses, including the enterically transmitted hepatitis A virus (HAV) and hepatitis E virus (HEV), and have also played major roles in vaccine development. This review draws comparisons of HAV and HEV infection from studies conducted in nonhuman primates, and describes how such studies have contributed to our current understanding of the biology of these viruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert E Lanford
- Southwest National Primate Research Center, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas 782227
| | - Christopher M Walker
- Center for Vaccines and Immunity, The Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital and College of Medicine, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43205
| | - Stanley M Lemon
- Departments of Medicine and Microbiology & Immunology, Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599-7030
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de Almeida Ribeiro CR, Amado LA, Tourinho RS, Pinto Lima LR, Melgaço JG, de Almeida AJ, Bastos LS, Lewis-Ximenez LL, de Paula VS. Accuracy of rapid test for diagnosis of hepatitis A with different infection rate settings and with predictive modeling. Future Microbiol 2019; 14:247-258. [PMID: 30663895 DOI: 10.2217/fmb-2018-0211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
AIM We evaluated the accuracy of a commercial rapid immunochromatographic test (rapid test [RT]) for hepatitis A (HA) diagnosis and epidemiological studies. MATERIALS & METHODS The accuracy of a RT was evaluated in laboratory and in field conditions. Predictive modeling estimated the test performance in a hypothetical population. RESULTS The RT showed sensitivities of 66-86%, and specificities of 21-100%, depending on the antibody isotype (IgM or IgG) analyzed and prevalence of infection. CONCLUSION The RT is a good alternative for diagnostic in HA outbreaks. The predictive model indicates that it should not be used alone for HA diagnosis in low prevalence populations. These data can be used in the future to strengthen decision-making during the implementation of rapid diagnostic methods in health services.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Luciane A Amado
- Laboratory of Development Technological in Virology, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Renata S Tourinho
- Laboratory of Development Technological in Virology, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Lyana R Pinto Lima
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Juliana G Melgaço
- Laboratory of Development Technological in Virology, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Adilson J de Almeida
- Department of General Medicine, Gaffrée & Guinle University Hospital, Federal University of the State of Rio de Janeiro School of Medicine & Surgery, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Leonardo S Bastos
- Scientific Computing Program, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Lia L Lewis-Ximenez
- Ambulatory Clinic of Viral Hepatitis/Viral Hepatitis Laboratory, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Vanessa S de Paula
- Laboratory of Molecular Virology, Oswaldo Cruz Institute, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Bentes GA, Guimarães JR, Volotão EDM, Fialho AM, Hooper C, Ganime AC, Gardinali NR, Lanzarini NM, da Silva ADS, Pitcovski J, Leite JP, Pinto MA. Cynomolgus Monkeys ( Macaca fascicularis) as an Experimental Infection Model for Human Group A Rotavirus. Viruses 2018; 10:v10070355. [PMID: 29973483 PMCID: PMC6071073 DOI: 10.3390/v10070355] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2018] [Revised: 04/23/2018] [Accepted: 04/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Group A rotaviruses (RVA) are one of the most common causes of severe acute gastroenteritis in infants worldwide. Rotaviruses spread from person to person, mainly by faecal–oral transmission. Almost all unvaccinated children may become infected with RVA in the first two years of life. The establishment of an experimental monkey model with RVA is important to evaluate new therapeutic approaches. In this study, we demonstrated viral shedding and viraemia in juvenile–adult Macaca fascicularis orally inoculated with Wa RVA prototype. Nine monkeys were inoculated orally: seven animals with human RVA and two control animals with saline solution. During the study, the monkeys were clinically monitored, and faeces and blood samples were tested for RVA infection. In general, the inoculated animals developed an oligosymptomatic infection pattern. The main clinical symptoms observed were diarrhoea in two monkeys for three days, associated with a reduction in plasmatic potassium content. Viral RNA was detected in seven faecal and five sera samples from inoculated animals, suggesting virus replication. Cynomolgus monkeys are susceptible hosts for human Wa RVA infection. When inoculated orally, they presented self-limited diarrhoea associated with presence of RVA infectious particles in faeces. Thus, cynomolgus monkeys may be useful as animal models to evaluate the efficacy of new antiviral approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gentil Arthur Bentes
- Laboratório de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico em Virologia, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro/RJ 21.040-360, Brazil.
| | - Juliana Rodrigues Guimarães
- Laboratório de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico em Virologia, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro/RJ 21.040-360, Brazil.
| | - Eduardo de Mello Volotão
- Laboratório de Virologia Comparada e Ambiental, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro/RJ 21.040-360, Brazil.
| | - Alexandre Madi Fialho
- Laboratório de Virologia Comparada e Ambiental, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro/RJ 21.040-360, Brazil.
| | - Cleber Hooper
- Serviço de Controle da Qualidade Animal, Instituto de Ciência e Tecnologia em Biomodelos, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro/RJ 21.040-360, Brazil.
| | - Ana Carolina Ganime
- Laboratório de Virologia Comparada e Ambiental, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro/RJ 21.040-360, Brazil.
| | - Noemi Rovaris Gardinali
- Laboratório de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico em Virologia, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro/RJ 21.040-360, Brazil.
| | - Natália Maria Lanzarini
- Laboratório de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico em Virologia, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro/RJ 21.040-360, Brazil.
| | - Alexandre Dos Santos da Silva
- Laboratório de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico em Virologia, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro/RJ 21.040-360, Brazil.
| | - Jacob Pitcovski
- Virology and Vaccine Development Laboratory, MIGAL Technology Center, Kiryat Shmona 11016, Israel.
| | - José Paulo Leite
- Laboratório de Virologia Comparada e Ambiental, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro/RJ 21.040-360, Brazil.
| | - Marcelo Alves Pinto
- Laboratório de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico em Virologia, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz, Rio de Janeiro/RJ 21.040-360, Brazil.
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8
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Yu JM, Li LL, Xie GC, Zhang CY, Ao YY, Duan ZJ. Experimental infection of Marmota monax with a novel hepatitis A virus. Arch Virol 2018; 163:1187-1193. [PMID: 29387970 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-018-3715-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2017] [Accepted: 12/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
To establish an animal model for the newly identified Marmota Himalayana hepatovirus, MHHAV, so as to develop a better understanding of the infection of hepatitis A viruses. Five experimental woodchucks (Marmota monax) were inoculated intravenously with the purified MHHAV from wild woodchuck feces. One animal injected with PBS was defined as a control. Feces and blood were routinely collected. After the animals were subjected to necropsy, different tissues were collected. The presence of viral RNA and negative sense viral RNA was analyzed in all the samples and histopathological and in situ hybridization analysis was performed for the tissues. MHHAV infection caused fever but no severe symptoms or death. Virus was shed in feces beginning at 2 dpi, and MHHAV RNA persisted in feces for ~2 months, with a biphasic increase, and in blood for ~30 days. Viral RNA was detected in all the tissues, with high levels in the liver and spleen. Negative-strand viral RNA was detected only in the liver. Furthermore, the animals showed histological signs of hepatitis at 45 dpi. MHHAV can infect M. monax and is associated with hepatic disease. Therefore, this animal can be used as a model of HAV pathogenesis and to evaluate antiviral and anticancer therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie-Mei Yu
- National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, CDC China, Beijing, 100052, China
| | - Li-Li Li
- National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, CDC China, Beijing, 100052, China
| | - Guang-Cheng Xie
- National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, CDC China, Beijing, 100052, China
| | - Cui-Yuan Zhang
- National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, CDC China, Beijing, 100052, China
| | - Yuan-Yun Ao
- National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, CDC China, Beijing, 100052, China
| | - Zhao-Jun Duan
- National Institute for Viral Disease Control and Prevention, CDC China, Beijing, 100052, China.
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Lanford RE, Walker CM, Lemon SM. The Chimpanzee Model of Viral Hepatitis: Advances in Understanding the Immune Response and Treatment of Viral Hepatitis. ILAR J 2017; 58:172-189. [PMID: 29045731 PMCID: PMC5886334 DOI: 10.1093/ilar/ilx028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2016] [Revised: 08/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) have contributed to diverse fields of biomedical research due to their close genetic relationship to humans and in many instances due to the lack of any other animal model. This review focuses on the contributions of the chimpanzee model to research on hepatitis viruses where chimpanzees represented the only animal model (hepatitis B and C) or the most appropriate animal model (hepatitis A). Research with chimpanzees led to the development of vaccines for HAV and HBV that are used worldwide to protect hundreds of millions from these diseases and, where fully implemented, have provided immunity for entire generations. More recently, chimpanzee research was instrumental in the development of curative therapies for hepatitis C virus infections. Over a span of 40 years, this research would identify the causative agent of NonA,NonB hepatitis, validate the molecular tools for drug discovery, and provide safety and efficacy data on the therapies that now provide a rapid and complete cure of HCV chronic infections. Several cocktails of antivirals are FDA approved that eliminate the virus following 12 weeks of once-per-day oral therapy. This represents the first cure of a chronic viral disease and, once broadly implemented, will dramatically reduce the occurrence of cirrhosis and liver cancer. The recent contributions of chimpanzees to our current understanding of T cell immunity for HCV, development of novel therapeutics for HBV, and the biology of HAV are reviewed. Finally, a perspective is provided on the events leading to the cessation of the use of chimpanzees in research and the future of the chimpanzees previously used to bring about these amazing breakthroughs in human healthcare.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert E Lanford
- Robert E. Lanford, PhD, is director at Southwest National Primate Research Center, Texas Biomedical Research Institute in San Antonio, Texas. Christopher M. Walker, PhD, is at the Center for Vaccines and Immunity, The Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital and College of Medicine, The Ohio State University in Columbus, Ohio. Stanley M. Lemon, MD, is at thea Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases; Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center; and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in Chapel Hill, North Carolina.
| | - Christopher M Walker
- Robert E. Lanford, PhD, is director at Southwest National Primate Research Center, Texas Biomedical Research Institute in San Antonio, Texas. Christopher M. Walker, PhD, is at the Center for Vaccines and Immunity, The Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital and College of Medicine, The Ohio State University in Columbus, Ohio. Stanley M. Lemon, MD, is at thea Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases; Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center; and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in Chapel Hill, North Carolina.
| | - Stanley M Lemon
- Robert E. Lanford, PhD, is director at Southwest National Primate Research Center, Texas Biomedical Research Institute in San Antonio, Texas. Christopher M. Walker, PhD, is at the Center for Vaccines and Immunity, The Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital and College of Medicine, The Ohio State University in Columbus, Ohio. Stanley M. Lemon, MD, is at thea Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases; Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center; and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in Chapel Hill, North Carolina.
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Leon LAA, Marchevsky RS, Gaspar AMC, Garcia RDCNC, Almeida AJD, Pelajo-Machado M, Castro TXD, Nascimento JPD, Brown KE, Pinto MA. Cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) experimentally infected with B19V and hepatitis A virus: no evidence of the co-infection as a cause of acute liver failure. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2016; 111:258-66. [PMID: 27074255 PMCID: PMC4830115 DOI: 10.1590/0074-02760160013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2016] [Accepted: 03/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
This study was conducted to analyse the course and the outcome of the liver disease
in the co-infected animals in order to evaluate a possible synergic effect of human
parvovirus B19 (B19V) and hepatitis A virus (HAV) co-infection. Nine adult cynomolgus
monkeys were inoculated with serum obtained from a fatal case of B19V infection
and/or a faecal suspension of acute HAV. The presence of specific antibodies to HAV
and B19V, liver enzyme levels, viraemia, haematological changes, and
necroinflammatory liver lesions were used for monitoring the infections.
Seroconversion was confirmed in all infected groups. A similar pattern of B19V
infection to human disease was observed, which was characterised by high and
persistent viraemia in association with reticulocytopenia and mild to moderate
anaemia during the period of investigation (59 days). Additionally, the intranuclear
inclusion bodies were observed in pro-erythroblast cell from an infected cynomolgus
and B19V Ag in hepatocytes. The erythroid hypoplasia and decrease in lymphocyte
counts were more evident in the co-infected group. The present results demonstrated,
for the first time, the susceptibility of cynomolgus to B19V infection, but it did
not show a worsening of liver histopathology in the co-infected group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luciane Almeida Amado Leon
- Laboratório de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico em Virologia, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil
| | | | - Ana Maria Coimbra Gaspar
- Laboratório de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico em Virologia, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil
| | | | - Adilson José de Almeida
- Hospital Universitário Gaffrée e Guinle, Escola de Medicina e Cirurgia, Universidade Federal do Estado do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil
| | - Marcelo Pelajo-Machado
- Laboratório de Patologia, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil
| | - Tatiana Xavier de Castro
- Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Instituto Biomédico, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ, Brasil
| | - Jussara Pereira do Nascimento
- Departamento de Microbiologia e Parasitologia, Instituto Biomédico, Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niterói, RJ, Brasil
| | - Kevin E Brown
- Virus Reference Department, Health Protection Agency, London, UK
| | - Marcelo Alves Pinto
- Laboratório de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico em Virologia, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil
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Amado Leon LA, de Almeida AJ, de Paula VS, Tourinho RS, Villela DAM, Gaspar AMC, Lewis-Ximenez LL, Pinto MA. Longitudinal Study of Hepatitis A Infection by Saliva Sampling: The Kinetics of HAV Markers in Saliva Revealed the Application of Saliva Tests for Hepatitis A Study. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0145454. [PMID: 26690904 PMCID: PMC4686585 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0145454] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2015] [Accepted: 12/03/2015] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Despite the increasing numbers of studies investigating hepatitis A diagnostic through saliva, the frequency and the pattern of hepatitis A virus (HAV) markers in this fluid still remains unknown. To address this issue, we carried on a longitudinal study to examine the kinetics of HAV markers in saliva, in comparison with serum samples. The present study followed-up ten patients with acute hepatitis A infection during 180 days post diagnosis (dpd). Total anti-HAV was detected in paired serum and saliva samples until the end of the follow-up, showing a peak titer at 90th. However, total anti-HAV level was higher in serum than in saliva samples. This HAV marker showed a probability of 100% to be detected in both serum and saliva during 180 dpd. The IgM anti-HAV could be detected in saliva up to 150 dpd, showing the highest frequency at 30th, when it was detected in all individuals. During the first month of HAV infection, this acute HAV marker showed a detection probability of 100% in paired samples. The detection of IgM anti-HAV in saliva was not dependent on its level in serum, HAV-RNA detection and/or viral load, since no association was found between IgM anti-HAV positivity in saliva and any of these parameter (p>0.05). Most of the patients (80%) were found to contain HAV-RNA in saliva, mainly at early acute phase (30th day). However, it was possible to demonstrate the HAV RNA presence in paired samples for more than 90 days, even after seroconversion. No significant relationship was observed between salivary HAV-RNA positivity and serum viral load, demonstrating that serum viral load is not predictive of HAV-RNA detection in saliva. Similar viral load was seen in paired samples (on average 104 copies/mL). These data demonstrate that the best diagnostic coverage can be achieved by salivary anti-HAV antibodies and HAV-RNA tests during 30-90 dpd. The long detection and high probability of specific-HAV antibodies positivity in saliva samples make the assessment of salivary antibodies a useful tool for diagnosis and epidemiological studies. The high frequency of HAV-RNA in saliva and the probability of detection of about 50%, during the first 30 dpd, demonstrate that saliva is also useful for molecular investigation of hepatitis A cases, mainly during the early course of infection. Therefore, the collection of saliva may provide a simple, cheap and non-invasive means of diagnosis, epidemiological surveys and monitoring of hepatitis A infection purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luciane Almeida Amado Leon
- Laboratory of Technological Development in Virology, Oswaldo Cruz Institute Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
- * E-mail:
| | - Adilson José de Almeida
- Laboratory of Viral Hepatitis, Oswaldo Cruz Institute Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Vanessa Salete de Paula
- Laboratory of Technological Development in Virology, Oswaldo Cruz Institute Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Renata Santos Tourinho
- Laboratory of Technological Development in Virology, Oswaldo Cruz Institute Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | | | - Ana Maria Coimbra Gaspar
- Laboratory of Technological Development in Virology, Oswaldo Cruz Institute Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Lia Laura Lewis-Ximenez
- Laboratory of Viral Hepatitis, Oswaldo Cruz Institute Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Marcelo Alves Pinto
- Laboratory of Technological Development in Virology, Oswaldo Cruz Institute Foundation, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
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Song YJ, Park WJ, Park BJ, Kwak SW, Kim YH, Lee JB, Park SY, Song CS, Lee SW, Seo KH, Kang YS, Park CK, Song JY, Choi IS. Experimental evidence of hepatitis A virus infection in pigs. J Med Virol 2015; 88:631-8. [PMID: 26381440 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.24386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Hepatitis A virus (HAV) is the leading cause of acute viral hepatitis worldwide, with HAV infection being restricted to humans and nonhuman primates. In this study, HAV infection status was serologically determined in domestic pigs and experimental infections of HAV were attempted to verify HAV infectivity in pigs. Antibodies specific to HAV or HAV-like agents were detected in 3.5% of serum samples collected from pigs in swine farms. When the pigs were infected intravenously with 2 × 10(5) 50% tissue culture infectious dose (TCID50 ) of HAV, shedding of the virus in feces, viremia, and seroconversion were detected. In pigs orally infected with the same quantity of HAV, viral shedding was detected only in feces. HAV genomic RNA was detected in the liver and bile of intravenously infected pigs, but only in the bile of orally infected pigs. In further experiments, pigs were intravenously infected with 6 × 10(5) TCID50 of HAV. Shedding of HAV in feces, along with viremia and seroconversion, were confirmed in infected pigs but not in sentinel pigs. HAV genomic RNA was detected in the liver, bile, spleen, lymph node, and kidney of the infected pigs. HAV antigenomic RNA was detected in the spleen of one HAV-infected pig, suggesting HAV replication in splenic cells. Infiltration of inflammatory cells was observed in the livers of infected pigs but not in controls. This is the first experimental evidence to demonstrate that human HAV strains can infect pigs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young-Jo Song
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Woo-Jung Park
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Byung-Joo Park
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Sang-Woo Kwak
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Yong-Hyeon Kim
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Joong-Bok Lee
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Seung-Yong Park
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Chang-Seon Song
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Sang-Won Lee
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Kun-Ho Seo
- Department of Public Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Young-Sun Kang
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Choi-Kyu Park
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, Korea
| | - Jae-Young Song
- Viral Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Anyang, Korea
| | - In-Soo Choi
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea
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Bentes GA, Lanzarini NM, Lima LRP, Manso PPDA, da Silva ADS, Mouta Junior SDSE, Guimarães JR, de Moraes MTB, Pelajo-Machado M, Pinto MA. Using immunoglobulin Y as an alternative antibody for the detection of hepatitis A virus in frozen liver sections. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2015; 110:577-9. [PMID: 25993400 PMCID: PMC4501425 DOI: 10.1590/0074-02760140457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2014] [Accepted: 02/27/2015] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
An increasing amount of research has been conducted on immunoglobulin Y (IgY) because the use of IgY offers several advantages with respect to diagnostic testing, including its easy accessibility, low cost and translatability to large-scale production, in addition to the fact that it can be ethically produced. In a previous work, immunoglobulin was produced and purified from egg yolks (IgY) reactive to hepatitis A virus (HAV) antigens. In the present work, this anti-HAV-specific IgY was used in an indirect immunofluorescence assay to detect viral antigens in liver biopsies that were obtained from experimentally infected cynomolgus monkeys. Fields that were positive for HAV antigen were detected in liver sections using confocal microscopy. In conclusion, egg yolks from immunised hens may be a reliable source for antibody production, which can be employed for immunological studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gentil Arthur Bentes
- Laboratório de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico em Virologia, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil
| | - Natália Maria Lanzarini
- Laboratório de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico em Virologia, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil
| | - Lyana Rodrigues Pinto Lima
- Laboratório de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico em Virologia, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Marcelo Alves Pinto
- Laboratório de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico em Virologia, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brasil
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Joshi MS, Bhalla S, Kalrao VR, Dhongade RK, Chitambar SD. Exploring the concurrent presence of hepatitis A virus genome in serum, stool, saliva, and urine samples of hepatitis A patients. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 2014; 78:379-82. [DOI: 10.1016/j.diagmicrobio.2013.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2013] [Revised: 12/04/2013] [Accepted: 12/26/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Mansfield KG, Sasseville VG, Westmoreland SV. Molecular Localization Techniques in the Diagnosis and Characterization of Nonhuman Primate Infectious Diseases. Vet Pathol 2013; 51:110-26. [DOI: 10.1177/0300985813509386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Molecular localization techniques remain important diagnostic and research tools for the pathologist evaluating nonhuman primate tissues. In situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry protocols have been developed for many important pathogens of nonhuman primates, including RNA and DNA viruses, prions, and bacterial, protozoal, and fungal pathogens. Such techniques will remain critical in defining the impact and relevance of novel agents on animal health and disease. A comparative pathology perspective often provides valuable insight to the best strategy for reagent development and can also facilitate interpretation of molecular localization patterns. Such a perspective is grounded in a firm understanding of microbe-host pathobiology. This review summarizes current molecular localization protocols used in the diagnosis of selected primate infectious diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- K. G. Mansfield
- Novartis Institutes for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | | | - S. V. Westmoreland
- New England Primate Research Center, Harvard Medical School, Southborough, MA, USA
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Amado Leon LA. Saliva specimen sampling: a noninvasive method for diagnosis and basic investigation of viral hepatitis A, B and C. Future Virol 2013. [DOI: 10.2217/fvl.13.41] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Saliva is a biological fluid that is easy to collect and manipulate. Collection of saliva samples is less expensive, noninvasive and painless compared with blood collection. Due to these advantages, saliva has been investigated as an alternative fluid to serum for diagnostic and epidemiological purposes. The aim of this article was to the review research on salivary biomarkers of viral hepatitis A, B and C, highlighting their current use, collection devices, and potential applications for diagnosis and epidemiological studies. This paper also explores recent findings of saliva as a possible source of viral hepatitis transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luciane Almeida Amado Leon
- Laboratory of Technological Development in Virology, Institute Oswaldo Cruz – Fiocruz, Av. Brasil 4365, Rio de Janeiro, 21045-900, Brazil
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Abstract
As the threat of exposure to emerging and reemerging viruses within a naive population increases, it is vital that the basic mechanisms of pathogenesis and immune response be thoroughly investigated. By using animal models in this endeavor, the response to viruses can be studied in a more natural context to identify novel drug targets, and assess the efficacy and safety of new products. This is especially true in the advent of the Food and Drug Administration's animal rule. Although no one animal model is able to recapitulate all the aspects of human disease, understanding the current limitations allows for a more targeted experimental design. Important facets to be considered before an animal study are the route of challenge, species of animals, biomarkers of disease, and a humane endpoint. This chapter covers the current animal models for medically important human viruses, and demonstrates where the gaps in knowledge exist.
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Chigor VN, Okoh AI. Quantitative RT-PCR detection of hepatitis A virus, rotaviruses and enteroviruses in the Buffalo River and source water dams in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2012. [PMID: 23202829 PMCID: PMC3524610 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph9114017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Human enteric viruses (HEntVs) are a major cause of water-related diseases. The prevalence of hepatitis A virus (HAV), rotaviruses (RoV) and enteroviruses (EnV) in Buffalo River waters was assessed quantitatively over a period of 12 months (August 2010 to July 2011). Seventy-two samples were collected from six sites, including three dams, and concentrated using the adsorption-elution method. Viral RNA was extracted using a commercial kit, and the viruses were quantified by real-time quantitative reverse transcriptase PCR (RT-qPCR). Two or more viruses were detected in 12.5% of the samples. HAV was detected in 43.1% of the samples and in significantly (p < 0.05) varying concentrations of 1.5 × 10(1)–1.9 × 10(5) genome copies/L compared to RoV and EnV, while RoVs were detected in 13.9% of samples, with concentrations ranging from 2.5 × 10(1)–2.1 × 10(3) genome copies/L, and EnV were detected in 9.7% of the samples, with concentrations ranging from 1.3 × 10(1)–8.6 × 10(1) genome copies/L. Only HAV was detected at all the sites, with the Bridle Drift Dam recording significantly higher (p < 0.05) concentrations. The presence of enteric viruses in Buffalo River may constitute public health risks and the incidence of HAV at all the sites could reflect both the epidemiological status of hepatitis A and HAV persistence in the water environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Nnamdigadi Chigor
- Applied and Environmental Microbiology Research Group (AEMREG), Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, University of Fort Hare, Private Bag X1314, Alice 5700, Eastern Cape, South Africa.
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Abstract
The diagnostic gold standard for hepatitis A is the detection of anti-hepatitis A virus (HAV) IgM antibodies and the determination of total anti-HAV by enzyme immunoassay. However, detection of HAV RNA can be useful in the diagnosis of patients without specific antibodies for hepatitis A and for the monitoring of infection. Studies using real-time PCR have demonstrated that HAV RNA can be detected not only in feces, but also in serum and saliva samples earlier than detection of antibodies, and that viremia may be present for a much longer period than the convalescent phase of hepatitis A. Alternative samples have been proposed for diagnosis, epidemiological studies, investigation of outbreaks and selection of persons receptive to vaccination. Understanding the events of clinical course that take place during the hepatitis A infection may lead to more effective diagnosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Salete de Paula
- Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Laboratório de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico em Virologia – Av. Brasil 4365, 21040–360, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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Theamboonlers A, Abe K, Thongmee C, Poovorawan Y. Complete coding sequence and molecular analysis of hepatitis A virus from a chimpanzee with fulminant hepatitis. J Med Primatol 2011; 41:11-7. [PMID: 22017331 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0684.2011.00515.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Hepatitis A virus (HAV) infects both humans and non-human primates, in experimentally infected chimpanzees is typically milder than in humans. In 1982, Abe and Shikata reported a first case of a chimpanzee with fulminant hepatitis caused by spontaneous HAV infection, and the underlying mechanisms of the disease remain unknown. METHODS To characterize denoted CFH-HAV, we conducted cloning and near full-length sequence analysis. RESULTS Phylogenetic analyses of VP1-2A and complete sequence comparison between various genotypes and the sample sequence showed clustering in genotype IB. Based on BLAST analysis, the sequence was most closely related to the wild-type (HM175/WT) isolate. Amino acid and nucleic acid similarities were 99.8% and 94.41%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS The chimpanzee may have been infected with human HAV genotype IB. The substitutions in VP2, VP4, 2B, 2C, and 3D, which may enhance virus proliferation, contributed to disease severity culminating in fulminant hepatic failure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Apiradee Theamboonlers
- Centre of Excellence in Clinical Virology, Department of Pediatrics, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University and King Memorial Hospital, Thai Red Cross Society, Bangkok, Thailand
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Amado LA, Villar LM, de Paula VS, Pinto MA, Gaspar AMC. Exposure to multiple subgenotypes of hepatitis A virus during an outbreak using matched serum and saliva specimens. J Med Virol 2011; 83:768-75. [PMID: 21412786 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.22045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Matched serum and saliva samples were collected simultaneously from 124 subjects exposed during a hepatitis A virus (HAV) outbreak at a daycare center in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. All samples were tested for IgM and total anti-HAV antibodies by enzyme immunoassay (EIA). HAV was detected by nested PCR in serum, saliva, and water samples employing primers for the VP1/2A region of the viral RNA; all positive products were then sequenced. The viral load of the matched samples was determined by real-time PCR using the TaqMan system. HAV-RNA was identified by nested PCR in 37.7% of the saliva samples, 29% of the serum samples, and one drinking water sample. The mean HAV viral load was similar in the serum and saliva specimens (10(3) copies/ml). HAV genotypes IA and IB were detected in both specimen types, and the water sample isolate was classified as genotype IB, indicating the existence of more than one source of infection at the daycare center. In six infected patients, a different HAV subgenotype was found in their serum than in their saliva, and this unusual pattern of mixed HAV infection was investigated further by molecular cloning followed by nucleotide sequencing. All clones derived from the saliva samples belonged to subgenotype IB and shared 96.5-100% identity. However, clones derived from their corresponding serum sample belonged to subgenotype IA and shared 90.5-100% identity. This study showed the important role that non-invasive saliva samples can play in the molecular epidemiological analysis of a hepatitis A outbreak.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luciane Almeida Amado
- Laboratory of Technological Development in Virology, Oswaldo Cruz Institute - FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro/RJ, Brazil.
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Acute hepatitis A virus infection is associated with a limited type I interferon response and persistence of intrahepatic viral RNA. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2011; 108:11223-8. [PMID: 21690403 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1101939108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Hepatitis A virus (HAV) is an hepatotropic human picornavirus that is associated only with acute infection. Its pathogenesis is not well understood because there are few studies in animal models using modern methodologies. We characterized HAV infections in three chimpanzees, quantifying viral RNA by quantitative RT-PCR and examining critical aspects of the innate immune response including intrahepatic IFN-stimulated gene expression. We compared these infection profiles with similar studies of chimpanzees infected with hepatitis C virus (HCV), an hepatotropic flavivirus that frequently causes persistent infection. Surprisingly, HAV-infected animals exhibited very limited induction of type I IFN-stimulated genes in the liver compared with chimpanzees with acute resolving HCV infection, despite similar levels of viremia and 100-fold greater quantities of viral RNA in the liver. Minimal IFN-stimulated gene 15 and IFIT1 responses peaked 1-2 wk after HAV challenge and then subsided despite continuing high hepatic viral RNA. An acute inflammatory response at 3-4 wk correlated with the appearance of virus-specific antibodies and apoptosis and proliferation of hepatocytes. Despite this, HAV RNA persisted in the liver for months, remaining present long after clearance from serum and feces and revealing dramatic differences in the kinetics of clearance in the three compartments. Viral RNA was detected in the liver for significantly longer (35 to >48 wk) than HCV RNA in animals with acute resolving HCV infection (10-20 wk). Collectively, these findings indicate that HAV is far stealthier than HCV early in the course of acute resolving infection. HAV infections represent a distinctly different paradigm in virus-host interactions within the liver.
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Yezli S, Otter JA. Minimum Infective Dose of the Major Human Respiratory and Enteric Viruses Transmitted Through Food and the Environment. FOOD AND ENVIRONMENTAL VIROLOGY 2011; 3:1-30. [PMID: 35255645 PMCID: PMC7090536 DOI: 10.1007/s12560-011-9056-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2011] [Accepted: 02/26/2011] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Viruses are a significant cause of morbidity and mortality around the world. Determining the minimum dose of virus particles that can initiate infection, termed the minimum infective dose (MID), is important for the development of risk assessment models in the fields of food and water treatment and the implementation of appropriate infection control strategies in healthcare settings. Both respiratory and enteric viruses can be shed at high titers from infected individuals even when the infection is asymptomatic. Presence of pre-existing antibodies has been shown to affect the infectious dose and to be protective against reinfection for many, but not all viruses. Most respiratory viruses appear to be as infective in humans as in tissue culture. Doses of <1 TCID50 of influenza virus, rhinovirus, and adenovirus were reported to infect 50% of the tested population. Similarly, low doses of the enteric viruses, norovirus, rotavirus, echovirus, poliovirus, and hepatitis A virus, caused infection in at least some of the volunteers tested. A number of factors may influence viruses' infectivity in experimentally infected human volunteers. These include host and pathogen factors as well as the experimental methodology. As a result, the reported infective doses of human viruses have to be interpreted with caution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saber Yezli
- Bioquell UK Ltd, 52 Royce Close, West Portway, Andover, Hampshire, SP10 3TS, UK.
| | - Jonathan A Otter
- Bioquell UK Ltd, 52 Royce Close, West Portway, Andover, Hampshire, SP10 3TS, UK
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