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Purohit SK, Stern L, Corbett AJ, Mak JYW, Fairlie DP, Slobedman B, Abendroth A. Varicella Zoster Virus disrupts MAIT cell polyfunctional effector responses. PLoS Pathog 2024; 20:e1012372. [PMID: 39110717 PMCID: PMC11305569 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1012372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2024] [Accepted: 06/25/2024] [Indexed: 08/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT) cells are unconventional T cells that respond to riboflavin biosynthesis and cytokines through TCR-dependent and -independent pathways, respectively. MAIT cell activation plays an immunoprotective role against several pathogens, however the functional capacity of MAIT cells following direct infection or exposure to infectious agents remains poorly defined. We investigated the impact of Varicella Zoster Virus (VZV) on blood-derived MAIT cells and report virus-mediated impairment of activation, cytokine production, and altered transcription factor expression by VZV infected (antigen+) and VZV exposed (antigen-) MAIT cells in response to TCR-dependent and -independent stimulation. Furthermore, we reveal that suppression of VZV exposed (antigen-) MAIT cells is not mediated by a soluble factor from neighbouring VZV infected (antigen+) MAIT cells. Finally, we demonstrate that VZV impairs the cytolytic potential of MAIT cells in response to riboflavin synthesising bacteria. In summary, we report a virus-mediated immune-evasion strategy that disarms MAIT cell responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shivam. K. Purohit
- Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Lauren Stern
- Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Alexandra J. Corbett
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Melbourne, at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jeffrey Y. W. Mak
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Peptide and Protein Science, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - David P. Fairlie
- ARC Centre of Excellence for Innovations in Peptide and Protein Science, Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Barry Slobedman
- Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Allison Abendroth
- Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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2
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Jacobsen C, Plückebaum N, Ssebyatika G, Beyer S, Mendes-Monteiro L, Wang J, Kropp KA, González-Motos V, Steinbrück L, Ritter B, Rodríguez-González C, Böning H, Nikolouli E, Kinchington PR, Lachmann N, Depledge DP, Krey T, Viejo-Borbolla A. Viral modulation of type II interferon increases T cell adhesion and virus spread. Nat Commun 2024; 15:5318. [PMID: 38909022 PMCID: PMC11193720 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-49657-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Accepted: 06/13/2024] [Indexed: 06/24/2024] Open
Abstract
During primary varicella zoster virus (VZV) infection, infected lymphocytes drive primary viremia, causing systemic dissemination throughout the host, including the skin. This results in cytokine expression, including interferons (IFNs), which partly limit infection. VZV also spreads from skin keratinocytes to lymphocytes prior to secondary viremia. It is not clear how VZV achieves this while evading the cytokine response. Here, we show that VZV glycoprotein C (gC) binds IFN-γ and modifies its activity, increasing the expression of a subset of IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs), including intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM1), chemokines and immunomodulatory genes. The higher ICAM1 protein level at the plasma membrane of keratinocytes facilitates lymphocyte function-associated antigen 1-dependent T cell adhesion and expression of gC during infection increases VZV spread to peripheral blood mononuclear cells. This constitutes the discovery of a strategy to modulate IFN-γ activity, upregulating a subset of ISGs, promoting enhanced lymphocyte adhesion and virus spread.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carina Jacobsen
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, 30625, Germany
| | - Nina Plückebaum
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, 30625, Germany
| | - George Ssebyatika
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, 30625, Germany
- Institute of Biochemistry, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, 23562, Germany
| | - Sarah Beyer
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, 30625, Germany
| | | | - Jiayi Wang
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, 30625, Germany
| | - Kai A Kropp
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, 30625, Germany
| | - Víctor González-Motos
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, 30625, Germany
- University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Hannover, 30559, Germany
| | - Lars Steinbrück
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, 30625, Germany
| | - Birgit Ritter
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, 30625, Germany
| | - Claudio Rodríguez-González
- Department for Pediatric Pneumology, Allergology and Neonatology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, 30625, Germany
- Biomedical Research in Endstage and Obstructive Lung Disease Hannover (BREATH), German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Hannover, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence RESIST (EXC 2155), Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Straße 1, 30625, Hannover, Germany
| | - Heike Böning
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, 30625, Germany
| | - Eirini Nikolouli
- Department for Pediatric Pneumology, Allergology and Neonatology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, 30625, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence RESIST (EXC 2155), Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Straße 1, 30625, Hannover, Germany
| | - Paul R Kinchington
- Departments of Ophthalmology and of Molecular Microbiology and Genetics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Nico Lachmann
- Department for Pediatric Pneumology, Allergology and Neonatology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, 30625, Germany
- Biomedical Research in Endstage and Obstructive Lung Disease Hannover (BREATH), German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Hannover, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence RESIST (EXC 2155), Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Straße 1, 30625, Hannover, Germany
- Fraunhofer Institute for Toxicology and Experimental Medicine ITEM, Nikolai-Fuchs-Str. 1, 30625, Hannover, Germany
| | - Daniel P Depledge
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, 30625, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence RESIST (EXC 2155), Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Straße 1, 30625, Hannover, Germany
- German, Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Hannover, Germany
| | - Thomas Krey
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, 30625, Germany
- Institute of Biochemistry, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, 23562, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence RESIST (EXC 2155), Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Straße 1, 30625, Hannover, Germany
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology (CSSB), 22607, Hamburg, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Hamburg-Lübeck-Borstel-Riems, 22607, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Abel Viejo-Borbolla
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, 30625, Germany.
- Cluster of Excellence RESIST (EXC 2155), Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Straße 1, 30625, Hannover, Germany.
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3
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Heinz JL, Hinke DM, Maimaitili M, Wang J, Sabli IKD, Thomsen M, Farahani E, Ren F, Hu L, Zillinger T, Grahn A, von Hofsten J, Verjans GMGM, Paludan SR, Viejo-Borbolla A, Sancho-Shimizu V, Mogensen TH. Varicella zoster virus-induced autophagy in human neuronal and hematopoietic cells exerts antiviral activity. J Med Virol 2024; 96:e29690. [PMID: 38804180 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.29690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2023] [Revised: 05/07/2024] [Accepted: 05/13/2024] [Indexed: 05/29/2024]
Abstract
Autophagy is a degradational pathway with pivotal roles in cellular homeostasis and survival, including protection of neurons in the central nervous system (CNS). The significance of autophagy as antiviral defense mechanism is recognized and some viruses hijack and modulate this process to their advantage in certain cell types. Here, we present data demonstrating that the human neurotropic herpesvirus varicella zoster virus (VZV) induces autophagy in human SH-SY5Y neuronal cells, in which the pathway exerts antiviral activity. Productively VZV-infected SH-SY5Y cells showed increased LC3-I-LC3-II conversion as well as co-localization of the viral glycoprotein E and the autophagy receptor p62. The activation of autophagy was dependent on a functional viral genome. Interestingly, inducers of autophagy reduced viral transcription, whereas inhibition of autophagy increased viral transcript expression. Finally, the genotype of patients with severe ocular and brain VZV infection were analyzed to identify potential autophagy-associated inborn errors of immunity. Two patients expressing genetic variants in the autophagy genes ULK1 and MAP1LC3B2, respectively, were identified. Notably, cells of both patients showed reduced autophagy, alongside enhanced viral replication and death of VZV-infected cells. In conclusion, these results demonstrate a neuro-protective role for autophagy in the context of VZV infection and suggest that failure to mount an autophagy response is a potential predisposing factor for development of severe VZV disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johanna L Heinz
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Daniëla M Hinke
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
| | | | - Jiayi Wang
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Ira K D Sabli
- Dept of Paediatric Infectious Diseases & Virology, Imperial College London, London, UK
- Centre for Paediatrics and Child Health, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Michelle Thomsen
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Ensieh Farahani
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Fanghui Ren
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Lili Hu
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Thomas Zillinger
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Clinical Pharmacology, Medical Faculty, University Hospital Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Anna Grahn
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Institute of Biomedicine, The Sahlgrenska Academy at University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Joanna von Hofsten
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Department of Ophthalmology, Halland Hospital Halmstad, Halmstad, Sweden
| | - Georges M G M Verjans
- Department of Viroscience, HerpeslabNL, Erasmus University MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Søren R Paludan
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Abel Viejo-Borbolla
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
- Cluster of Excellence-Resolving Infection Susceptibility (RESIST, EXC 2155), Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Vanessa Sancho-Shimizu
- Dept of Paediatric Infectious Diseases & Virology, Imperial College London, London, UK
- Centre for Paediatrics and Child Health, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Trine H Mogensen
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
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4
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Madela-Mönchinger JC, Wolf SA, Wyler E, Bauer A, Mischke M, Möller L, Juranić Lisnić V, Landthaler M, Malyshkina A, Voigt S. Rat cytomegalovirus efficiently replicates in dendritic cells and induces changes in their transcriptional profile. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1192057. [PMID: 38077365 PMCID: PMC10702230 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1192057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2023] [Accepted: 10/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DC) play a crucial role in generating and maintaining antiviral immunity. While DC are implicated in the antiviral defense by inducing T cell responses, they can also become infected by Cytomegalovirus (CMV). CMV is not only highly species-specific but also specialized in evading immune protection, and this specialization is in part due to characteristic genes encoded by a given virus. Here, we investigated whether rat CMV can infect XCR1+ DC and if infection of DC alters expression of cell surface markers and migration behavior. We demonstrate that wild-type RCMV and a mutant virus lacking the γ-chemokine ligand xcl1 (Δvxcl1 RCMV) infect splenic rat DC ex vivo and identify viral assembly compartments. Replication-competent RCMV reduced XCR1 and MHCII surface expression. Further, gene expression of infected DC was analyzed by bulk RNA-sequencing (RNA-Seq). RCMV infection reverted a state of DC activation that was induced by DC cultivation. On the functional level, we observed impaired chemotactic activity of infected XCR1+ DC compared to mock-treated cells. We therefore speculate that as a result of RCMV infection, DC exhibit diminished XCR1 expression and are thereby blocked from the lymphocyte crosstalk.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Silver Anthony Wolf
- Genome Competence Center, Department of MFI, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Emanuel Wyler
- Laboratory for RNA Biology, Berlin Institute for Medical Systems Biology (BIMSB), Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association (MDC), Berlin, Germany
| | - Agnieszka Bauer
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Marius Mischke
- Institute for Virology, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Lars Möller
- Advanced Light and Electron Microscopy, Robert Koch Institute, Berlin, Germany
| | - Vanda Juranić Lisnić
- Center for Proteomics, University of Rijeka, Faculty of Medicine, Rijeka, Croatia
| | - Markus Landthaler
- Laboratory for RNA Biology, Berlin Institute for Medical Systems Biology (BIMSB), Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association (MDC), Berlin, Germany
| | - Anna Malyshkina
- Institute for Virology, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - Sebastian Voigt
- Institute for Virology, University Hospital Essen, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
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5
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Arvin AM. Creating the "Dew Drop on a Rose Petal": the Molecular Pathogenesis of Varicella-Zoster Virus Skin Lesions. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2023; 87:e0011622. [PMID: 37354037 PMCID: PMC10521358 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.00116-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) is a human alphaherpesvirus that causes varicella (chicken pox) as the primary infection in a susceptible host. Varicella is very contagious through its transmission by direct contact with vesicular skin lesions that contain high titers of infectious virus and respiratory droplets. While the clinical manifestations of primary VZV infection are well recognized, defining the molecular mechanisms that drive VZV pathogenesis in the naive host before adaptive antiviral immunity is induced has been a challenge due to species specificity. This review focuses on advances made in identifying the differentiated human host cells targeted by VZV to cause varicella, the processes involved in viral takeover of these heterogenous cell types, and the host cell countermeasures that typically culminate in a benign illness. This work has revealed many unexpected and multifaceted mechanisms used by VZV to achieve its high prevalence and persistence in the human population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann M. Arvin
- Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
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6
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Jürgens C, Ssebyatika G, Beyer S, Plückebaum N, Kropp KA, González-Motos V, Ritter B, Böning H, Nikolouli E, Kinchington PR, Lachmann N, Depledge DP, Krey T, Viejo-Borbolla A. Viral modulation of type II interferon increases T cell adhesion and virus spread. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.05.26.542397. [PMID: 37292914 PMCID: PMC10246016 DOI: 10.1101/2023.05.26.542397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
During primary infection, varicella zoster virus (VZV) infects epithelial cells in the respiratory lymphoid organs and mucosa. Subsequent infection of lymphocytes, T cells in particular, causes primary viremia allowing systemic spread throughout the host, including the skin. This results in the expression of cytokines, including interferons (IFNs) which partly limit primary infection. VZV also spreads from skin keratinocytes to lymphocytes prior to secondary viremia. How VZV infects lymphocytes from epithelial cells while evading the cytokine response has not been fully established. Here, we show that VZV glycoprotein C (gC) binds IFN-γ and modifies its activity. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that gC in combination with IFN-γ increased the expression of a small subset of IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs), including intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM1), as well as several chemokines and immunomodulatory genes. The higher ICAM1 protein level at the plasma membrane of epithelial cells resulted in lymphocyte function-associated antigen 1 (LFA-1)-dependent T cell adhesion. This gC activity required a stable interaction with IFN-γ and signalling through the IFN-γ receptor. Finally, the presence of gC during infection increased VZV spread from epithelial cells to peripheral blood mononuclear cells. This constitutes the discovery of a novel strategy to modulate the activity of IFN-γ, inducing the expression of a subset of ISGs, leading to enhanced T cell adhesion and virus spread.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carina Jürgens
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover 30625, Germany
| | - George Ssebyatika
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover 30625, Germany
- Institute of Biochemistry, University of Lübeck, Lübeck 23562, Germany
| | - Sarah Beyer
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover 30625, Germany
| | - Nina Plückebaum
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover 30625, Germany
| | - Kai A. Kropp
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover 30625, Germany
| | - Víctor González-Motos
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover 30625, Germany
- University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Hannover 30559, Germany
| | - Birgit Ritter
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover 30625, Germany
| | - Heike Böning
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover 30625, Germany
| | - Eirini Nikolouli
- Department for Pediatric Pneumology, Allergology and Neonatology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover 30625, Germany
- Fraunhofer Institute for Toxicology and Experimental Medicine (ITEM), Nikolai-Fuchs-Str. 1, 30625 Hannover, Germany
- Biomedical Research in Endstage and Obstructive Lung Disease Hannover (BREATH), German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Hannover, Germany
- Excellence Cluster 2155 RESIST, Hannover Medical School, Hannover 30625, Germany
| | - Paul R. Kinchington
- Department of Ophthalmology and of Molecular Microbiology and Genetics, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, United States
| | - Nico Lachmann
- Department for Pediatric Pneumology, Allergology and Neonatology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover 30625, Germany
- Fraunhofer Institute for Toxicology and Experimental Medicine (ITEM), Nikolai-Fuchs-Str. 1, 30625 Hannover, Germany
- Biomedical Research in Endstage and Obstructive Lung Disease Hannover (BREATH), German Center for Lung Research (DZL), Hannover, Germany
- Excellence Cluster 2155 RESIST, Hannover Medical School, Hannover 30625, Germany
| | - Daniel Pearce Depledge
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover 30625, Germany
- Excellence Cluster 2155 RESIST, Hannover Medical School, Hannover 30625, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), partner site Hannover-Braunschweig, Hannover, Germany
| | - Thomas Krey
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover 30625, Germany
- Institute of Biochemistry, University of Lübeck, Lübeck 23562, Germany
- Excellence Cluster 2155 RESIST, Hannover Medical School, Hannover 30625, Germany
- Centre for Structural Systems Biology (CSSB), 22607 Hamburg, Germany
- German Center for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Hamburg-Lübeck-Borstel-Riems, 22607 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Abel Viejo-Borbolla
- Institute of Virology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover 30625, Germany
- Excellence Cluster 2155 RESIST, Hannover Medical School, Hannover 30625, Germany
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7
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Zhang B, Mao H, Zhu H, Guo J, Zhou P, Ma Z. Response to HIV-1 gp160-carrying recombinant virus HSV-1 and HIV-1 VLP combined vaccine in BALB/c mice. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1136664. [PMID: 37007461 PMCID: PMC10063819 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1136664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 03/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) induced AIDS causes a large number of infections and deaths worldwide every year, still no vaccines are available to prevent infection. Recombinant herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) vector-based vaccines coding the target proteins of other pathogens have been widely used for disease control. Here, a recombinant virus with HIV-1 gp160 gene integration into the internal reverse (IR) region-deleted HSV-1 vector (HSV-BAC), was obtained by bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) technology, and its immunogenicity investigated in BALB/c mice. The result showed similar replication ability of the HSV-BAC-based recombinant virus and wild type. Furthermore, humoral and cellular immune response showed superiority of intraperitoneal (IP) administration, compared to intranasally (IN), subcutaneous (SC) and intramuscularly (IM), that evidenced by production of significant antibody and T cell responses. More importantly, in a prime-boost combination study murine model, the recombinant viruses prime followed by HIV-1 VLP boost induced stronger and broader immune responses than single virus or protein vaccination in a similar vaccination regimen. Antibody production was sufficient with huge potential for viral clearance, along with efficient T-cell activation, which were evaluated by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and flow cytometry (FC). Overall, these findings expose the value of combining different vaccine vectors and modalities to improve immunogenicity and breadth against different HIV-1 antigens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beibei Zhang
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Biological Resources and Genetic Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology, Xinjiang University, Ürümqi, Xinjiang, China
| | - Hongyan Mao
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Biological Resources and Genetic Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology, Xinjiang University, Ürümqi, Xinjiang, China
| | - Hongjuan Zhu
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Biological Resources and Genetic Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology, Xinjiang University, Ürümqi, Xinjiang, China
| | - Jingxia Guo
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Biological Resources and Genetic Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology, Xinjiang University, Ürümqi, Xinjiang, China
| | - Paul Zhou
- Unit of Antiviral Immunity and Genetic Therapy, Key Laboratory of Molecular Virology and Immunology, Institut Pasteur of Shanghai, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhenghai Ma
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory of Biological Resources and Genetic Engineering, College of Life Science and Technology, Xinjiang University, Ürümqi, Xinjiang, China
- *Correspondence: Zhenghai Ma,
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8
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Purohit SK, Corbett AJ, Slobedman B, Abendroth A. Varicella Zoster Virus infects mucosal associated Invariant T cells. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1121714. [PMID: 37006246 PMCID: PMC10063790 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1121714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 03/19/2023] Open
Abstract
IntroductionMucosal Associated Invariant T (MAIT) cells are innate-like T cells that respond to conserved pathogen-derived vitamin B metabolites presented by the MHC class I related-1 molecule (MR1) antigen presentation pathway. Whilst viruses do not synthesize these metabolites, we have reported that varicella zoster virus (VZV) profoundly suppresses MR1 expression, implicating this virus in manipulation of the MR1:MAIT cell axis. During primary infection, the lymphotropism of VZV is likely to be instrumental in hematogenous dissemination of virus to gain access to cutaneous sites where it clinically manifests as varicella (chickenpox). However, MAIT cells, which are found in the blood and at mucosal and other organ sites, have yet to be examined in the context of VZV infection. The goal of this study was to examine any direct impact of VZV on MAIT cells.MethodsUsing flow cytometry, we interrogated whether primary blood derived MAIT cells are permissive to infection by VZV whilst further analysing differential levels of infection between various MAIT cell subpopulations. Changes in cell surface extravasation, skin homing, activation and proliferation markers after VZV infection of MAIT cells was also assessed via flow cytometry. Finally the capacity of MAIT cells to transfer infectious virus was tested through an infectious center assay and imaged via fluorescence microscopy.ResultsWe identify primary blood-derived MAIT cells as being permissive to VZV infection. A consequence of VZV infection of MAIT cells was their capacity to transfer infectious virus to other permissive cells, consistent with MAIT cells supporting productive infection. When subgrouping MAIT cells by their co- expression of a variety cell surface markers, there was a higher proportion of VZV infected MAIT cells co-expressing CD4+ and CD4+/CD8+ MAIT cells compared to the more phenotypically dominant CD8+ MAIT cells, whereas infection was not associated with differences in co-expression of CD56 (MAIT cell subset with enhanced responsiveness to innate cytokine stimulation), CD27 (co-stimulatory) or PD-1 (immune checkpoint). Infected MAIT cells retained high expression of CCR2, CCR5, CCR6, CLA and CCR4, indicating a potentially intact capacity for transendothelial migration, extravasation and trafficking to skin sites. Infected MAIT cells also displayed increased expression of CD69 (early activation) and CD71 (proliferation) markers.DiscussionThese data identify MAIT cells as being permissive to VZV infection and identify impacts of such infection on co- expressed functional markers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shivam K. Purohit
- Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Alexandra J. Corbett
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The University of Melbourne, at The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Barry Slobedman
- Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- *Correspondence: Allison Abendroth, ; Barry Slobedman,
| | - Allison Abendroth
- Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- *Correspondence: Allison Abendroth, ; Barry Slobedman,
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9
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Arvin AM. Insights From Studies of the Genetics, Pathogenesis, and Immunogenicity of the Varicella Vaccine. J Infect Dis 2022; 226:S385-S391. [PMID: 36265853 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiac278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
While the varicella vaccine was created with approaches established for other live attenuated viral vaccines, novel methods to probe virus-host interactions have been used to explore the genetics, pathogenesis, and immunogenicity of the vaccine compared to wild-type varicella-zoster virus (VZV). As summarized here, a mechanism-based understanding of the safety and efficacy of the varicella vaccine has been achieved through these investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann M Arvin
- Departments of Pediatrics and Microbiology and Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
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10
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Hertzog J, Zhou W, Fowler G, Rigby RE, Bridgeman A, Blest HTW, Cursi C, Chauveau L, Davenne T, Warner BE, Kinchington PR, Kranzusch PJ, Rehwinkel J. Varicella-Zoster virus ORF9 is an antagonist of the DNA sensor cGAS. EMBO J 2022; 41:e109217. [PMID: 35670106 PMCID: PMC9289529 DOI: 10.15252/embj.2021109217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2021] [Revised: 05/04/2022] [Accepted: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Varicella-Zoster virus (VZV) causes chickenpox and shingles. Although the infection is associated with severe morbidity in some individuals, molecular mechanisms that determine innate immune responses remain poorly defined. We found that the cGAS/STING DNA sensing pathway was required for type I interferon (IFN) induction during VZV infection and that recognition of VZV by cGAS restricted its replication. Screening of a VZV ORF expression library identified the essential VZV tegument protein ORF9 as a cGAS antagonist. Ectopically or virally expressed ORF9 bound to endogenous cGAS leading to reduced type I IFN responses to transfected DNA. Confocal microscopy revealed co-localisation of cGAS and ORF9. ORF9 and cGAS also interacted directly in a cell-free system and phase-separated together with DNA. Furthermore, ORF9 inhibited cGAMP production by cGAS. Taken together, these results reveal the importance of the cGAS/STING DNA sensing pathway for VZV recognition and identify a VZV immune antagonist that partially but directly interferes with DNA sensing via cGAS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonny Hertzog
- MRC Human Immunology UnitMRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular MedicineRadcliffe Department of MedicineUniversity of OxfordOxfordUK
- Present address:
Clinical Cooperation Unit VirotherapyGerman Cancer Research Center (DKFZ)HeidelbergGermany
| | - Wen Zhou
- Department of MicrobiologyHarvard Medical SchoolBostonMAUSA
- Department of Cancer Immunology and VirologyDana‐Farber Cancer InstituteBostonMAUSA
- Present address:
School of Life SciencesSouthern University of Science and TechnologyShenzhenChina
| | - Gerissa Fowler
- MRC Human Immunology UnitMRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular MedicineRadcliffe Department of MedicineUniversity of OxfordOxfordUK
| | - Rachel E Rigby
- MRC Human Immunology UnitMRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular MedicineRadcliffe Department of MedicineUniversity of OxfordOxfordUK
| | - Anne Bridgeman
- MRC Human Immunology UnitMRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular MedicineRadcliffe Department of MedicineUniversity of OxfordOxfordUK
| | - Henry TW Blest
- MRC Human Immunology UnitMRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular MedicineRadcliffe Department of MedicineUniversity of OxfordOxfordUK
| | - Chiara Cursi
- MRC Human Immunology UnitMRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular MedicineRadcliffe Department of MedicineUniversity of OxfordOxfordUK
| | - Lise Chauveau
- MRC Human Immunology UnitMRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular MedicineRadcliffe Department of MedicineUniversity of OxfordOxfordUK
| | - Tamara Davenne
- MRC Human Immunology UnitMRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular MedicineRadcliffe Department of MedicineUniversity of OxfordOxfordUK
| | | | - Paul R Kinchington
- Department of OphthalmologyUniversity of PittsburghPittsburghPAUSA
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular GeneticsUniversity of PittsburghPittsburghPAUSA
| | - Philip J Kranzusch
- Department of MicrobiologyHarvard Medical SchoolBostonMAUSA
- Department of Cancer Immunology and VirologyDana‐Farber Cancer InstituteBostonMAUSA
- Parker Institute for Cancer ImmunotherapyDana‐Farber Cancer InstituteBostonMAUSA
| | - Jan Rehwinkel
- MRC Human Immunology UnitMRC Weatherall Institute of Molecular MedicineRadcliffe Department of MedicineUniversity of OxfordOxfordUK
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11
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Suenaga T, Mori Y, Suzutani T, Arase H. Regulation of Siglec-7-mediated varicella-zoster virus infection of primary monocytes by cis-ligands. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2022; 613:41-46. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2022.04.111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2022] [Accepted: 04/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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12
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Suenaga T, Mori Y, Suzutani T, Arase H. Siglec-7 mediates varicella-zoster virus infection by associating with glycoprotein B. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2022; 607:67-72. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2022.03.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2022] [Accepted: 03/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
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13
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Tommasi C, Breuer J. The Biology of Varicella-Zoster Virus Replication in the Skin. Viruses 2022; 14:982. [PMID: 35632723 PMCID: PMC9147561 DOI: 10.3390/v14050982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2022] [Revised: 05/02/2022] [Accepted: 05/04/2022] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The replication of varicella-zoster virus (VZV) in skin is critical to its pathogenesis and spread. Primary infection causes chickenpox, which is characterised by centrally distributed skin blistering lesions that are rich in infectious virus. Cell-free virus in the cutaneous blistering lesions not only spreads to cause further cases, but infects sensory nerve endings, leading to the establishment of lifelong latency in sensory and autonomic ganglia. The reactivation of virus to cause herpes zoster is again characterised by localised painful skin blistering rash containing infectious virus. The development of in vitro and in vivo models of VZV skin replication has revealed aspects of VZV replication and pathogenesis in this important target organ and improved our understanding of the vaccine strain vOKa attenuation. In this review, we outline the current knowledge on VZV interaction with host signalling pathways, the viral association with proteins associated with epidermal terminal differentiation, and how these interconnect with the VZV life cycle to facilitate viral replication and shedding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Tommasi
- School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TD, UK
| | - Judith Breuer
- Department of Infection, Institute of Child Health, University College London, London WC1N 1EH, UK
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14
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Development of a skin- and neuro-attenuated live vaccine for varicella. Nat Commun 2022; 13:824. [PMID: 35149692 PMCID: PMC8837607 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-28329-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2021] [Accepted: 01/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Varicella caused by the primary infection of varicella-zoster virus (VZV) exerts a considerable disease burden globally. Current varicella vaccines consisting of the live-attenuated vOka strain of VZV are generally safe and effective. However, vOka retains full neurovirulence and can establish latency and reactivate to cause herpes zoster in vaccine recipients, raising safety concerns. Here, we rationally design a live-attenuated varicella vaccine candidate, v7D. This virus replicates like wild-type virus in MRC-5 fibroblasts and human PBMCs, the carrier for VZV dissemination, but is severely impaired for infection of human skin and neuronal cells. Meanwhile, v7D shows immunogenicity comparable to vOka both in vitro and in multiple small animal species. Finally, v7D is proven well-tolerated and immunogenic in nonhuman primates. Our preclinical data suggest that v7D is a promising candidate as a safer live varicella vaccine with reduced risk of vaccine-related complications, and could inform the design of other herpes virus vaccines. Current varicella vaccines retain neurovirulence and can establish latency and reactivate. Here, the authors present preclinical results of a rationally-designed, skin- and neuro-attenuated varicella vaccine candidate, v7D, showing its attenuation in human skin and neuronal cells and its immunogenicity in small animal models and nonhuman primates
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15
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Abendroth A, Slobedman B. Modulation of MHC and MHC-Like Molecules by Varicella Zoster Virus. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2022; 438:85-102. [DOI: 10.1007/82_2022_254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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16
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Geographic heterogeneity in the association of varicella-zoster virus seropositivity and multiple sclerosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Mult Scler Relat Disord 2021; 53:103024. [PMID: 34148006 DOI: 10.1016/j.msard.2021.103024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Revised: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although there has long been a suspected association between varicella-zoster virus (VZV) and multiple sclerosis (MS), the connection has remained unclear. In this study, we performed a meta-analysis in an attempt to assess the association between VZV IgG serostatus and MS. METHODS A literature search was performed using three databases: MEDLINE, EMBASE, and Cochrane. Eligible results included observational studies investigating the seroprevalence of VZV immunoglobulin G (IgG) in adults with MS versus non-MS controls. Two authors performed a screen of the search results, evaluating them for quality and relevant outcomes. Using a random-effect model, we estimated pooled odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). RESULTS The literature search yielded 1,268 articles, 8 of which (2,266 MS patients and 1,818 controls) were eligible for inclusion in the meta-analysis. Evaluation of all included studies together showed no significant association between VZV IgG seropositivity and MS (OR 1.439; 95%CI, 0.503-4.118; p 0.497). However, when analyzed in subgroups based on geographical area, studies performed in Asian countries showed VZV IgG seropositivity was more common in MS patients than in controls (OR 4.470; 95%CI 1.959-10.203; p < 0.001). No significant association was found in European countries. CONCLUSIONS This study found evidence of an association between VZV IgG seropositivity and MS in Asian countries. Additional studies are warranted to ascertain factors impacting this association.
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17
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The Mechanism of PEDV-Carrying CD3 + T Cells Migrate into the Intestinal Mucosa of Neonatal Piglets. Viruses 2021; 13:v13030469. [PMID: 33809123 PMCID: PMC8000367 DOI: 10.3390/v13030469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2021] [Revised: 03/03/2021] [Accepted: 03/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDV) can cause intestinal infection in neonatal piglets through the nasal cavity. A process in which CD3+ T cells carry PEDV plays a key role. However, the modes through which PEDV bridles CD3+ T cells as a vehicle for migration to the intestinal epithelium have not been clarified. In this study, we first demonstrated that PEDV could survive in blood-derived CD3+ T cells for several hours, depending on the multiplicity of infection. In addition, PEDV preferentially survived in CD4+ T cells over CD8+ T cells. Moreover, viral transmission was mediated by cell-to-cell contact between mesenteric lymph-node-derived CD3+ T cells, but did not occur in blood-derived CD3+ T cells. Following an increase in gut-homing integrin α4β7, blood-derived CD3+ T cells carrying PEDV migrated to the intestines via blood circulation and transferred the virus to intestinal epithelial cells through cell-to-cell contact in neonatal piglets. Our findings have significant implications for understanding PEDV pathogenesis in neonatal piglets, which is essential for developing innovative therapies to prevent PEDV infection.
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18
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Fukuyasu A, Kamata M, Sy Hau C, Nagata M, Fukaya S, Hayashi K, Tanaka T, Ishikawa T, Ohnishi T, Tada Y, Kanda N. Serum interleukin-10 level increases in patients with severe signs or symptoms of herpes zoster and predicts the duration of neuralgia. J Dermatol 2021; 48:511-518. [PMID: 33609414 DOI: 10.1111/1346-8138.15818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2020] [Revised: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Herpes zoster (HZ) is caused by reactivation of latent varicella zoster virus (VZV) in the cranial nerve or dorsal root ganglia, with spread of the virus along the sensory nerve to the dermatome. Postherpetic neuralgia is a feared complication of HZ and impairs patients' quality of life enormously. However, there is no predictor of the duration of neuralgia. Our objective was to investigate whether there are correlations between the duration of neuralgia and serum levels of potential biomarkers in order to find practical predictors of the duration of neuralgia. Patients who were diagnosed with HZ at our hospital from April 2013 to January 2014 were included in this study. Serum levels of cytokines and other biomarkers were measured using commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kits. Thirty patients (15 men and 15 women) with HZ were enrolled in this study. The mean age was 66.1 ± 9.2 (standard deviation) years (range, 51-84 years). Four patients were evaluated as having mild, 19 as having moderate, and seven as having severe HZ. Patients with severe HZ suffered from neuralgia for a significantly longer period of time than patients with mild-to-moderate HZ (9.86 ± 8.25 months vs. 2.01 ± 2.68 months, severe vs. mild-to-moderate, p = 0.0021). The serum interleukin (IL)-10 level was significantly higher in patients with severe HZ than in those with mild-to-moderate HZ (12.93 ± 3.27 pg/mL vs. 6.74 ± 3.72 pg/mL; severe vs. mild-to-moderate; p = 0.0487). Furthermore, the serum IL-10 level was significantly correlated with the duration of neuralgia (r = 0.5193, p = 0.0111). Lastly, the serum IL-10 level significantly decreased after treatment in comparison with that before treatment (from 8.15 ± 4.46 pg/mL to 4.32 ± 11.83 pg/mL, p < 0.0001). In conclusion, these results suggest that the serum IL-10 level is an objective biomarker of the severity of HZ, and that the serum IL-10 level can be a practical predictor of the duration of neuralgia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atsuko Fukuyasu
- Department of Dermatology, Teikyo University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Masahiro Kamata
- Department of Dermatology, Teikyo University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Carren Sy Hau
- Department of Dermatology, Teikyo University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Mayumi Nagata
- Department of Dermatology, Teikyo University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Saki Fukaya
- Department of Dermatology, Teikyo University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kotaro Hayashi
- Department of Dermatology, Teikyo University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takamitsu Tanaka
- Department of Dermatology, Teikyo University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takeko Ishikawa
- Department of Dermatology, Teikyo University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takamitsu Ohnishi
- Department of Dermatology, Teikyo University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Yayoi Tada
- Department of Dermatology, Teikyo University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Naoko Kanda
- Department of Dermatology, Teikyo University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan.,Department of Dermatology, Nippon Medical School, Chiba Hokusoh Hospital, Chiba, Japan
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19
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Liang F, Glans H, Enoksson SL, Kolios AGA, Loré K, Nilsson J. Recurrent Herpes Zoster Ophthalmicus in a Patient With a Novel Toll-Like Receptor 3 Variant Linked to Compromised Activation Capacity in Fibroblasts. J Infect Dis 2021; 221:1295-1303. [PMID: 31268141 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiz229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2019] [Accepted: 05/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Herpes zoster ophthalmicus occurs primarily in elderly or immunocompromised individuals after reactivation of varicella zoster virus (VZV). Recurrences of zoster ophthalmicus are uncommon because the reactivation efficiently boosts anti-VZV immunity. A 28-year-old female presented to our clinic with a history of multiple recurrences of zoster ophthalmicus. METHODS Whole-exome sequencing (WES), analyses of VZV T-cell immunity, and pathogen recognition receptor function in primary antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and fibroblasts were performed. RESULTS Normal VZV-specific T-cell immunity and antibody response were detected. Whole-exome sequencing identified a heterozygous nonsynonymous variant (c.2324C > T) in the Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) gene resulting in formation of a premature stop-codon. This alteration could potentially undermine TLR3 signaling in a dominant-negative fashion. Therefore, we investigated TLR3 signaling responses in APCs and fibroblasts from the patient. The APCs responded efficiently to stimulation with TLR3 ligands, whereas the responses from the fibroblasts were compromised. CONCLUSIONS We report a novel TLR3 variant associated with recurrent zoster ophthalmicus. Toll-like receptor 3 responses that were unaffected in APCs but diminished in fibroblasts are in line with previous reports linking TLR3 deficiency with herpes simplex virus encephalitis. Mechanisms involving compromised viral sensing in infected cells may thus be central to the described immunodeficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Liang
- Division of Immunology and Allergy, Department of Medicine Solna.,Center for Molecular Medicine
| | - Hedvig Glans
- Division of Dermatology and Venerology, Department of Medicine Solna, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Sara Lind Enoksson
- Department of Clinical Science, Intervention and Technology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Department of Clinical Immunology, Karolinska University Hospital, Huddinge, Sweden
| | | | - Karin Loré
- Division of Immunology and Allergy, Department of Medicine Solna.,Center for Molecular Medicine
| | - Jakob Nilsson
- Department of Immunology, University Hospital Zurich, Switzerland
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20
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Poelaert KCK, Van Cleemput J, Laval K, Xie J, Favoreel HW, Nauwynck HJ. Equine herpesvirus 1 infection orchestrates the expression of chemokines in equine respiratory epithelial cells. J Gen Virol 2020; 100:1567-1579. [PMID: 31490114 DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.001317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The ancestral equine herpesvirus 1 (EHV1), closely related to human herpes viruses, exploits leukocytes to reach its target organs, accordingly evading the immune surveillance system. Circulating EHV1 strains can be divided into abortigenic/neurovirulent, causing reproductive/neurological disorders. Neurovirulent EHV1 more efficiently recruits monocytic CD172a+ cells to the upper respiratory tract (URT), while abortigenic EHV1 tempers monocyte migration. Whether similar results could be expected for T lymphocytes is not known. Therefore, we questioned whether differences in T cell recruitment could be associated with variations in cell tropism between both EHV1 phenotypes, and which viral proteins might be involved. The expression of CXCL9 and CXCL10 was evaluated in abortigenic/neurovirulent EHV1-inoculated primary respiratory epithelial cells (ERECs). The bioactivity of chemokines was tested with a functional migration assay. Replication of neurovirulent EHV1 in the URT resulted in an enhanced expression/bioactivity of CXCL9 and CXCL10, compared to abortigenic EHV1. Interestingly, deletion of glycoprotein 2 resulted in an increased recruitment of both monocytic CD172a+ cells and T lymphocytes to the corresponding EREC supernatants. Our data reveal a novel function of EHV1-gp2, tempering leukocyte migration to the URT, further indicating a sophisticated virus-mediated orchestration of leukocyte recruitment to the URT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrien C K Poelaert
- Department of Virology, Immunology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Jolien Van Cleemput
- Department of Molecular Biology 301 Schultz Laboratory, Princeton University Washington Rd, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA.,Department of Virology, Immunology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Kathlyn Laval
- Department of Molecular Biology 301 Schultz Laboratory, Princeton University Washington Rd, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA
| | - Jiexiong Xie
- Department of Virology, Immunology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Herman W Favoreel
- Department of Virology, Immunology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Hans J Nauwynck
- Department of Virology, Immunology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
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21
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Lee SJ, Park HJ, Ko HL, Lee JE, Lee HJ, Kim H, Nam JH. Evaluation of glycoprotein E subunit and live attenuated varicella-zoster virus vaccines formulated with a single-strand RNA-based adjuvant. IMMUNITY INFLAMMATION AND DISEASE 2020; 8:216-227. [PMID: 32167678 PMCID: PMC7212201 DOI: 10.1002/iid3.297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2019] [Revised: 02/25/2020] [Accepted: 02/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Introduction Varicella‐zoster virus (VZV), a human alphaherpesvirus 3, elicits both chickenpox and shingles and/or postherpetic neuralgia. A live attenuated vaccine (LAV) and glycoprotein E (gE) subunit vaccine were developed to prevent VZV‐induced diseases. We recently reported that single‐strand RNA (ssRNA) based on the intergenic region of the internal ribosome entry site of cricket paralysis virus (CrPV) is an effective adjuvant for protein‐based and virus‐like particle‐based vaccines. Here, Chinese hamster ovary expression system and an LAV from Oka/SK strains. Methods We appraised the adjuvant effect of the same CrPV ssRNA encoding the gE gene formulated in the two vaccines using VZV‐primed C57BL/6 mice and guinea pigs. Humoral immunity and cell‐mediated immunity were assessed by enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and ELISPOT in gE subunit vaccine and by ELISA and fluorescent antibody to membrane antigen in LAV. Results The gE subunit vaccine‐induced gE‐specific antibodies and CD4+ T‐cell responses (indicated by interferon‐γ [IFN‐γ] and interleukin‐2 secretion) in the ssRNA‐based adjuvant containing the VZV gE gene. Therefore, an ssRNA adjuvant combined with gE antigen can trigger the innate immune response and induce an adaptive immune response to ultimately activate humoral and cell‐mediated responses. VZV LAV could also induce VZV‐specific antibodies and IFN‐γ stimulated by LAV, whereas the effect of ssRNA as a vaccine adjuvant could not be confirmed. However, the ssRNA adjuvant increased VZV‐specific neutralizing antibody response. Conclusions Taken together, these results highlight that the gE subunit vaccine and LAV developed in this study can be functional VZV vaccines, and ssRNAs appear to function better as adjuvants in a subunit vaccine than in an LAV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Su Jeen Lee
- Department of Biotechnology, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon, Republic of Korea.,Department of R&D, SK Bioscience, Pangyoro, Bundang-gu, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyo-Jung Park
- Department of Biotechnology, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Hae Li Ko
- Department of Biotechnology, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon, Republic of Korea
| | - Jung Eun Lee
- Department of R&D, SK Bioscience, Pangyoro, Bundang-gu, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyun Joo Lee
- Department of R&D, SK Bioscience, Pangyoro, Bundang-gu, Republic of Korea
| | - Hun Kim
- Department of R&D, SK Bioscience, Pangyoro, Bundang-gu, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae-Hwan Nam
- Department of Biotechnology, The Catholic University of Korea, Bucheon, Republic of Korea
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22
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Gerada C, Campbell TM, Kennedy JJ, McSharry BP, Steain M, Slobedman B, Abendroth A. Manipulation of the Innate Immune Response by Varicella Zoster Virus. Front Immunol 2020; 11:1. [PMID: 32038653 PMCID: PMC6992605 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.00001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2019] [Accepted: 01/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is the causative agent of chickenpox (varicella) and shingles (herpes zoster). VZV and other members of the herpesvirus family are distinguished by their ability to establish a latent infection, with the potential to reactivate and spread virus to other susceptible individuals. This lifelong relationship continually subjects VZV to the host immune system and as such VZV has evolved a plethora of strategies to evade and manipulate the immune response. This review will focus on our current understanding of the innate anti-viral control mechanisms faced by VZV. We will also discuss the diverse array of strategies employed by VZV to regulate these innate immune responses and highlight new knowledge on the interactions between VZV and human innate immune cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chelsea Gerada
- Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Tessa M Campbell
- Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Jarrod J Kennedy
- Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Brian P McSharry
- Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Megan Steain
- Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Barry Slobedman
- Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Allison Abendroth
- Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Charles Perkins Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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23
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Ebert G, Paradkar PN, Londrigan SL. Virology Downunder, a meeting commentary from the 2019 Lorne Infection and Immunity Conference, Australia. Virol J 2019; 16:109. [PMID: 31477134 PMCID: PMC6720860 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-019-1217-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2019] [Accepted: 08/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this article is to summarise the virology content presented at the 9th Lorne Infection and Immunity Conference, Australia, in February 2019. The broad program included virology as a key theme, and the commentary herein highlights several key virology presentations at the meeting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregor Ebert
- Infectious Disease and Immune Defence Division, The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, Parkville, VIC, Australia.,Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, 3010, Australia
| | - Prasad N Paradkar
- CSIRO Health and Biosecurity, Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Geelong, VIC, 3220, Australia
| | - Sarah L Londrigan
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Melbourne, at the Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, Melbourne, VIC, 3000, Australia.
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24
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Haredy AM, Takei M, Iwamoto SI, Ohno M, Kosaka M, Hirota K, Koketsu R, Okuno T, Ikuta K, Yamanishi K, Ebina H. Quantification of a cell-mediated immune response against varicella zoster virus by assessing responder CD4 high memory cell proliferation in activated whole blood cultures. Vaccine 2019; 37:5225-5232. [PMID: 31358406 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.07.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2019] [Revised: 07/16/2019] [Accepted: 07/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Herpes zoster (HZ) is caused by reactivation of a latent varicella zoster virus (VZV). The potential to develop HZ increases with age due to waning of memory cell-mediated immunity (CMI), mainly the CD4 response. Therefore, VZV-CD4-memory T cells (CD4-M) count in blood could serve as a barometer for HZ protection. However, direct quantification of these cells is known to be difficult because they are few in number in the blood. We thus developed a method to measure the proliferation level of CD4-M cells responding to VZV antigen in whole blood culture. METHODS Blood samples were collected from 32 children (2-15 years old) with or without a history of varicella infection, 18 young adults (28-45 years old), and 80 elderly (50-86 years old) with a history of varicella infection. The elderly group was vaccinated, and blood samples were taken 2 months and 1 year after VZV vaccination. Then, 1 mL of blood was mixed with VZV, diluted 1/10 in medium, and cultured. CD4-M cells were identified and measured by flow cytometry. RESULTS There was distinct proliferation of CD3+CD4highCD45RA-RO+ (CD4high-M) cells specific to VZV antigen at day 9. The majority of CD4high-M cells had the effector memory phenotype CCR7- and was granzyme B-positive. CD4high-M cells were detected in blood culture from varicella-immune but not varicella-non-immune children. Meanwhile, a higher level of CD4high-M proliferation was observed in young adults than in the elderly. The CD4high-M proliferation level was boosted 2 months after VZV vaccination and maintained for at least 1 year in the elderly. CONCLUSION Quantifying VZV responder CD4high -M cell proliferation is a convenient way to measure VZV CMI using small blood volumes. Our method can be applied to measure VZV vaccine-induced CMI in the elderly. Clinical study registry numbers: (www.clinicaltrials.jp) 173532 and 183985.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmad M Haredy
- Biken Center for Innovative Vaccine Research and Development, The Research Foundation for Microbial Diseases of Osaka University (BIKEN), Suita, Osaka, Japan.
| | | | | | | | - Mitsuyo Kosaka
- Biken Center for Innovative Vaccine Research and Development, The Research Foundation for Microbial Diseases of Osaka University (BIKEN), Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | - Kazue Hirota
- Biken Center for Innovative Vaccine Research and Development, The Research Foundation for Microbial Diseases of Osaka University (BIKEN), Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | - Ritsuko Koketsu
- Biken Center for Innovative Vaccine Research and Development, The Research Foundation for Microbial Diseases of Osaka University (BIKEN), Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | - Toshiomi Okuno
- Department of Microbiology, Hyogo College of Medicine, Nishinomiya, Hyogo, Japan
| | - Kazuyoshi Ikuta
- Biken Center for Innovative Vaccine Research and Development, The Research Foundation for Microbial Diseases of Osaka University (BIKEN), Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | - Koichi Yamanishi
- Biken Center for Innovative Vaccine Research and Development, The Research Foundation for Microbial Diseases of Osaka University (BIKEN), Suita, Osaka, Japan
| | - Hirotaka Ebina
- Biken Center for Innovative Vaccine Research and Development, The Research Foundation for Microbial Diseases of Osaka University (BIKEN), Suita, Osaka, Japan
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25
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Abstract
Vaccination against γ-herpesviruses has been hampered by our limited understanding of their normal control. Epstein–Barr virus (EBV)-transformed B cells are killed by viral latency antigen-specific CD8+ T cells in vitro, but attempts to block B cell infection with antibody or to prime anti-viral CD8+ T cells have protected poorly in vivo. The Doherty laboratory used Murid Herpesvirus-4 (MuHV-4) to analyze γ-herpesvirus control in mice and found CD4+ T cell dependence, with viral evasion limiting CD8+ T cell function. MuHV-4 colonizes germinal center (GC) B cells via lytic transfer from myeloid cells, and CD4+ T cells control myeloid infection. GC colonization and protective, lytic antigen-specific CD4+ T cells are now evident also for EBV. Subunit vaccines have protected only transiently against MuHV-4, but whole virus vaccines give long-term protection, via CD4+ T cells and antibody. They block infection transfer to B cells, and need include no known viral latency gene, nor any MuHV-4-specific gene. Thus, the Doherty approach of in vivo murine analysis has led to a plausible vaccine strategy for EBV and, perhaps, some insight into what CD8+ T cells really do.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip G Stevenson
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland and Brisbane, Australia.,Child Health Research Center, Brisbane, Australia
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26
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Jones D, Como CN, Jing L, Blackmon A, Neff CP, Krueger O, Bubak AN, Palmer BE, Koelle DM, Nagel MA. Varicella zoster virus productively infects human peripheral blood mononuclear cells to modulate expression of immunoinhibitory proteins and blocking PD-L1 enhances virus-specific CD8+ T cell effector function. PLoS Pathog 2019; 15:e1007650. [PMID: 30870532 PMCID: PMC6435197 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2018] [Revised: 03/26/2019] [Accepted: 02/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is a lymphotropic alpha-herpesvirinae subfamily member that produces varicella on primary infection and causes zoster, vascular disease and vision loss upon reactivation from latency. VZV-infected peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) disseminate virus to distal organs to produce clinical disease. To assess immune evasion strategies elicited by VZV that may contribute to dissemination of infection, human PBMCs and VZV-specific CD8+ T cells (V-CD8+) were mock- or VZV-infected and analyzed for immunoinhibitory protein PD-1, PD-L1, PD-L2, CTLA-4, LAG-3 and TIM-3 expression using flow cytometry. All VZV-infected PBMCs (monocytes, NK, NKT, B cells, CD4+ and CD8+ T cells) and V-CD8+ showed significant elevations in PD-L1 expression compared to uninfected cells. VZV induced PD-L2 expression in B cells and V-CD8+. Only VZV-infected CD8+ T cells, NKT cells and V-CD8+ upregulated PD-1 expression, the immunoinhibitory receptor for PD-L1/PD-L2. VZV induced CTLA-4 expression only in V-CD8+ and no significant changes in LAG-3 or TIM-3 expression were observed in V-CD8+ or PBMC T cells. To test whether PD-L1, PD-L2 or CTLA-4 regulates V-CD8+ effector function, autologous PBMCs were VZV-infected and co-cultured with V-CD8+ cells in the presence of blocking antibodies against PD-L1, PD-L2 or CTLA-4; ELISAs revealed significant elevations in IFNγ only upon blocking of PD-L1. Together, these results identified additional immune cells that are permissive to VZV infection (monocytes, B cells and NKT cells); along with a novel mechanism for inhibiting CD8+ T cell effector function through induction of PD-L1 expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dallas Jones
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Christina N. Como
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Lichen Jing
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Anna Blackmon
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Charles Preston Neff
- Department of Medicine, Division of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Owen Krueger
- Department of Medicine, Division of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Andrew N. Bubak
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Brent E. Palmer
- Department of Medicine, Division of Allergy and Clinical Immunology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - David M. Koelle
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
| | - Maria A. Nagel
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado, United States of America
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27
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Infection and Functional Modulation of Human Monocytes and Macrophages by Varicella-Zoster Virus. J Virol 2019; 93:JVI.01887-18. [PMID: 30404793 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01887-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2018] [Accepted: 10/31/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) is associated with viremia during primary infection that is presumed to stem from infection of circulating immune cells. While VZV has been shown to be capable of infecting a number of different subsets of circulating immune cells, such as T cells, dendritic cells, and NK cells, less is known about the interaction between VZV and monocytes. Here, we demonstrate that blood-derived human monocytes are permissive to VZV replication in vitro VZV-infected monocytes exhibited each temporal class of VZV gene expression, as evidenced by immunofluorescent staining. VZV virions were observed on the cell surface and viral nucleocapsids were observed in the nucleus of VZV-infected monocytes by scanning electron microscopy. In addition, VZV-infected monocytes were able to transfer infectious virus to human fibroblasts. Infected monocytes displayed impaired dextran-mediated endocytosis, and cell surface immunophenotyping revealed the downregulation of CD14, HLA-DR, CD11b, and the macrophage colony-stimulating factor (M-CSF) receptor. Analysis of the impact of VZV infection on M-CSF-stimulated monocyte-to-macrophage differentiation demonstrated the loss of cell viability, indicating that VZV-infected monocytes were unable to differentiate into viable macrophages. In contrast, macrophages differentiated from monocytes prior to exposure to VZV were highly permissive to infection. This study defines the permissiveness of these myeloid cell types to productive VZV infection and identifies the functional impairment of VZV-infected monocytes.IMPORTANCE Primary VZV infection results in the widespread dissemination of the virus throughout the host. Viral transportation is known to be directly influenced by susceptible immune cells in the circulation. Moreover, infection of immune cells by VZV results in attenuation of the antiviral mechanisms used to control infection and limit spread. Here, we provide evidence that human monocytes, which are highly abundant in the circulation, are permissive to productive VZV infection. Furthermore, monocyte-derived macrophages were also highly permissive to VZV infection, although VZV-infected monocytes were unable to differentiate into macrophages. Exploring the relationships between VZV and permissive immune cells, such as human monocytes and macrophages, elucidates novel immune evasion strategies and provides further insight into the control that VZV has over the immune system.
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28
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Sorel O, Messaoudi I. Varicella Virus-Host Interactions During Latency and Reactivation: Lessons From Simian Varicella Virus. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:3170. [PMID: 30619226 PMCID: PMC6308120 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.03170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2018] [Accepted: 12/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is a neurotropic alphaherpesvirus and the causative agent of varicella (chickenpox) in humans. Following primary infection, VZV establishes latency in the sensory ganglia and can reactivate to cause herpes zoster, more commonly known as shingles, which causes significant morbidity, and on rare occasions mortality, in the elderly. Because VZV infection is highly restricted to humans, the development of a reliable animal model has been challenging, and our understanding of VZV pathogenesis remains incomplete. As an alternative, infection of rhesus macaques with the homologous simian varicella virus (SVV) recapitulates the hallmarks of VZV infection and thus constitutes a robust animal model to provide critical insights into VZV pathogenesis and the host antiviral response. In this model, SVV infection results in the development of varicella during primary infection, generation of an adaptive immune response, establishment of latency in the sensory ganglia, and viral reactivation upon immune suppression. In this review, we discuss our current knowledge about host and viral factors involved in the establishment of SVV latency and reactivation as well as the important role played by T cells in SVV pathogenesis and antiviral immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Océane Sorel
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Ilhem Messaoudi
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
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29
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Laing KJ, Ouwendijk WJD, Koelle DM, Verjans GMGM. Immunobiology of Varicella-Zoster Virus Infection. J Infect Dis 2018; 218:S68-S74. [PMID: 30247598 PMCID: PMC6151075 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiy403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) causes clinically significant illness during acute and recurrent infection accompanied by robust innate and acquired immune responses. Innate immune cells in skin and ganglion secrete type I interferon (IFN-I) and proinflammatory cytokines to control VZV. Varicella-zoster virus subverts pattern recognition receptor sensing to modulate antigen presentation and IFN-I production. During primary infection, VZV hijacks T cells to disseminate to the skin and establishes latency in ganglia. Durable T- and B-cell memory formed within a few weeks of infection is boosted by reactivation or re-exposure. Antigen-specific T cells are recruited and potentially retained in VZV-infected skin to counteract reactivation. In latently VZV-infected ganglia, however, virus-specific T cells have not been recovered, suggesting that local innate immune responses control VZV latency. Antibodies prevent primary VZV infection, whereas T cells are fundamental to resolving disease, limiting severity, and preventing reactivation. In this study, we review current knowledge on the interactions between VZV and the human immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kerry J Laing
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle
| | | | - David M Koelle
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle
- Vaccine and Infectious Diseases Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington
- Benaroya Research Institute, Seattle, Washington
| | - Georges M G M Verjans
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle
- Research Center for Emerging Infections and Zoonoses, University of Veterinary Medicine, Hannover, Germany
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30
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Campbell TM, McSharry BP, Steain M, Ashhurst TM, Slobedman B, Abendroth A. Varicella zoster virus productively infects human natural killer cells and manipulates phenotype. PLoS Pathog 2018; 14:e1006999. [PMID: 29709039 PMCID: PMC5953475 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2018] [Revised: 05/15/2018] [Accepted: 03/29/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is a ubiquitous human alphaherpesvirus, responsible for varicella upon primary infection and herpes zoster following reactivation from latency. To establish lifelong infection, VZV employs strategies to evade and manipulate the immune system to its advantage in disseminating virus. As innate lymphocytes, natural killer (NK) cells are part of the early immune response to infection, and have been implicated in controlling VZV infection in patients. Understanding of how VZV directly interacts with NK cells, however, has not been investigated in detail. In this study, we provide the first evidence that VZV is capable of infecting human NK cells from peripheral blood in vitro. VZV infection of NK cells is productive, supporting the full kinetic cascade of viral gene expression and producing new infectious virus which was transmitted to epithelial cells in culture. We determined by flow cytometry that NK cell infection with VZV was not only preferential for the mature CD56dim NK cell subset, but also drove acquisition of the terminally-differentiated maturity marker CD57. Interpretation of high dimensional flow cytometry data with tSNE analysis revealed that culture of NK cells with VZV also induced a potent loss of expression of the low-affinity IgG Fc receptor CD16 on the cell surface. Notably, VZV infection of NK cells upregulated surface expression of chemokine receptors associated with trafficking to the skin –a crucial site in VZV disease where highly infectious lesions develop. We demonstrate that VZV actively manipulates the NK cell phenotype through productive infection, and propose a potential role for NK cells in VZV pathogenesis. Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is a pervasive pathogen, causing chickenpox during primary infection and shingles when the virus reactivates from latency. VZV is therefore a lifelong infection for humans, warranting investigation of how this virus interacts with the immune system. One of the first immune cells to respond to viral infection are natural killer (NK) cells, yet little is known about how VZV interacts with NK cells. We demonstrate for the first time that VZV infects human blood NK cells and can use them to pass on infection to other cells in culture. Furthermore, VZV displays a predilection for infecting mature NK cells, and amplifies expression of receptors that would promote trafficking to the skin– the site of highly infectious lesions during chickenpox and shingles. Our findings suggest a role for NK cells in VZV disease and enhances our understanding of how lifelong infections interact with the human immune system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tessa Mollie Campbell
- Discipline of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Brian Patrick McSharry
- Discipline of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Megan Steain
- Discipline of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Thomas Myles Ashhurst
- Sydney Cytometry Facility, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.,Discipline of Pathology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Barry Slobedman
- Discipline of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Allison Abendroth
- Discipline of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
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31
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Ouwendijk WJD, van Veen S, Mehraban T, Mahalingam R, Verjans GMGM. Simian Varicella Virus Infects Enteric Neurons and α4β7 Integrin-Expressing Gut-Tropic T-Cells in Nonhuman Primates. Viruses 2018; 10:E156. [PMID: 29597335 PMCID: PMC5923450 DOI: 10.3390/v10040156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2018] [Revised: 03/26/2018] [Accepted: 03/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The pathogenesis of enteric zoster, a rare debilitating complication of reactivation of latent varicella-zoster virus (VZV) in the enteric nervous system (ENS), is largely unknown. Infection of monkeys with the closely related Varicellovirus simian varicella virus (SVV) mimics VZV disease in humans. In this study, we determined the applicability of the SVV nonhuman primate model to study Varicellovirus infection of the ENS. We confirmed VZV infection of the gut in latently infected adults and demonstrated that SVV DNA was similarly present in gut of monkeys latently infected with SVV using quantitative real-time PCR. In situ analyses showed that enteric neurons expressed SVV open reading frame (ORF) 63 RNA, but not viral nucleocapsid proteins, suggestive of latent ENS infection. During primary infection, SVV-infected T-cells were detected in gut-draining mesenteric lymph nodes and located in close vicinity to enteric nerves in the gut. Furthermore, flow cytometric analysis of blood from acutely SVV-infected monkeys demonstrated that virus-infected T-cells expressed the gut-homing receptor α4β7 integrin. Collectively, the data demonstrate that SVV infects ENS neurons during primary infection and supports the role of T-cells in virus dissemination to the gut. Because SVV reactivation can be experimentally induced, the SVV nonhuman primate model holds great potential to study the pathogenesis of enteric zoster.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Suzanne van Veen
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, 3015 CE Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Tamana Mehraban
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, 3015 CE Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Ravi Mahalingam
- Department of Neurology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO 80045, USA.
| | - Georges M G M Verjans
- Department of Viroscience, Erasmus MC, 3015 CE Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
- Research Center for Emerging Infections and Zoonoses, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30559 Hannover, Germany.
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32
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Cavalcanti BM, Cruzat A, Sahin A, Pavan-Langston D, Samayoa E, Hamrah P. In vivo confocal microscopy detects bilateral changes of corneal immune cells and nerves in unilateral herpes zoster ophthalmicus. Ocul Surf 2017; 16:101-111. [PMID: 28923503 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtos.2017.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2017] [Revised: 08/05/2017] [Accepted: 09/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To analyze bilateral corneal immune cell and nerve alterations in patients with unilateral herpes zoster ophthalmicus (HZO) by laser in vivo confocal microscopy (IVCM) and their correlation with corneal sensation and clinical findings. MATERIALS AND METHODS This is a prospective, cross-sectional, controlled, single-center study. Twenty-four eyes of 24 HZO patients and their contralateral clinically unaffected eyes and normal controls (n = 24) were included. Laser IVCM (Heidelberg Retina Tomograph/Rostock Cornea Module), corneal esthesiometry (Cochet-Bonnet) were performed. Changes in corneal dendritiform cell (DC) density and morphology, number and length of subbasal nerve fibers and their correlation to corneal sensation, pain, lesion location, disease duration, and number of episodes were analyzed. RESULTS HZO-affected and contralateral eyes showed a significant increase in DC influx of the central cornea as compared to controls (147.4 ± 33.9, 120.1 ± 21.2, and 23.0 ± 3.6 cells/mm2; p < 0.0001). In HZO eyes DCs were larger in area (319.4 ± 59.8 μm2; p < 0.001) and number of dendrites (3.5 ± 0.4 n/cell; p = 0.01) as compared to controls (52.2 ± 11.7, and 2.3 ± 0.5). DC density and size showed moderate negative correlation with total nerve length (R = -0.43 and R = -0.57, respectively; all p < 0.001). A higher frequency of nerve beading and activated DCs close to nerve fibers were detected specifically in pain patients. CONCLUSIONS Chronic unilateral HZO causes significant bilateral increase in corneal DC density and decrease of the corneal subbasal nerves as compared to controls. Negative correlation was observed for DC density and size to nerve parameters, suggesting interplay between the immune and nervous systems. Patients with chronic pain also showed increased nerve beading and activated DCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernardo M Cavalcanti
- Ocular Surface Imaging Center and Cornea & Refractive Surgery Service, Massachusetts Eye & Ear Infirmary, Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, 243 Charles Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Post-Graduate Program, Surgery Department, Pernambuco Federal University (UFPE), Recife, PE, Brazil
| | - Andrea Cruzat
- Ocular Surface Imaging Center and Cornea & Refractive Surgery Service, Massachusetts Eye & Ear Infirmary, Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, 243 Charles Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Afsun Sahin
- Ocular Surface Imaging Center and Cornea & Refractive Surgery Service, Massachusetts Eye & Ear Infirmary, Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, 243 Charles Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Koc University Medical School, Research Center for Translational Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey; Boston Image Reading Center, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Deborah Pavan-Langston
- Ocular Surface Imaging Center and Cornea & Refractive Surgery Service, Massachusetts Eye & Ear Infirmary, Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, 243 Charles Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Eric Samayoa
- Ocular Surface Imaging Center and Cornea & Refractive Surgery Service, Massachusetts Eye & Ear Infirmary, Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, 243 Charles Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Pedram Hamrah
- Ocular Surface Imaging Center and Cornea & Refractive Surgery Service, Massachusetts Eye & Ear Infirmary, Department of Ophthalmology, Harvard Medical School, 243 Charles Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Boston Image Reading Center, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA; Cornea Service, New England Eye Center, Department of Ophthalmology, Tufts Medical Center, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, MA, USA.
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33
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Brisse E, Wouters CH, Andrei G, Matthys P. How Viruses Contribute to the Pathogenesis of Hemophagocytic Lymphohistiocytosis. Front Immunol 2017; 8:1102. [PMID: 28936212 PMCID: PMC5594061 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.01102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2017] [Accepted: 08/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis (HLH) is a life-threatening, hyperinflammatory syndrome, characterized by the uncontrolled activation of macrophages and T cells, eliciting key symptoms such as persistent fever, hepatosplenomegaly, pancytopenia, hemophagocytosis, hyperferritinemia, and coagulopathy. Viral infections are frequently implicated in the onset of active HLH episodes, both in primary, genetic HLH as in the secondary, acquired form. Infections with herpesviruses such as Epstein-Barr virus and cytomegalovirus are the most common. In autoimmune diseases, a link between viral infections and autoreactive immune responses has been recognized for a considerable time. However, the mechanisms by which viruses contribute to HLH pathogenesis remain to be clarified. In this viewpoint, different factors that may come into play are discussed. Viruses, particularly larger DNA viruses such as herpesviruses, are potent modulators of the immune response. By evading immune recognition, interfering with cytokine balances and inhibiting apoptotic pathways, viruses may increase the host's susceptibility to HLH development. In particular cases, a direct connection between the viral infection and inhibition of natural killer cell or T cell cytotoxicity was reported, indicating that viruses may create immunological deficiencies reminiscent of primary HLH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellen Brisse
- Laboratory of Immunobiology, Rega Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Carine H. Wouters
- Laboratory of Immunobiology, Rega Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- University Hospital Gasthuisberg, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Graciela Andrei
- Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, Rega Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Patrick Matthys
- Laboratory of Immunobiology, Rega Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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34
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Varicella zoster virus glycoprotein C increases chemokine-mediated leukocyte migration. PLoS Pathog 2017; 13:e1006346. [PMID: 28542541 PMCID: PMC5444840 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1006346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2016] [Accepted: 04/11/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is a highly prevalent human pathogen that establishes latency in neurons of the peripheral nervous system. Primary infection causes varicella whereas reactivation results in zoster, which is often followed by chronic pain in adults. Following infection of epithelial cells in the respiratory tract, VZV spreads within the host by hijacking leukocytes, including T cells, in the tonsils and other regional lymph nodes, and modifying their activity. In spite of its importance in pathogenesis, the mechanism of dissemination remains poorly understood. Here we addressed the influence of VZV on leukocyte migration and found that the purified recombinant soluble ectodomain of VZV glycoprotein C (rSgC) binds chemokines with high affinity. Functional experiments show that VZV rSgC potentiates chemokine activity, enhancing the migration of monocyte and T cell lines and, most importantly, human tonsillar leukocytes at low chemokine concentrations. Binding and potentiation of chemokine activity occurs through the C-terminal part of gC ectodomain, containing predicted immunoglobulin-like domains. The mechanism of action of VZV rSgC requires interaction with the chemokine and signalling through the chemokine receptor. Finally, we show that VZV viral particles enhance chemokine-dependent T cell migration and that gC is partially required for this activity. We propose that VZV gC activity facilitates the recruitment and subsequent infection of leukocytes and thereby enhances VZV systemic dissemination in humans. Varicella zoster virus (VZV) causes two main pathologies in humans, chickenpox during primary infection, and shingles following reactivation. The latter is a painful condition that is often followed by chronic pain in a large numbers of shingles patients. Despite the existence of a vaccine, shingles-related complications cause expenses of more than $1 billion per year in the USA alone. Following primary infection, the virus infects leukocytes including T cells, spreading to the skin causing chickenpox. Direct infection of neurons from leukocytes has also been postulated. Given the relevance of leukocytes in VZV biology and the importance of chemokines in directing their migration, we investigated whether VZV modulates the function of chemokines. Our results show that VZV glycoprotein C potentiates the activity of chemokines, inducing higher migration of human leukocytes at low chemokine concentration. This may attract additional susceptible leukocytes to the site of infection enhancing virus spread and pathogenesis.
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Arnold N, Messaoudi I. Herpes zoster and the search for an effective vaccine. Clin Exp Immunol 2017; 187:82-92. [PMID: 27164323 PMCID: PMC5167054 DOI: 10.1111/cei.12809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2016] [Revised: 04/26/2016] [Accepted: 05/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Primary infection with varicella zoster virus (VZV), an exclusively human neurotrophic alphaherpsesvirus, results in varicella, known more commonly as chickenpox. Like other alphaherpesviruses, VZV establishes latency in the sensory ganglia and can reactivate to cause herpes zoster (also known as shingles), a painful and debilitating disease, especially in elderly and immunocompromised individuals. The overall incidence of herpes zoster in Europe and the United States is three per 1000 people, but increases sharply after 60 years of age to 10 per 1000 people. Zostavax® is a vaccine approved by the Federal Drug Administration for the prevention of herpes zoster. Unfortunately, this vaccine reduces the incidence of disease by only 51% and the incidence of post-herpetic neuralgia by 66·5% when administered to those aged 60 and older. Moreover, it is contraindicated for individuals who are immunocompromised or receiving immunosuppressant treatments, although they are at higher risk for herpes zoster compared to immune-competent older individuals. This paper reviews VZV pathogenesis, host responses and current vaccines available to prevent herpes zoster.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Arnold
- Graduate Program in Microbiology, University of California-Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - I Messaoudi
- Graduate Program in Microbiology, University of California-Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, School of Medicine, University of California-Riverside, Riverside, CA, USA
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Dissecting the Molecular Mechanisms of the Tropism of Varicella-Zoster Virus for Human T Cells. J Virol 2016; 90:3284-7. [PMID: 26792747 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.03375-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Studies of varicella-zoster virus (VZV) tropism for T cells support their role in viral transport to the skin during primary infection. Multiparametric single-cell mass cytometry demonstrates that, instead of preferentially infecting skin-homing T cells, VZV alters cell signaling and remodels surface proteins to enhance T cell skin trafficking. Viral proteins dispensable in skin, such as that encoded by open reading frame 66, are necessary in T cells. Interference with VZV T cell tropism may offer novel strategies for drug and vaccine design.
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Simian Varicella Virus Is Present in Macrophages, Dendritic Cells, and T Cells in Lymph Nodes of Rhesus Macaques after Experimental Reactivation. J Virol 2015; 89:9817-24. [PMID: 26178993 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01324-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2015] [Accepted: 07/10/2015] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Like varicella-zoster virus (VZV), simian varicella virus (SVV) reactivates to produce zoster. In the present study, 5 rhesus macaques were inoculated intrabronchially with SVV, and 5 months later, 4 monkeys were immunosuppressed; 1 monkey was not immunosuppressed but was subjected to the stress of transportation. In 4 monkeys, a zoster rash developed 7 to 12 weeks after immunosuppression, and a rash also developed in the monkey that was not immunosuppressed. Analysis at 24 to 48 h after zoster revealed SVV antigen in the lung alveolar wall, in ganglionic neurons and nonneuronal cells, and in skin and in lymph nodes. In skin, SVV was found primarily in sweat glands. In lymph nodes, the SVV antigen colocalized mostly with macrophages, dendritic cells, and, to a lesser extent, T cells. The presence of SVV in lymph nodes, as verified by quantitative PCR detection of SVV DNA, might reflect the sequestration of virus by macrophages and dendritic cells in lymph nodes or the presentation of viral antigens to T cells to initiate an immune response against SVV, or both. IMPORTANCE VZV causes varicella (chickenpox), becomes latent in ganglia, and reactivates to produce zoster and multiple other serious neurological disorders. SVV in nonhuman primates has proved to be a useful model in which the pathogenesis of the virus parallels the pathogenesis of VZV in humans. Here, we show that SVV antigens are present in sweat glands in skin and in macrophages and dendritic cells in lymph nodes after SVV reactivation in monkeys, raising the possibility that macrophages and dendritic cells in lymph nodes serve as antigen-presenting cells to activate T cell responses against SVV after reactivation.
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Lersritwimanmaen P, Na-Ek P, Thanunchai M, Thewsoongnoen J, Sa-Ard-Iam N, Wiboon-ut S, Mahanonda R, Thitithanyanont A. The presence of monocytes enhances the susceptibility of B cells to highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 virus possibly through the increased expression of α2,3 SA receptor. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2015; 464:888-93. [PMID: 26187669 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2015.07.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2015] [Accepted: 07/13/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) H5N1 virus causes severe systemic infection in avian and mammalian species, including humans by first targeting immune cells. This subsequently renders the innate and adaptive immune responses less active, thus allowing dissemination of the virus to systemic organs. To gain insight into the pathogenesis of H5N1, this study aims to determine the susceptibility of human PBMCs to the H5N1 virus and explore the factors which influence this susceptibility. We found that PBMCs were a target of H5N1 infection, and that monocytes and B cells were populations which were clearly the most susceptible. Analysis of PBMC subpopulations showed that isolated monocytes and monocytes residing in whole PBMCs had comparable percentages of infection (28.97 ± 5.54% vs 22.23 ± 5.14%). In contrast, isolated B cells were infected to a much lower degree than B cells residing in a mixture of whole PBMCs (0.88 ± 0.34% vs 34.87 ± 4.63%). Different susceptibility levels of B cells for these tested conditions spurred us to explore the B cell-H5N1 interaction mechanisms. Here, we first demonstrated that monocytes play a crucial role in the enhancement of B cell susceptibility to H5N1 infection. Although the actual mechanism by which this enhancement occurs remains in question, α2,3-linked sialic acid (SA), known for influenza virus receptors, could be a responsible factor for the greater susceptibility of B cells, as it was highly expressed on the surface of B cells upon H5N1 infection of B cell/monocyte co-cultures. Our findings reveal some of the factors involved with the permissiveness of human immune cells to H5N1 virus and provide a better understanding of the tropism of H5N1 in immune cells.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Prasit Na-Ek
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Maytawan Thanunchai
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Jutarat Thewsoongnoen
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Noppadol Sa-Ard-Iam
- Department of Periodontology, Faculty of Dentistry, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Suwimon Wiboon-ut
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Rangsini Mahanonda
- Department of Periodontology, Faculty of Dentistry, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand
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Schönrich G, Raftery MJ. Dendritic cells as Achilles' heel and Trojan horse during varicella zoster virus infection. Front Microbiol 2015; 6:417. [PMID: 26005438 PMCID: PMC4424880 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2015.00417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2015] [Accepted: 04/20/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Varicella zoster virus (VZV), a human alphaherpesvirus, causes varicella and subsequently establishes latency within sensory nerve ganglia. Later in life VZV can reactivate to cause herpes zoster. A reduced frequency of VZV-specific T cells is strongly associated with herpes zoster illustrating that these immune cells are central to control latency. Dendritic cells (DCs) are required for the generation of VZV-specific T cells. However, DCs can also be infected in vitro and in vivo allowing VZV to evade the antiviral immune response. Thus, DCs represent the immune systems' Achilles heel. Uniquely among the human herpesviruses, VZV infects both DCs and T cells, and exploits both as Trojan horses. During primary infection VZV-infected DCs traffic to the draining lymph nodes and tonsils, where the virus is transferred to T cells. VZV-infected T cells subsequently spread infection throughout the body to give the typical varicella skin rash. The delicate interplay between VZV and DCs and its consequences for viral immune evasion and viral dissemination will be discussed in this article.
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Affiliation(s)
- Günther Schönrich
- Institute of Medical Virology, Helmut-Ruska-Haus, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin , Berlin, Germany
| | - Martin J Raftery
- Institute of Medical Virology, Helmut-Ruska-Haus, Charité-Universitätsmedizin Berlin , Berlin, Germany
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Paracoccidioides brasiliensis interferes on dendritic cells maturation by inhibiting PGE2 production. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0120948. [PMID: 25793979 PMCID: PMC4368678 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0120948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2014] [Accepted: 01/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Paracoccidioidomycosis (PCM) is a systemic mycosis, endemic in most Latin American countries, especially in Brazil, whose etiologic agent is the thermodimorphic fungus of the genus Paracoccidioides, comprising cryptic species of Paracoccidioides brasiliensis, S1, PS2, PS3 and Paracoccidioides lutzii. The mechanisms involved in the initial interaction of the fungus with cells of the innate immune response, as dendritic cells (DCs), deserve to be studied. Prostaglandins (PGs) are eicosanoids that play an important role in modulating functions of immune cells including DCs. Here we found that human immature DCs derived from the differentiation of monocytes cultured with GM-CSF and IL-4 release substantial concentrations of PGE2, which, however, were significantly inhibited after challenge with P. brasiliensis. In vitro blocking of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) by monoclonal antibodies showed the involvement of mannose receptor (MR) in PGE2 inhibition by the fungus. In addition, phenotyping assays showed that after challenge with the fungus, DCs do not change their phenotype of immature cells to mature ones, as well as do not produce IL-12 p70 or adequate concentrations of TNF-α. Assays using exogenous PGE2 confirmed an association between PGE2 inhibition and failure of cells to phenotypically mature in response to P. brasiliensis. We conclude that a P. brasiliensis evasion mechanism exists associated to a dysregulation on DC maturation. These findings may provide novel information for the understanding of the complex interplay between the host and this fungus.
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Ouwendijk WJD, Verjans GMGM. Pathogenesis of varicelloviruses in primates. J Pathol 2015; 235:298-311. [PMID: 25255989 DOI: 10.1002/path.4451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2014] [Revised: 09/19/2014] [Accepted: 09/22/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Varicelloviruses in primates comprise the prototypic human varicella-zoster virus (VZV) and its non-human primate homologue, simian varicella virus (SVV). Both viruses cause varicella as a primary infection, establish latency in ganglionic neurons and reactivate later in life to cause herpes zoster in their respective hosts. VZV is endemic worldwide and, although varicella is usually a benign disease in childhood, VZV reactivation is a significant cause of neurological disease in the elderly and in immunocompromised individuals. The pathogenesis of VZV infection remains ill-defined, mostly due to the species restriction of VZV that impedes studies in experimental animal models. SVV infection of non-human primates parallels virological, clinical, pathological and immunological features of human VZV infection, thereby providing an excellent model to study the pathogenesis of varicella and herpes zoster in its natural host. In this review, we discuss recent studies that provided novel insight in both the virus and host factors involved in the three elementary stages of Varicellovirus infection in primates: primary infection, latency and reactivation.
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Ariza ME, Glaser R, Williams MV. Human herpesviruses-encoded dUTPases: a family of proteins that modulate dendritic cell function and innate immunity. Front Microbiol 2014; 5:504. [PMID: 25309527 PMCID: PMC4176148 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2014.00504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2014] [Accepted: 09/08/2014] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
We have previously shown that Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-encoded dUTPase can modulate innate immune responses through the activation of TLR2 and NF-κB signaling. However, whether this novel immune function of the dUTPase is specific for EBV or a common property of the Herpesviridae family is not known. In this study, we demonstrate that the purified viral dUTPases encoded by herpes simplex virus type 2 (HSV-2), human herpesvirus-6A (HHV-6A), human herpesvirus-8 (HHV-8) and varicella-zoster virus (VZV) differentially activate NF-κB through ligation of TLR2/TLR1 heterodimers. Furthermore, activation of NF-κB by the viral dUTPases was inhibited by anti-TLR2 blocking antibodies (Abs) and the over-expression of dominant-negative constructs of TLR2, lacking the TIR domain, and MyD88 in human embryonic kidney 293 cells expressing TLR2/TLR1. In addition, treatment of human dendritic cells and PBMCs with the herpesviruses-encoded dUTPases from HSV-2, HHV-6A, HHV-8, and VZV resulted in the secretion of the inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-12, TNF-α, IL-10, and IFN-γ. Interestingly, blocking experiments revealed that the anti-TLR2 Ab significantly reduced the secretion of cytokines by the various herpesviruses-encoded dUTPases (p < 0.05). To our knowledge, this is the first report demonstrating that a non-structural protein encoded by herpesviruses HHV-6A, HHV-8, VZV and to a lesser extent HSV-2 is a pathogen-associated molecular pattern. Our results reveal a novel function of the virus-encoded dUTPases, which may be important to the pathophysiology of diseases caused by these viruses. More importantly, this study demonstrates that the immunomodulatory functions of dUTPases are a common property of the Herpesviridae family and thus, the dUTPase could be a potential target for the development of novel therapeutic agents against infections caused by these herpesviruses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Eugenia Ariza
- Department of Molecular Virology, Immunology, and Medical Genetics, The Ohio State University College of Medicine Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Ronald Glaser
- Department of Molecular Virology, Immunology, and Medical Genetics, The Ohio State University College of Medicine Columbus, OH, USA ; Institute for Behavioral Medicine Research, The Ohio State University College of Medicine Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Marshall V Williams
- Department of Molecular Virology, Immunology, and Medical Genetics, The Ohio State University College of Medicine Columbus, OH, USA
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Zerboni L, Sen N, Oliver SL, Arvin AM. Molecular mechanisms of varicella zoster virus pathogenesis. Nat Rev Microbiol 2014; 12:197-210. [PMID: 24509782 PMCID: PMC4066823 DOI: 10.1038/nrmicro3215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 281] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is the causative agent of varicella (chickenpox) and zoster (shingles). Investigating VZV pathogenesis is challenging as VZV is a human-specific virus and infection does not occur, or is highly restricted, in other species. However, the use of human tissue xenografts in mice with severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) enables the analysis of VZV infection in differentiated human cells in their typical tissue microenvironment. Xenografts of human skin, dorsal root ganglia or foetal thymus that contains T cells can be infected with mutant viruses or in the presence of inhibitors of viral or cellular functions to assess the molecular mechanisms of VZV-host interactions. In this Review, we discuss how these models have improved our understanding of VZV pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leigh Zerboni
- Departments of Pediatrics and of Microbiology & Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | - Nandini Sen
- Departments of Pediatrics and of Microbiology & Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | - Stefan L Oliver
- Departments of Pediatrics and of Microbiology & Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | - Ann M Arvin
- Departments of Pediatrics and of Microbiology & Immunology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA
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Haberthur K, Messaoudi I. Animal models of varicella zoster virus infection. Pathogens 2013; 2:364-82. [PMID: 25437040 PMCID: PMC4235715 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens2020364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2013] [Revised: 04/16/2013] [Accepted: 05/01/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Primary infection with varicella zoster virus (VZV) results in varicella (chickenpox) followed by the establishment of latency in sensory ganglia. Declining T cell immunity due to aging or immune suppressive treatments can lead to VZV reactivation and the development of herpes zoster (HZ, shingles). HZ is often associated with significant morbidity and occasionally mortality in elderly and immune compromised patients. There are currently two FDA-approved vaccines for the prevention of VZV: Varivax® (for varicella) and Zostavax® (for HZ). Both vaccines contain the live-attenuated Oka strain of VZV. Although highly immunogenic, a two-dose regimen is required to achieve a 99% seroconversion rate. Zostavax vaccination reduces the incidence of HZ by 51% within a 3-year period, but a significant reduction in vaccine-induced immunity is observed within the first year after vaccination. Developing more efficacious vaccines and therapeutics requires a better understanding of the host response to VZV. These studies have been hampered by the scarcity of animal models that recapitulate all aspects of VZV infections in humans. In this review, we describe different animal models of VZV infection as well as an alternative animal model that leverages the infection of Old World macaques with the highly related simian varicella virus (SVV) and discuss their contributions to our understanding of pathogenesis and immunity during VZV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristen Haberthur
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Immunology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA.
| | - Ilhem Messaoudi
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Immunology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR 97239, USA.
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T-Cell tropism of simian varicella virus during primary infection. PLoS Pathog 2013; 9:e1003368. [PMID: 23675304 PMCID: PMC3649965 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1003368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2013] [Accepted: 04/02/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) causes varicella, establishes a life-long latent infection of ganglia and reactivates to cause herpes zoster. The cell types that transport VZV from the respiratory tract to skin and ganglia during primary infection are unknown. Clinical, pathological, virological and immunological features of simian varicella virus (SVV) infection of non-human primates parallel those of primary VZV infection in humans. To identify the host cell types involved in virus dissemination and pathology, we infected African green monkeys intratracheally with recombinant SVV expressing enhanced green fluorescent protein (SVV-EGFP) and with wild-type SVV (SVV-wt) as a control. The SVV-infected cell types and virus kinetics were determined by flow cytometry and immunohistochemistry, and virus culture and SVV-specific real-time PCR, respectively. All monkeys developed fever and skin rash. Except for pneumonitis, pathology produced by SVV-EGFP was less compared to SVV-wt. In lungs, SVV infected alveolar myeloid cells and T-cells. During viremia the virus preferentially infected memory T-cells, initially central memory T-cells and subsequently effector memory T-cells. In early non-vesicular stages of varicella, SVV was seen mainly in perivascular skin infiltrates composed of macrophages, dendritic cells, dendrocytes and memory T-cells, implicating hematogenous spread. In ganglia, SVV was found primarily in neurons and occasionally in memory T-cells adjacent to neurons. In conclusion, the data suggest the role of memory T-cells in disseminating SVV to its target organs during primary infection of its natural and immunocompetent host. Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) causes varicella, establishes life-long latent infection in ganglia and reactivates later in life to cause zoster. VZV is acquired via the respiratory route, with skin rash occurring up to 3 weeks after exposure. The cell types that transport VZV to skin and ganglia during primary infection are unknown. Simian varicella virus (SVV) infection of non-human primates mimics clinical, pathological and immunological features of human VZV infection. African green monkeys were infected with recombinant SVV expressing enhanced green fluorescent protein (SVV-EGFP) or wild-type SVV (SVV-wt) as a control. By visualizing SVV-EGFP−infected cells in the living animal and in tissue samples, we identified the virus-infected cell types in blood, lungs, skin and ganglia during primary infection. Our data demonstrate that during viremia, SVV predominantly infects peripheral blood memory T-cells. Detection of SVV-infected memory T-cells in lungs, in early varicella skin lesions and also, albeit to a lesser extent, in ganglia suggests a role for memory T-cells in transporting virus to these organs. Our study provides novel insights into the cell types involved in virus dissemination and the overall pathology of varicella in a non-human primate model.
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Abstract
Varicella zoster virus (VZV) is a highly successful human pathogen, which is never completely eliminated from the host. VZV causes two clinically distinct diseases, varicella (chickenpox) during primary infection and herpes zoster (shingles) following virus reactivation from latency. Throughout its lifecycle the virus encounters the innate and adaptive immune response, and in order to prevent eradication it has developed many mechanisms to evade and overcome these responses. This review will provide a comprehensive overview of the host immune response to VZV infection, during the multiple stages of the virus lifecycle and at key sites of VZV infection. We will also briefly describe some of the strategies employed by the virus to overcome the host immune response and the ongoing challenges in further elucidating the interplay between VZV and the host immune response in an attempt to lead to better therapies and a ‘second generation’ vaccine for VZV disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan Steain
- Discipline of Infectious Diseases & Immunology, The University of Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Centre for Virus Research, Westmead Millennium Institute, NSW, Australia
| | - Barry Slobedman
- Discipline of Infectious Diseases & Immunology, The University of Sydney, NSW, Australia
- Centre for Virus Research, Westmead Millennium Institute, NSW, Australia
| | - Allison Abendroth
- Discipline of Infectious Diseases & Immunology, The University of Sydney, NSW, Australia
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Kinchington PR, Leger AJS, Guedon JMG, Hendricks RL. Herpes simplex virus and varicella zoster virus, the house guests who never leave. HERPESVIRIDAE 2012; 3:5. [PMID: 22691604 PMCID: PMC3541251 DOI: 10.1186/2042-4280-3-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2011] [Accepted: 05/12/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Human alphaherpesviruses including herpes simplex viruses (HSV-1, HSV-2) and varicella zoster virus (VZV) establish persistent latent infection in sensory neurons for the life of the host. All three viruses have the potential to reactivate causing recurrent disease. Regardless of the homology between the different virus strains, the three viruses are characterized by varying pathologies. This review will highlight the differences in infection pattern, immune response, and pathogenesis associated with HSV-1 and VZV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul R Kinchington
- Department of Ophthalmology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
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Varicella-zoster virus inhibition of the NF-κB pathway during infection of human dendritic cells: role for open reading frame 61 as a modulator of NF-κB activity. J Virol 2011; 86:1193-202. [PMID: 22090112 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.06400-11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Dendritic cells (DC) are antigen-presenting cells essential for initiating primary immune responses and therefore an ideal target for viral immune evasion. Varicella-zoster virus (VZV) can productively infect immature human DCs and impair their function as immune effectors by inhibiting their maturation, as evidenced by the expression modulation of functionally important cell surface immune molecules CD80, CD86, CD83, and major histocompatibility complex I. The NF-κB pathway largely regulates the expression of these immune molecules, and therefore we sought to determine whether VZV infection of DCs modulates the NF-κB pathway. Nuclear localization of NF-κB p50 and p65 indicates pathway activation; however, immunofluorescence studies revealed cytoplasmic retention of these NF-κB subunits in VZV-infected DCs. Western blotting revealed phosphorylation of the inhibitor of κBα (IκBα) in VZV-infected DCs, indicating that the pathway is active at this point. We conclude that VZV infection of DC inhibits the NF-κB pathway following protein phosphorylation but before the translocation of NF-κB subunits into the nucleus. An NF-κB reporter assay identified VZV open reading frame 61 (ORF61) as an inhibitor of tumor necrosis factor alpha-induced NF-κB reporter activity. Mutational analysis of ORF61 identified the E3 ubiquitin ligase domain as a region required for NF-κB pathway inhibition. In summary, we provide evidence that VZV inhibits the NF-κB signaling pathway in human DCs and that the E3 ubiquitin ligase domain of ORF61 is required to modulate this pathway. Thus, this work identifies a mechanism by which VZV modulates host immune function.
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Abstract
The human immune system is under constant challenge from many viruses, some of which the body is successfully able to clear. Other viruses have evolved to escape the host immune responses and thus persist, leading to the development of chronic diseases. Dendritic cells are professional antigen-presenting cells that play a major role in both innate and adaptive immunity against different pathogens. This review focuses on the interaction of different chronic viruses with dendritic cells and the viruses' ability to exploit this critical cell type to their advantage so as to establish persistence within the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saifur Rahman
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel Institute for Biotechnology and Virology Research, Drexel University College of Medicine, 3805 Old Easton Road, Doylestown, PA 18902, USA
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