Zoonotic viruses associated with illegally imported wildlife products

The establishment of a collaborative surveillance program with indigenous hunters to characterize primate health in Southern Guyana

The consumption of primates is integral to the traditional subsistence strategies of many Indigenous communities throughout Amazonia. Understanding the overall health of primates harvested for food in the region is critical to Indigenous food security and thus, these communities are highly invested in long-term primate population health. Here, we describe the establishment of a surveillance comanagement program among the Waiwai, an Indigenous community in the Konashen Amerindian Protected Area (KAPA). To assess primate health in the KAPA, hunters performed field necropsies on primates harvested for food and tissues collected from these individuals were analyzed using histopathology. From 2015 to 2019, hunters conducted 127 necropsies across seven species of primates. Of this sample, 82 primates (between 2015 and 2017) were submitted for histopathological screening. Our histopathology data revealed that KAPA primates had little evidence of underlying disease. Of the tissue abnormalities observed, the majority were either due to diet (e.g., hepatocellular pigment), degenerative changes resulting from aging (e.g., interstitial nephritis, myocyte lipofusion), or nonspecific responses to antigenic stimulation (renal and splenic lymphoid hyperplasia). In our sample, 7.32% of individuals had abnormalities that were consistent with a viral etiology, including myocarditis and hepatitis. Internal parasites were observed in 53.66% of individuals and is consistent with what would be expected from a free-ranging primate population. This study represents the importance of baseline data for long-term monitoring of primate populations hunted for food. More broadly, this research begins to close a critical gap in zoonotic disease risk related to primate harvesting in Amazonia, while also demonstrating the benefits of partnering with Indigenous hunters and leveraging hunting practices in disease surveillance and primate population health assessment.

Mitigating Wildlife Spillover in the Clinical Setting: How Physicians and Veterinarians Can Help Prevent Future Disease Outbreaks

Introduction

The transmission of pathogens from wildlife to humans is a major global health threat that has been highlighted by the proposed origins of the COVID-19 pandemic. Numerous barriers impede pathogen spillover events from ensuing widespread human transmission, but human activity has accelerated the frequency of spillovers and subsequent disease outbreaks, in part through a booming wildlife trade whose impacts on health are not well understood.

Methods

A literature review was conducted to examine the risk that the wildlife trade poses to public health and the degree to which these risks are recognized and addressed in clinical practice and medical and veterinary education.

Results

The illicit aspects of the wildlife trade challenge efforts to understand its impacts on health. The U.S. and Europe play a leading role in the global wildlife trade that often goes unacknowledged. In particular, the consumption of wild meat and ownership of exotic pets poses public health risks. The potential role of clinicians is underutilized, both in the clinical setting and in clinical education.

Discussion

Physicians and veterinarians have the unique opportunity to utilize their clinical roles to address these knowledge gaps and mitigate future outbreaks. We outline a multifaceted approach that includes increasing clinical knowledge about the ecology of zoonotic diseases, leveraging opportunities for mitigation during patient/client-clinician interactions, and incorporating One Health core competencies into medical and veterinary school curricula.

The One Health Concept

The concept of One Health has been developed as the appreciation that human health is intricately connected to those of other animals and the environment that they inhabit. In recent years, the COVID-19 pandemic and noticeable effects of climate change have encouraged national and international cooperation to apply One Health strategies to address key issues of health and welfare. The United Nations (UN) Sustainable Development Goals have established targets for health and wellbeing, clean water and sanitation, climate action, as well as sustainability in marine and terrestrial ecosystems. The One Health Quadripartite comprises the World Health Organization (WHO), the World Organization for Animal Health (WOAH-formerly OIE), the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). There are six areas of focus which are Laboratory services, Control of zoonotic diseases, Neglected tropical diseases, Antimicrobial resistance, Food safety and Environmental health. This article discusses the concept of One Health by considering examples of infectious diseases and environmental issues under each of those six headings. Biomedical Scientists, Clinical Scientists and their colleagues working in diagnostic and research laboratories have a key role to play in applying the One Health approach to key areas of healthcare in the 21st Century.

Diversity and prevalence of zoonotic infections at the animal-human interface of primate trafficking in Peru

Wildlife trafficking creates favorable scenarios for intra- and inter-specific interactions that can lead to parasite spread and disease emergence. Among the fauna affected by this activity, primates are relevant due to their potential to acquire and share zoonoses - infections caused by parasites that can spread between humans and other animals. Though it is known that most primate parasites can affect multiple hosts and that many are zoonotic, comparative studies across different contexts for animal-human interactions are scarce. We conducted a multi-parasite screening targeting the detection of zoonotic infections in wild-caught monkeys in nine Peruvian cities across three contexts: captivity (zoos and rescue centers, n = 187); pet (households, n = 69); and trade (trafficked or recently confiscated, n = 132). We detected 32 parasite taxa including mycobacteria, simian foamyvirus, bacteria, helminths, and protozoa. Monkeys in the trade context had the highest prevalence of hemoparasites (including Plasmodium malariae/brasilianum, Trypanosoma cruzi, and microfilaria) and enteric helminths and protozoa were less common in pet monkeys. However, parasite communities showed overall low variation between the three contexts. Parasite richness (PR) was best explained by host genus and the city where the animal was sampled. Squirrel (genus Saimiri) and wooly (genus Lagothrix) monkeys had the highest PR, which was ~2.2 times the PR found in tufted capuchins (genus Sapajus) and tamarins (genus Saguinus/Leontocebus) in a multivariable model adjusted for context, sex, and age. Our findings illustrate that the threats of wildlife trafficking to One Health encompass exposure to multiple zoonotic parasites well-known to cause disease in humans, monkeys, and other species. We demonstrate these threats continue beyond the markets where wildlife is initially sold; monkeys trafficked for the pet market remain a reservoir for and contribute to the translocation of zoonotic parasites to households and other captive facilities where contact with humans is frequent. Our results have practical applications for the healthcare of rescued monkeys and call for urgent action against wildlife trafficking and ownership of monkeys as pets.

Potential zoonotic spillover at the human-animal interface: A mini-review

Wildlife markets and wet wildlife markets, a type of human-animal interface, are commonly trading centers for wild-caught and captive-exotic animals as well as their products. These markets provide an ideal environment for spillovers of zoonotic and emerging infectious diseases (EIDs). These conditions may raise serious concerns, particularly in relation to wildlife species that frequently interact with humans and domestic animals. EIDs pose a significant risk to humans, ecosystems, and public health, as demonstrated by the current COVID-19 pandemic, and other previous outbreaks, including the highly pathogenic avian influenza H5N1. Even though it seems appears impossible to eliminate EIDs, we may still be able to minimalize the risks and take several measures to prevent new EIDs originated from animals. The aim of this study was to review several types of human-animal interfaces with a high risk of zoonotic spillover, infectious agents, and animal hosts or reservoirs. Identifying those factors will support the development of interventions and effective disease control in human-animal interface settings.

Examining the international bushmeat traffic in Belgium: A threat to conservation and public health

The carriage of bushmeat into the European Union is an infringement of EU Animal Health and Wildlife Trade legislation and poses a threat to biodiversity and public health. To explore the nature and scale of the international bushmeat trade, seized leaking luggage and passengers arriving at Brussels Zaventem airport from sub-Saharan Africa between 2017 and 2018 were searched for "meat" (bushmeat and livestock) by border control authorities. Visual identification, radiography and genetic analysis were applied to derive information from seized specimens, including at least ten CITES-listed species. We estimate that an average of 3.9 t of bushmeat is smuggled monthly through Brussels. The average consignment of meat seized per passenger was 2.8 kg and 4 kg of bushmeat or domestic livestock meat, respectively. The international trafficking of bushmeat is evidently active, yet penalties are rarely enforced; hence we provide suggestions to simplify law enforcement procedures.

A systematic mapping review of links between handling wild meat and zoonotic diseases

1.Hunting, trade, and consumption of wildlife present a serious threat to global public health as it places humans in close contact with zoonotic pathogens.2.We systematically mapped the literature on wild meat handling and zoonotic disease transmission (1996-2022) using the online database Web of Science and Google search engine and identified 6229 articles out of which 253 were finally selected for use in our mapping review; 51 of these provided specific information regarding transmission risks.3.The reviewed studies reported 43 zoonotic pathogens (17 bacteria, 15 viruses, and 11 parasites) that could pose a potential risk to human health.4.Sixteen hygienic and sanitary behaviours were described in the reviewed studies. Disease surveillance was the most frequent. Most of the surveillance studies were carried out in Europe and were less common in the tropics.5.To inform policy and practical actions effectively, it is imperative to broaden our understanding of how various mitigation behaviours can be employed to minimize the risk of transmission.

A systematic review of the intercontinental movement of unregulated African meat imports into and through European border checkpoints

There is an urgent need for biosurveillance of unregulated African meat imports at border points of entry in destination markets. This is underscored by recent pandemics linked to exotic wildlife products. Our objective was to catalog the quantity of meat that is informally transported from Africa into and through Europe often without any veterinary or sanitary checks. We searched and included peer-reviewed studies that contained data on the intercontinental movement of unregulated meat from the African continent. This was followed by an investigation of the reported contamination of such meat. We included fifteen airport studies with limited data on this topic. The references included in this review describe the quantity of meat found at border inspection posts and the presence of pathogens. Disease-causing pathogens were found to be present, and the results are organized into bacteria, virus, and parasite categories. The species of animal meat found in this review were linked to CITES-protected species some of which are known reservoir hosts for infectious diseases. This represents a potential and unquantified human health risk to populations along the supply chain, and a loss to biodiversity in supply countries. Meat samples described in this review were primarily found opportunistically by Customs officials, indicating that any estimate of the total quantities passing undetected through border checkpoints must remain tentative, and cannot rule out the possibility that it is indeed considerably higher. We propose a template for future studies regarding African meat imports at border points of entry. The result of this review illustrates a gap in knowledge and lacunae regarding the amount of unregulated African meat imports worldwide, the pathogens it may contain, and the resulting biodiversity loss that occurs from the intercontinental movement of this meat.

Risk of Viral Infectious Diseases from Live Bats, Primates, Rodents and Carnivores for Sale in Indonesian Wildlife Markets

Southeast Asia is considered a global hotspot of emerging zoonotic diseases. There, wildlife is commonly traded under poor sanitary conditions in open markets; these markets have been considered 'the perfect storm' for zoonotic disease transmission. We assessed the potential of wildlife trade in spreading viral diseases by quantifying the number of wild animals of four mammalian orders (Rodentia, Chiroptera, Carnivora and Primates) on sale in 14 Indonesian wildlife markets and identifying zoonotic viruses potentially hosted by these animals. We constructed a network analysis to visualize the animals that are traded alongside each other that may carry similar viruses. We recorded 6725 wild animals of at least 15 species on sale. Cities and markets with larger human population and number of stalls, respectively, offered more individuals for sale. Eight out of 15 animal taxa recorded are hosts of 17 zoonotic virus species, nine of which can infect more than one species as a host. The network analysis showed that long-tailed macaque has the greatest potential for spreading viral diseases, since it is simultaneously the most traded species, sold in 13/14 markets, and a potential host for nine viruses. It is traded alongside pig-tailed macaques in three markets, with which it shares six viruses in common (Cowpox, Dengue, Hepatitis E, Herpes B, Simian foamy, and Simian retrovirus type D). Short-nosed fruit bats and large flying foxes are potential hosts of Nipah virus and are also sold in large quantities in 10/14 markets. This study highlights the need for better surveillance and sanitary conditions to avoid the negative health impacts of unregulated wildlife markets.

Risk of Monkeypox virus (MPXV) transmission through the handling and consumption of food

Monkeypox (MPX) is a zoonotic infectious disease caused by Monkeypox virus (MPXV), an enveloped DNA virus belonging to the Poxviridae family and the Orthopoxvirus genus. Since early May 2022, a growing number of human cases of Monkeypox have been reported in non-endemic countries, with no history of contact with animals imported from endemic and enzootic areas, or travel to an area where the virus usually circulated before May 2022. This qualitative risk assessment aimed to investigate the probability that MPXV transmission occurs through food during its handling and consumption. The risk assessment used "top-down" (based on epidemiological data) and "bottom-up" (following the agent through the food chain to assess the risk of foodborne transmission to human) approaches, which were combined. The "top-down" approach first concluded that bushmeat was the only food suspected as a source of contamination in recorded cases of MPXV, by contact or ingestion. The "bottom-up" approach then evaluated the chain of events required for a human to become ill after handling or consuming food. This approach involves several conditions: (i) the food must be contaminated with MPXV (naturally, by an infected handler or after contact with a contaminated surface); (ii) the food must contain viable virus when it reaches the handler or consumer; (iii) the person must be exposed to the virus and; (iv) the person must be infected after exposure. Throughout the risk assessment, some data gaps were identified and highlighted. The conclusions of the top-down and bottom-up approaches are consistent and suggest that the risk of transmission of MPXV through food is hypothetical and that such an occurrence was never reported. In case of contamination, cooking (e.g., 12 min at 70°C) could be considered effective in inactivating Poxviridae in foods. Recommendations for risk management are proposed. To our knowledge, this is the first risk assessment performed on foodborne transmission of MPXV.

No need to beat around the bushmeat-The role of wildlife trade and conservation initiatives in the emergence of zoonotic diseases

Wildlife species constitute a vast and uncharted reservoir of zoonotic pathogens that can pose a severe threat to global human health. Zoonoses have become increasingly impactful over the past decades, and the expanding trade in wildlife is unarguably among the most significant risk factors for their emergence. Despite several warnings from the academic community about the spillover risks associated with wildlife trade, the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic underlines that current policies on the wildlife industry are deficient. Conservation initiatives, rather than practices that attempt to eradicate zoonotic pathogens or the wild species that harbour them, could play a vital role in preventing the emergence of life-threatening zoonoses. This review explores how wildlife conservation initiatives could effectively reduce the risk of new zoonotic diseases emerging from the wildlife trade by integrating existing literature on zoonotic diseases and risk factors associated with wildlife trade. Conservation should mainly aim at reducing human-wildlife interactions in the wildlife trade by protecting wildlife habitats and providing local communities with alternative protein sources. In addition, conservation should focus on regulating the legal wildlife trade and education about disease transfer and safer hunting and butchering methods. By uniting efforts for wildlife protection and universal concern for preventing zoonotic epidemics, conservation initiatives have the potential to safeguard both biodiversity, animal welfare, and global human health security.

Illegal Wildlife Trade and Emerging Infectious Diseases: Pervasive Impacts to Species, Ecosystems and Human Health

Simple Summary

Wildlife is trafficked illegally across the globe every day. The illegal wildlife trade (IWT) creates opportunity for emerging infectious disease (EID) events to occur. EIDs are a major threat to wildlife, ecosystems, and public health. This study addresses the lack of comprehensive review of pathogens identified in IWT and highlights the expansion of literature on this subject over the past 30 years. We reviewed 82 scientific papers and conference proceedings from 1990 to 2020. Trends in EIDs identified in IWT have significantly increased over the past decade. Cases covered 240 pathogens across all taxa. Approximately 60% of the pathogens identified were zoonotic (transmissible between animals and humans) and threaten public health. Based on our findings, we recommend further research is needed to monitor and prevent the IWT.

Abstract

Emerging infectious disease (EID) events can be traced to anthropogenic factors, including the movement of wildlife through legal and illegal trade. This paper focuses on the link between illegal wildlife trade (IWT) and infectious disease pathogens. A literature review through Web of Science and relevant conference proceedings from 1990 to 2020 resulted in documenting 82 papers and 240 identified pathogen cases. Over 60% of the findings referred to pathogens with known zoonotic potential and five cases directly referenced zoonotic spillover events. The diversity of pathogens by taxa included 44 different pathogens in birds, 47 in mammals, 16 in reptiles, two in amphibians, two in fish, and one in invertebrates. This is the highest diversity of pathogen types in reported literature related to IWT. However, it is likely not a fully representative sample due to needed augmentation of surveillance and monitoring of IWT and more frequent pathogen testing on recovered shipments. The emergence of infectious disease through human globalization has resulted in several pandemics in the last decade including SARS, MERS, avian influenza H1N1,and Ebola. We detailed the growing body of literature on this topic since 2008 and highlight the need to detect, document, and prevent spillovers from high-risk human activities, such as IWT.

Leveraging natural history biorepositories as a global, decentralized, pathogen surveillance network

The Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic reveals a major gap in global biosecurity infrastructure: a lack of publicly available biological samples representative across space, time, and taxonomic diversity. The shortfall, in this case for vertebrates, prevents accurate and rapid identification and monitoring of emerging pathogens and their reservoir host(s) and precludes extended investigation of ecological, evolutionary, and environmental associations that lead to human infection or spillover. Natural history museum biorepositories form the backbone of a critically needed, decentralized, global network for zoonotic pathogen surveillance, yet this infrastructure remains marginally developed, underutilized, underfunded, and disconnected from public health initiatives. Proactive detection and mitigation for emerging infectious diseases (EIDs) requires expanded biodiversity infrastructure and training (particularly in biodiverse and lower income countries) and new communication pipelines that connect biorepositories and biomedical communities. To this end, we highlight a novel adaptation of Project ECHO’s virtual community of practice model: Museums and Emerging Pathogens in the Americas (MEPA). MEPA is a virtual network aimed at fostering communication, coordination, and collaborative problem-solving among pathogen researchers, public health officials, and biorepositories in the Americas. MEPA now acts as a model of effective international, interdisciplinary collaboration that can and should be replicated in other biodiversity hotspots. We encourage deposition of wildlife specimens and associated data with public biorepositories, regardless of original collection purpose, and urge biorepositories to embrace new specimen sources, types, and uses to maximize strategic growth and utility for EID research. Taxonomically, geographically, and temporally deep biorepository archives serve as the foundation of a proactive and increasingly predictive approach to zoonotic spillover, risk assessment, and threat mitigation.

Wildlife-pet markets in a one-health context

Background and Aim: Wildlife markets are centers of trade involving live animals and their derivatives from wild-caught and captive-bred non-domesticated animals, including for the culinary, fashion, traditional medicine, curio, and pet sectors. These markets occur in Southeast Asia, India, North America, Latin America, Europe, Africa, and elsewhere. This study aims to address a diversity of related issues that have a one-health bearing while focusing on wildlife markets in relation to the pet trade. Across relevant regions and countries, all major animal classes are traded at wildlife-pet markets. Wildlife markets, in general, are considered distinct from so-called "wet markets" at which domesticated animals, fish, and other "seafood" are offered only for consumption. Several aspects of wildlife markets have attracted scientific and popular scrutiny, including animal welfare concerns, species conservation threats, legality, ecological alteration, introduction of invasive alien species, presence of undescribed species, and public and agricultural animal health issues. Materials and Methods: Onsite inspections were conducted for markets in the United States, Spain, Germany, The Netherlands, and the UK, as well as observational research of visual imagery of market conditions, and we compared these conditions with evidence-based standards for animal welfare and public health management. Results: Wildlife markets globally shared common similar structures and practices including the presence of sick, injured, or stressed animals; mixing of animals of uncertain origin and health state; and no specific or any hygiene protocols, with issues of animal welfare, public health and safety, agricultural animal health, and other one-health concerns being inherently involved. Conclusion: We conclude that wildlife markets are incompatible with responsible standards and practices, and we recommend that such events are banned globally to ameliorate inherent major problems.

Taking a lesson from the COVID-19 pandemic: Preventing the future outbreaks of viral zoonoses through a multi-faceted approach

The pandemic of the novel coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has caused a significant burden to healthcare systems, economic crisis, and public fears. It is also a lesson to be learned and a call-to-action to minimize the risk of future viral pandemics and their associated challenges. The present paper outlines selected measures (i.e., monitoring and identification of novel viral agents in animals, limitations to wildlife trade, decreasing hunting activities, changes to mink farming and meat production), the implementation of which would decrease such a risk. The role of viral surveillance systems and research exploring the virus strains associated with different animal hosts is emphasized along with the need for stricter wild trade regulations and changes to hunting activities. Finally, the paper suggests modifications to the meat production system, particularly through the introduction of cultured meat that would not only decrease the risk of exposure to novel human viral pathogens but also strengthen food security and decrease the environmental impacts of food production.

Exploring the characteristics of a local demand for African wild meat: A focus group study of long-term Ghanaian residents in the Netherlands

While there is a growing body of research documenting unregulated African wild meat imports into Europe from the Africa continent, the drivers of this demand are virtually unknown. This study employs focus group discussions and a survey questionnaire to examine the attitudes and practices related to African wild meat consumption in the city of Amsterdam, Netherlands. The Ghanaian community was selected as the object of this study, as it is the largest West African population in the Netherlands and represents an important part of Dutch society. We model our report on a recent US study of the Liberian community of Minneapolis, Minnesota, which allows for the comparison of results between two Western countries. The overall perceived health risk of consuming African wild meat in The Netherlands is low and unlikely to deter consumption. However, local prices for the meat may be prohibitive in some cases. Incentives include health benefits, cultural drivers and a strong preference for the taste of African wild meat over all local meat alternatives. The study calls for further research into the nature of the drivers of demand for African wild meat as well as its public health consequences, in the Netherlands and beyond.

Eating meat and not vaccinating: In defense of the analogy

The devastating impact of the COVID-19 (coronavirus disease 2019) pandemic is prompting renewed scrutiny of practices that heighten the risk of infectious disease. One such practice is refusing available vaccines known to be effective at preventing dangerous communicable diseases. For reasons of preventing individual harm, avoiding complicity in collective harm, and fairness, there is a growing consensus among ethicists that individuals have a duty to get vaccinated. I argue that these same grounds establish an analogous duty to avoid buying and eating most meat sold today, based solely on a concern for human welfare. Meat consumption is a leading driver of infectious disease. Wildlife sales at wet markets, bushmeat hunting, and concentrated animal feeding operations (CAFOs) are all exceptionally risky activities that facilitate disease spread and impose immense harms on human populations. If there is a moral duty to vaccinate, we also should recognize a moral duty to avoid most meat. The paper concludes by considering the implications of this duty for policy.

Preparing for Emerging Zoonotic Viruses

The risk of emergence and spread of novel human pathogens originating from an animal reservoir has increased in the past decades. However, the unpredictable nature of disease emergence makes surveillance and preparedness challenging. Knowledge of general risk factors for emergence and spread, combined with local level data is needed to develop a risk-based methodology for early detection. This involves the implementation of the One Health approach, integrating human, animal and environmental health sectors, as well as social sciences, bioinformatics and more. Recent technical advances, such as metagenomic sequencing, will aid the rapid detection of novel pathogens on the human-animal interface.

CITES and the Zoonotic Disease Content in International Wildlife Trade

International trade in wildlife is one contributing factor to zoonotic disease risk. Using descriptive statistics, this paper shows that in the last decades, the volume and pattern of internationally traded wildlife has changed considerably and, with it, the zoonotic pathogens that are traded. In an econometric analysis, we give evidence that an international environmental trade agreement could be used to limit the spread of zoonotic pathogens and disease. More specifically, combining zoonotic disease data with wildlife trade data from the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wildlife and Fauna (CITES), we show that making trade requirements more stringent leads to a decrease in the number of animals traded and, incidentally, also the number of zoonotic diseases that are traded. Our results contribute to the discussion of policy measures that manage the spread of zoonotic diseases.

Infectious Diseases and Meat Production

Most infectious diseases in humans originate from animals. In this paper, we explore the role of animal farming and meat consumption in the emergence and amplification of infectious diseases. First, we discuss how meat production increases epidemic risks, either directly through increased contact with wild and farmed animals or indirectly through its impact on the environment (e.g., biodiversity loss, water use, climate change). Traditional food systems such as bushmeat and backyard farming increase the risks of disease transmission from wild animals, while intensive farming amplifies the impact of the disease due to the high density, genetic proximity, increased immunodeficiency, and live transport of farmed animals. Second, we describe the various direct and indirect costs of animal-based infectious diseases, and in particular, how these diseases can negatively impact the economy and the environment. Last, we discuss policies to reduce the social costs of infectious diseases. While existing regulatory frameworks such as the "One Health" approach focus on increasing farms' biosecurity and emergency preparedness, we emphasize the need to better align stakeholders' incentives and to reduce meat consumption. We discuss in particular the implementation of a "zoonotic" Pigouvian tax, and innovations such as insect-based food or cultured meat.

Biotechnological innovations in farm and pet animal disease diagnosis

The application of innovative diagnostic technologies for the detection of animal pathogens at an early stage is essential in restricting the economic loss incurred due to emerging infectious animal diseases. The desirable characteristics of such diagnostic methods are easy to use, cost-effective, highly sensitive, and specific, coupled with the high-throughput detection capabilities. The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) are still the most common assays used for the detection of animal pathogens across the globe. However, utilizing the principles of ELISA and PCR, several serological and molecular technologies have been developed to achieve higher sensitivity, rapid, and point-of-care (POC) detection such as lateral flow assays, biosensors, loop-mediated isothermal amplification, recombinase polymerase amplification, and molecular platforms for field-level detection of animal pathogens. Furthermore, animal disease diagnostics need to be updated regularly to capture new, emerging and divergent infectious pathogens, and biotechnological innovations are helpful in fulfilling the rising demand for such diagnostics for the welfare of the society. Therefore, this chapter primarily describes and discusses in detail the serological, molecular, novel high-throughput, and POC assays to detect pathogens affecting farm and companion animals.

Infections: The Emergency of the New Millennium

The New Millennium opened with alarming data on infections and antimicrobial resistance. Viral infections (SARS, MERS-CoV, Zika, Chikungunya, West Nile, Ebola virus infection, etc.) emerged or re-emerged with threatening outbreaks. However, viral emerging infections in some instances represented marginally a concern for developed countries that were just lapped by them. Currently, the new emergency is represented by antimicrobial resistance in bacterial infections, that is, a matter of extreme importance in developed and developing countries, where this issue has become a top priority for global policy makers and public health authorities. New mechanisms of resistance continue to emerge and spread globally, threatening our ability to treat common infections. The overuse and misuse of antimicrobials both in the human and animal field, and their dispersion in the environment pose a risk for selection of mechanisms of resistance of germs. Some settings, like the healthcare facilities, where the use of antimicrobials is obviously intense and infection prevention and control can be poor, represent the reservoir for multidrug-resistant organisms and, sometimes, the melting pot for pan-resistant strains.

Infectious Disease Risk Across the Growing Human-Non Human Primate Interface: A Review of the Evidence

Most of the human pandemics reported to date can be classified as zoonoses. Among these, there is a long history of infectious diseases that have spread from non-human primates (NHP) to humans. For millennia, indigenous groups that depend on wildlife for their survival were exposed to the risk of NHP pathogens' transmission through animal hunting and wild meat consumption. Usually, exposure is of no consequence or is limited to mild infections. In rare situations, it can be more severe or even become a real public health concern. Since the emergence of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), nobody can ignore that an emerging infectious diseases (EID) might spread from NHP into the human population. In large parts of Central Africa and Asia, wildlife remains the primary source of meat and income for millions of people living in rural areas. However, in the past few decades the risk of exposure to an NHP pathogen has taken on a new dimension. Unprecedented breaking down of natural barriers between NHP and humans has increased exposure to health risks for a much larger population, including people living in urban areas. There are several reasons for this: (i) due to road development and massive destruction of ecosystems for agricultural needs, wildlife and humans come into contact more frequently; (ii) due to ecological awareness, many long distance travelers are in search of wildlife discovery, with a particular fascination for African great apes; (iii) due to the attraction for ancient temples and mystical practices, others travelers visit Asian places colonized by NHP. In each case, there is a risk of pathogen transmission through a bite or another route of infection. Beside the individual risk of contracting a pathogen, there is also the possibility of starting a new pandemic. This article reviews the known cases of NHP pathogens' transmission to humans whether they are hunters, travelers, ecotourists, veterinarians, or scientists working on NHP. Although pathogen transmission is supposed to be a rare outcome, Rabies virus, Herpes B virus, Monkeypox virus, Ebola virus, or Yellow fever virus infections are of greater concern and require quick countermeasures from public health professionals.

Risk of African swine fever virus introduction into the United States through smuggling of pork in air passenger luggage

African swine fever causes substantial economic losses in the swine industry in affected countries. Traditionally confined to Africa with only occasional incursions into other regions, ASF began spreading into Caucasian countries and Eastern Europe in 2007, followed by Western Europe and Asia in 2018. Such a dramatic change in the global epidemiology of ASF has resulted in concerns that the disease may continue to spread into disease-free regions such as the US. In this study, we estimated the risk of introduction of ASF virus into the US through smuggling of pork in air passenger luggage. Results suggest that the mean risk of ASFV introduction into the US via this route has increased by 183.33% from the risk estimated before the disease had spread into Western Europe or Asia. Most of the risk (67.68%) was associated with flights originating from China and Hong Kong, followed by the Russian Federation (26.92%). Five US airports accounted for >90% of the risk. Results here will help to inform decisions related to the design of ASF virus surveillance strategies in the US.

Toward a quantification of risks at the nexus of conservation and health: The case of bushmeat markets in Lao PDR

Trade of bushmeat and other wildlife for human consumption presents a unique set of challenges to policy-makers who are confronted with multiple trade-offs between conservation, food security, food safety, culture and tradition. In the face of these complex issues, risk assessments supported by quantitative information would facilitate evidence-based decision making. We propose a conceptual model for disease transmission risk analysis, inclusive of these multiple other facets. To quantify several processes included in this conceptual model we conducted questionnaire surveys with wildlife consumers and vendors in semi-urban centers in Lao People's Democratic Republic (Lao PDR, Laos) and direct observations of consumer behaviors. Direct observation of market stalls indicated an estimated average of 10 kg bushmeat biomass per stall per hour. The socio-demographic data suggested that consumption of bushmeat in urban areas was not for subsistence but rather driven by dietary preference and tradition. Consumer behavioral observations indicated that each animal receives an average of 7 contacts per hour. We provide other key parameters to estimate the risk of disease transmission from bushmeat consumption and illustrate their use in assessing the total public health and socio-economic impact of bushmeat consumption. Pursuing integrative approaches to the study of bushmeat consumption is essential to develop effective and balanced policies that support conservation, public health, and rural development goals.

Molecular Analysis of the Complete Genome of a Simian Foamy Virus Infecting Hylobates pileatus (pileated gibbon) Reveals Ancient Co-Evolution with Lesser Apes

Foamy viruses (FVs) are complex retroviruses present in many mammals, including nonhuman primates, where they are called simian foamy viruses (SFVs). SFVs can zoonotically infect humans, but very few complete SFV genomes are available, hampering the design of diagnostic assays. Gibbons are lesser apes widespread across Southeast Asia that can be infected with SFV, but only two partial SFV sequences are currently available. We used a metagenomics approach with next-generation sequencing of nucleic acid extracted from the cell culture of a blood specimen from a lesser ape, the pileated gibbon (Hylobates pileatus), to obtain the complete SFVhpi_SAM106 genome. We used Bayesian analysis to co-infer phylogenetic relationships and divergence dates. SFVhpi_SAM106 is ancestral to other ape SFVs with a divergence date of ~20.6 million years ago, reflecting ancient co-evolution of the host and SFVhpi_SAM106. Analysis of the complete SFVhpi_SAM106 genome shows that it has the same genetic architecture as other SFVs but has the longest recorded genome (13,885-nt) due to a longer long terminal repeat region (2,071 bp). The complete sequence of the SFVhpi_SAM106 genome fills an important knowledge gap in SFV genetics and will facilitate future studies of FV infection, transmission, and evolutionary history.

Using physical contact heterogeneity and frequency to characterize dynamics of human exposure to nonhuman primate bodily fluids in central Africa

Emerging infectious diseases of zoonotic origin constitute a recurrent threat to global health. Nonhuman primates (NHPs) occupy an important place in zoonotic spillovers (pathogenic transmissions from animals to humans), serving as reservoirs or amplifiers of multiple neglected tropical diseases, including viral hemorrhagic fevers and arboviruses, parasites and bacteria, as well as retroviruses (simian foamy virus, PTLV) that are pathogenic in human beings. Hunting and butchering studies in Africa characterize at-risk human social groups, but overlook critical factors of contact heterogeneity and frequency, NHP species differences, and meat processing practices. In southeastern Cameroon, a region with a history of zoonotic emergence and high risk of future spillovers, we conducted a novel mixed-method field study of human physical exposure to multiple NHP species, incorporating participant-based and ecological methodologies, and qualitative interviews (n = 25). We find frequent physical contact across adult human populations, greater physical contact with monkeys than apes, especially for meat handling practices, and positive correlation of human exposure with NHP species abundance and proximity to human settlement. These fine-grained results encourage reconsideration of the likely dynamics of human-NHP contact in past and future NTD emergence events. Multidisciplinary social science and ecological approaches should be mobilized to generate more effective human and animal surveillance and risk communications around neglected tropical diseases. At a moment when the WHO has included "Disease X", a presumably zoonotic pathogen with pandemic potential, on its list of blueprint priority diseases as, new field-based tools for investigating zoonotic disease emergence, both known and unknown, are of critical importance.

Could African swine fever and classical swine fever viruses enter into the United States via swine products carried in air passengers' luggage?

On average 8,000 pork derived products are annually confiscated by Customs and Border Protection at the United States (US) ports of entry such as international airports, harbours or mail offices. These swine products with unknown sanitary status could pose a risk for foreign animal diseases introduction into the US. This study aimed at analysing the risk of African swine fever virus (ASFV) and classical swine fever virus (CSFV) being introduced into the US through prohibited swine products carried by air passengers (PSPAP) and identifying locations and time periods at higher risk where and when preventive and mitigation measures should be implemented. Our results estimated that the risk for CSFV entry was seven times higher and further spread between US airports than for ASFV. Specifically, the overall mean annual probability of ASFV entry was estimated as 0.061 at 95% confidence interval (CI) [0.007, 0.216] while the probability of CSFV entry was estimated as 0.414 (95% CI [0.074, 1]). For both diseases, July and May were the months at highest risk for entry. For ASFV, the origin countries of those PSPAP that represented the highest risk (above 70% of the total risk) were Ghana, Cape Verde, Ethiopia and the Russian Federation, while for CSFV above 90% of the risk at origin was concentrated in the Dominican Republic and Cuba, followed by India, Colombia, Peru, Ecuador and China. These results could be used to implement and feed real time surveillance systems, which could potentially help customs to increase the detection rate of smuggled products, indicating when and where to look for them. Similarly, these systems could be adapted and implemented to other diseases improving the cost-effectiveness of the resources invested in preventing entrance of diseases via air passengers' luggage.

Guidelines for Inspection of Companion and Commercial Animal Establishments

Various establishments exist in which animals are held for a variety of reasons. Historically, the management and inspection of animals in commerce and in private keeping have involved a considerable degree of arbitrary evaluation based on the personal experience of the vendor, keeper, advisor, or inspector. Accordingly, relevant protocols and standards are subject to considerable variation. Relatedly, diversity of traded and privately kept species generates significant challenges for those responsible for facility management and inspection alike. Animal welfare and public health and safety are constant and major concerns that require objective methodologies to monitor and control. This report focuses on establishments concerned with the boarding, breeding, storage, vending or handover of animals intended for human “companions” or “pets”, and aims to provide universal objective information for essential husbandry, inspection protocols and an allied inspection assessment tool for scoring establishments.

Emerging infections-an increasingly important topic: review by the Emerging Infections Task Force

OBJECTIVES

This paper review trends in emerging infections and the need for increased clinical and laboratory surveillance.

METHODS

Factors that contributed to the emergence of recent outbreaks have been reviewed. Known, major outbreaks over the past two decades were reviewed.

RESULTS

We identified at least four major drivers of emergent infections: (i) increasing density of the human population; (ii) stress from farmland expansion on the environment; (iii) globalization of the food market and manufacturing; (iv) environmental contamination. The factors creating new opportunities for emerging infections include: (i) population growth; (ii) spread in health care facilities; (iii) an ageing population; (iv) international travel; (v) changing and expanding vector habitats.

CONCLUSIONS

Emerging infections are unpredictable. In this review we argue that to discover new trends in infectious diseases, the clinicians have to look for the unusual and unexpected and ensure proper diagnostics and that syndromic surveillance must be supported by highly specialized laboratory services. Mathematical modeling has not been able to predict outbreaks More emphasis on the biology of evolution is needed. EID rarely stands out as unusual, and the continuous pressure on health care budgets forces clinicians and laboratories to prioritize their diagnostic work-up to common and treatable conditions. The European Society for Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology, ESCMID, has established an Emerging Infections Task Force, EITaF, to strengthen the activities of the society on emerging infections and ensure that emerging infections is included in differential diagnostic considerations in everyday clinical practice.

Lurking in the dark: Cryptic Strongyloides in a Bornean slow loris

Within host communities, related species are more likely to share common parasitic agents, and as a result, morphological similarities have led researchers to conclude that parasites infecting closely related hosts within a community represent a single species. However, genetic diversity within parasite genera and host range remain poorly investigated in most systems. Strongyloides is a genus of soil-transmitted nematode that has been reported from several primate species in Africa and Asia, and has been estimated to infect hundreds of millions of people worldwide, although no precise estimates are available. Here we describe a case of infection with a cryptic species of Strongyloides in a Bornean (Philippine) slow loris (Nycticebus menagensis) living within a diverse community of several primate species in the Lower Kinabatangan Wildlife Sanctuary, Malaysian Borneo. Fresh fecal samples were collected from five primate species and nematode larvae cultured from these samples were selected for phylogenetic analyses. Sequences obtained for most larvae were identified as S. fuelleborni, grouping into three different clusters and showing no aggregation within specific hosts or geographic location. In contrast, a set of parasite sequences obtained from a slow loris clustered closely with S. stercoralis into a different group, being genetically distinct to sequences reported from other primate hosts, humans included. Our results suggest that although S. fuelleborni infects all haplorrhines sampled in this primate community, a different species might be infecting the slow loris, the only strepsirrhine in Borneo and one of the least studied primates in the region. Although more data are needed to support this conclusion, we propose that Strongyloides species in primates might be more diverse than previously thought, with potential implications for ecological and evolutionary host-parasite associations, as well as epidemiological dynamics.

Sending the Right Message: Wild Game and the West Africa Ebola Outbreak

The unprecedented scale of the Ebola epidemic in West Africa in 2014-15 caught the world by surprise. Zaire Ebolavirus had not previously been documented in Guinea, Sierra Leone, or Liberia. However, since this strain of filovirus was first identified in 1976, scientists have been studying the disease and its origins. They have identified forest-dwelling animals that carry the virus, and some that die from it, but have yet to isolate how it is transmitted from animals to humans. During the height of the Ebola outbreak in West Africa, some public health messages addressed the link among Ebola, wild animals, and humans. This article analyzes 3 of those health messages and identifies information that is inconsistent with scientific research. Two additional examples illustrate more accurate public health messages. Until there is greater certainty about the nature of the transmission chain, future public health campaigns may be improved by timing, placement, images, and wording that provide the most accurate information to the most appropriate audience.

Rickettsial infection in ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) from reptiles in the Colombian Caribbean

Although more reptiles are illegally traded in Colombia than any other group of animals, for both local and international markets, little is known about ticks associated with reptiles or pathogens associated with these ticks. In this study, ticks were collected from reptiles in Magdalena, Cesar and La Guajira regions in northern Colombia, and identified morphologically using taxonomic keys and molecularly by sequencing of the COI gene. In addition, Rickettsia spp. were detected by PCR amplifying the gltA, 16S rRNA, and sca1 genes. Ticks were identified as Amblyomma dissimile, representing the first record for this species in 17 of the 26 species of reptiles sampled. Additionally, our data expand the distribution range for this tick in Colombia. Rickettsia spp. DNA was detected in 18 ticks (3.6%) from 16 reptiles. Sequence analyses indicated that most of the Rickettsia were members of the R. monacensis clade, most closely related to Rickettsia sp. strain Colombianensi. We detected one tick infected with a Rickettsia with 99% identity to R. bellii.

A Review of African Swine Fever and the Potential for Introduction into the United States and the Possibility of Subsequent Establishment in Feral Swine and Native Ticks

African swine fever (ASF) is caused by African swine fever virus (ASFV), which can cause substantial morbidity and mortality events in swine. The virus can be transmitted via direct and indirect contacts with infected swine, their products, or competent vector species, especially Ornithodoros ticks. Africa and much of Eastern Europe are endemic for ASF; a viral introduction to countries that are currently ASF free could have severe economic consequences due to the loss of production from infected animals and the trade restrictions that would likely be imposed as a result of an outbreak. We identified vulnerabilities that could lead to ASFV introduction or persistence in the United States or other ASF-free regions. Both legal and illegal movements of live animals, as well as the importation of animal products, byproducts, and animal feed, pose a risk of virus introduction. Each route is described, and current regulations designed to prevent ASFV and other pathogens from entering the United States are outlined. Furthermore, existing ASFV research gaps are highlighted. Laboratory experiments to evaluate multiple species of Ornithodoros ticks that have yet to be characterized would be useful to understand vector competence, host preferences, and distribution of competent soft tick vectors in relation to high pig production areas as well as regions with high feral swine (wild boar or similar) densities. Knowledge relative to antigenic viral proteins that contribute to host response and determination of immune mechanisms that lead to protection are foundational in the quest for a vaccine. Finally, sampling of illegally imported and confiscated wild suid products for ASFV could shed light on the types of products being imported and provide a more informed perspective relative to the risk of ASFV importation.

Multidisciplinary studies of wildlife trade in primates: Challenges and priorities

Wildlife trade is increasingly recognized as an unsustainable threat to primate populations and informing its management is a growing focus and application of primatological research. However, management policies based on ecological research alone cannot address complex socioeconomic or cultural contexts as drivers of wildlife trade. Multidisciplinary research is required to understand trade complexity and identify sustainable management strategies. Here, we define multidisciplinary research as research that combines more than one academic discipline, and highlight how the articles in this issue combine methods and approaches to fill key gaps and offer a more comprehensive understanding of underlying drivers of wildlife trade including consumer demand, enforcement patterns, source population status, and accessibility of targeted species. These articles also focus on how these drivers interact at different scales, how trade patterns relate to ethics, and the potential effectiveness of different policy interventions in reducing wildlife trade. We propose priorities for future research on primate trade including expanding from multidisciplinary to interdisciplinary research questions and approaches co-created by research teams that integrate across different disciplines such as cultural anthropology, ecology, economics, and public policy. We also discuss challenges that limit the integration of information across disciplines to meet these priorities.

Semi-quantitative assessment of disease risks at the human, livestock, wildlife interface for the Republic of Korea using a nationwide survey of experts: A model for other countries

Wildlife-associated diseases and pathogens have increased in importance; however, management of a large number of diseases and diversity of hosts is prohibitively expensive. Thus, the determination of priority wildlife pathogens and risk factors for disease emergence is warranted. We used an online questionnaire survey to assess release and exposure risks, and consequences of wildlife-associated diseases and pathogens in the Republic of Korea (ROK). We also surveyed opinions on pathways for disease exposure, and risk factors for disease emergence and spread. For the assessment of risk, we employed a two-tiered, statistical K-means clustering algorithm to group diseases into three levels (high, medium and low) of perceived risk based on release and exposure risks, societal consequences and the level of uncertainty of the experts' opinions. To examine the experts' perceived risk of routes of introduction of pathogens and disease amplification and spread, we used a Bayesian, multivariate normal order-statistics model. Six diseases or pathogens, including four livestock and two wildlife diseases, were identified as having high risk with low uncertainty. Similarly, 13 diseases were characterized as having high risk with medium uncertainty with three of these attributed to livestock, six associated with human disease, and the remainder having the potential to affect human, livestock and wildlife (i.e., One Health). Lastly, four diseases were described as high risk with high certainty, and were associated solely with fish diseases. Experts identified migration of wildlife, international human movement and illegal importation of wildlife as the three routes posing the greatest risk of pathogen introduction into ROK. Proximity of humans, livestock and wildlife was the most significant risk factor for promoting the spread of wildlife-associated diseases and pathogens, followed by high density of livestock populations, habitat loss and environmental degradation, and climate change. This study provides useful information to decision makers responsible for allocating resources to address disease risks. This approach provided a rapid, cost-effective method of risk assessment of wildlife-associated diseases and pathogens for which the published literature is sparse.

Primates on display: Potential disease consequences beyond bushmeat

Human interactions with nonhuman primates vary tremendously, from daily cultural engagements and food commodities, to pet ownership and tourist encounters. These interactions provide opportunities for the exchange of pathogenic organisms (both zoonoses and anthroponoses). As exposures are not limited to areas where bushmeat usage continues to be a major problem, we must work to understand better our motivations for engaging in activities like owning primates as pets and having direct physical contact with wild primates within the context of nature-based tourism. These topics, and the theoretical potential for pathogen transmission, are reviewed in the present manuscript. This is followed by a case study utilizing 3845 survey responses collected from four international locations known for primate-based tourism, with results indicating that while a majority of people understand that they can give/get diseases to/from wild primates, a surprising percentage would still touch or feed these animals if given the opportunity. Many people still choose to touch and/or own primates, as their drive to bond with animals outweighs some basic health behaviors. Desires to tame, control, or otherwise establish emotional connections with other species, combined with the central role of touch for exploring our environment, necessitate the development of better communication and educational campaigns to minimize risks of emerging infectious diseases.

One Health proof of concept: Bringing a transdisciplinary approach to surveillance for zoonotic viruses at the human-wild animal interface

As the world continues to react and respond inefficiently to emerging infectious diseases, such as Middle Eastern Respiratory Syndrome and the Ebola and Zika viruses, a growing transdisciplinary community has called for a more proactive and holistic approach to prevention and preparedness - One Health. Such an approach presents important opportunities to reduce the impact of disease emergence events and also to mitigate future emergence through improved cross-sectoral coordination. In an attempt to provide proof of concept of the utility of the One Health approach, the US Agency for International Development's PREDICT project consortium designed and implemented a targeted, risk-based surveillance strategy based not on humans as sentinels of disease but on detecting viruses early, at their source, where intervention strategies can be implemented before there is opportunity for spillover and spread in people or food animals. Here, we share One Health approaches used by consortium members to illustrate the potential for successful One Health outcomes that can be achieved through collaborative, transdisciplinary partnerships. PREDICT's collaboration with partners around the world on strengthening local capacity to detect hundreds of viruses in wild animals, coupled with a series of cutting-edge virological and analytical activities, have significantly improved our baseline knowledge on the zoonotic pool of viruses and the risk of exposure to people. Further testament to the success of the project's One Health approach and the work of its team of dedicated One Health professionals are the resulting 90 peer-reviewed, scientific publications in under 5 years that improve our understanding of zoonoses and the factors influencing their emergence. The findings are assisting in global health improvements, including surveillance science, diagnostic technologies, understanding of viral evolution, and ecological driver identification. Through its One Health leadership and multi-disciplinary partnerships, PREDICT has forged new networks of professionals from the human, animal, and environmental health sectors to promote global health, improving our understanding of viral disease spillover from wildlife and implementing strategies for preventing and controlling emerging disease threats.

One Health in China

As a result of rapid economic growth over the previous three decades, China has become the second largest economy worldwide since 2010. However, as a developing country with the largest population, this rapid economic growth primarily based on excessive consumption and waste of resources. Thus, China has been facing particularly severe ecological and environmental problems in speeding up industrialization and urbanization. The impact of the health risk factors is complex and difficult to accurately predict. Therefore, it is critical to investigate potential threats in the context of the human-animal-environment interface to protect human and animal health. The "One Health" concept recognizes that human health is connected to animal and environmental health. This review primarily discusses specific health problems in China, particularly zoonoses, and explains the origin and development of the One Health approach, as well as the importance of a holistic approach in China.

Disease and Human/Animal Interactions

Understanding pathogen exchange among human, wildlife, and livestock populations, and the varying ecological and cultural contexts in which this exchange takes place, is a major challenge. The present review contextualizes the risk factors that result from human interactions with livestock, companion animals, animal exhibits, wildlife through nature-based tourism, and wildlife through consumption. Given their phylogenetic relatedness to humans, primates are emphasized in this discussion; primates serve as reservoirs for several human pathogens, and some human pathogens can decimate wild primate populations. Anthropologists must play a central role in understanding cultural variation in attitudes toward other species as well as perceived risks when interacting with animals. I argue that the remediation of emerging infectious diseases will be accomplished primarily through human behavioral changes rather than through efforts in pathogen discovery. Given the history of human interactions with wildlife, candid discussions on zoonotic diseases will be increasingly important for our combined survival.

Bushmeat hunting and extinction risk to the world's mammals

Terrestrial mammals are experiencing a massive collapse in their population sizes and geographical ranges around the world, but many of the drivers, patterns and consequences of this decline remain poorly understood. Here we provide an analysis showing that bushmeat hunting for mostly food and medicinal products is driving a global crisis whereby 301 terrestrial mammal species are threatened with extinction. Nearly all of these threatened species occur in developing countries where major coexisting threats include deforestation, agricultural expansion, human encroachment and competition with livestock. The unrelenting decline of mammals suggests many vital ecological and socio-economic services that these species provide will be lost, potentially changing ecosystems irrevocably. We discuss options and current obstacles to achieving effective conservation, alongside consequences of failure to stem such anthropogenic mammalian extirpation. We propose a multi-pronged conservation strategy to help save threatened mammals from immediate extinction and avoid a collapse of food security for hundreds of millions of people.