Effect of infection with bovine leukemia virus on milk production in Michigan dairy cows

Development of a novel monoclonal antibody-based competitive ELISA for antibody detection against bovine leukemia virus

Infection with bovine leukemia virus (BLV) leads to enzootic bovine leukosis, the most prevalent neoplastic disease in cattle. Due to the lack of commercially available vaccines, reliable eradication of the disease can be achieved through the testing and elimination of BLV antibody-positive animals. In this study, we developed a novel competitive ELISA (cELISA) to detect antibodies against BLV capsid protein p24. Recombinant p24 protein expressed by Escherichia coli, in combination with the monoclonal antibody 2G11 exhibiting exceptional performance, was used for the establishment of the cELISA. Receiver-operating characteristic curve analysis showed that the sensitivity and specificity of the assay were 98.85 % and 98.13 %, respectively. Furthermore, the established cELISA was specific for detecting BLV-specific antibodies, without cross-reactivity to antisera for six other bovine viruses. Significantly, experimental infection of cattle and sheep with BLV revealed that the cELISA accurately monitors seroconversion. In a performance evaluation, the established cELISA displayed a high agreement with Western blotting and the commercial BLV gp51 cELISA kit in the detection of 242 clinical samples, respectively. In conclusion, the novel p24 cELISA exhibited the potential to be a reliable and efficient diagnostic tool for BLV serological detection with a broad application prospect.

Prevalence and spatial distribution of infectious diseases of dairy cattle in Ontario, Canada

Here we investigated the prevalence and spatial distribution of selected pathogens associated with infectious diseases of dairy cattle in Ontario, Canada. The cross-sectional study surveyed bulk tank milk for antibodies against bovine leukemia virus (BLV), Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis (MAP), and Salmonella Dublin, and for the presence of mastitis pathogens (Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus agalactiae, Mycoplasma bovis). Between October 2021 and June 2022, bulk tank milk (BTM) samples were obtained from every commercial dairy farm in Ontario (n = 3,286). Samples underwent ELISA testing for presence of BLV, MAP and S. Dublin antibodies, and quantitative PCR testing for the detection of specific antigens of pathogens associated with mastitis. Bayesian models were used to estimate prevalence, and spatial analysis was carried out to identify regional clusters of high pathogen prevalence. Prevalence varied for different pathogens. BLV was widespread across dairy farms in Ontario, with an estimated prevalence of 88.3%. Prevalence of MAP, Staph. aureus and S. Dublin in Ontario dairy herds were 39.8%, 31.5% and 5.1%, respectively. The vast majority of dairy herds in Ontario were free of intramammary infections caused by Strep. agalactiae and M. bovis. Clusters of increased test positivity rates were detected for S. Dublin, MAP, and Staph. aureus, indicating potential geographic risk factors for pathogen transmission. For S. Dublin, an area of increased test positivity rates was detected in southwestern Ontario, close to the Canada-US border where most of the dairy herds in Ontario are located. Conversely, a localized cluster of positive test outcomes involving 14 subdivisions located in the southeastern region of Ontario was detected for Staph. aureus. Findings from our survey highlight the importance of the testing of aggregated samples and spatial analysis as part of disease surveillance programs and for implementing risk-based trading approaches among dairy producers.

Estimation of the proviral load in Japanese Black cattle infected with bovine leukemia virus by statistical modeling

Enzootic bovine leukosis (EBL) is B-cell lymphoma in cattle caused by bovine leukemia virus (BLV) infection. The incidence of EBL has been increasing since 1998 in Japan, resulting in significant economic losses for farms. The BLV genome integrates with the host genome as provirus, leading to sustainably infection. Although most of the BLV-infected cattle are aleukemic, some cattle cause persistent lymphocytosis (PL) and subsequently develop EBL. Recent reports suggest the association between the risk for the transmission of BLV and the developing EBL and the proviral load (PVL) in BLV-infected cattle, which cannot measure readily in the field. This study aims to build a statistical model for predicting PVL of BLV-infected asymptomatic or PL cattle based on data accessible in the field. Five negative binomial regression models with different linear predictors were built and compared for the predictability of PVL. Consequently, the model with two explanatory variables (age in months and logarithm of lymphocyte count) was selected as the best model. The model can be used in the field as a cost-beneficial supporting tool to estimate the risk of transmission of BLV and developing EBL in infected cattle.

The influence of risk factors on bovine leukemia virus infection and proviral load in egyptian cattle

Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) is the etiological agent of enzootic bovine leucosis (EBL), which affects cattle globally. In Egypt, BLV control strategies have been ignored because of the shortage of BLV research studies and the silent infection in most animals. This study aimed to identify the risk factors associated with the prevalence of BLV among dairy and beef cattle from six different geographic and climatic provinces in Egypt. Additionally, risk factors affecting the BLV proviral load (PVL) among the positive cattle were targeted. The total BLV prevalence in cattle from six investigated Egyptian provinces was 24.2% (105/433), while the mean PVL (8651.6 copies /105 white blood cells) was absolutely high as estimated by the BLV-CoCoMo-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR)-2 assay. Analysis of the influence of risk factors (age, sex, breed, production type, farm size, and location) on BLV prevalence indicated that the Holstein breed (OR = 1.582, p = 0.007), beef cattle (OR = 1.088, p = 0.0001), large-size farms (OR = 1.26, p = 0.0001), and cattle from Damietta (OR = 1.43, p = 0.0001) and Cairo (OR = 1.16, p = 0.0001) were ultimately proven the most important risks for BLV infection. The risk factors were analyzed considering the BLV PVL levels in the BLV-positive cases. Significantly high PVL (HPVL) levels were observed in cattle > 5 years old (p < 0.0001), females (p = 0.0008), Holstein (p < 0.0001), dairy cows (p = 0.0053), large-size farms (p < 0.0001), and cattle from Damietta (p < 0.0001) compared to other categories. Contrary, no significant differences in PVL levels were reported between the Native and Mixed cattle breeds (p = 0.13). Ultimately, the logistic regression model indicated that the probability of carrying HPVL in cattle > 5 years is 1.27 (95% CI: 1.03-2.09, p < 0.001) times more likely compared to cattle < 2 years old. In conclusion, the findings were valuably correlating the BLV prevalence with PVL as an indicator of the risk of BLV infection.

The Global Epidemiology of Bovine Leukemia Virus: Current Trends and Future Implications

Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) is a retrovirus that causes enzootic bovine leucosis (EBL), which is the most significant neoplastic disease in cattle. Although EBL has been successfully eradicated in most European countries, infections continue to rise in Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Japan, and the United States. BLV imposes a substantial economic burden on the cattle industry, particularly in dairy farming, as it leads to a decline in animal production performance and increases the risk of disease. Moreover, trade restrictions on diseased animals and products between countries and regions further exacerbate the problem. Recent studies have also identified fragments of BLV nucleic acid in human breast cancer tissues, raising concerns for public health. Due to the absence of an effective vaccine, controlling the disease is challenging. Therefore, it is crucial to accurately detect and diagnose BLV at an early stage to control its spread and minimize economic losses. This review provides a comprehensive examination of BLV, encompassing its genomic structure, epidemiology, modes of transmission, clinical symptoms, detection methods, hazards, and control strategies. The aim is to provide strategic information for future BLV research.

Effects of bovine leukemia virus seropositivity and proviral load on milk, fat, and protein production of dairy cows

The objective was to evaluate the effects of bovine leukemia virus (BLV) infection, as determined by BLV seropositivity and proviral load, on 305-d milk, fat, and protein production of dairy cows. A cross-sectional study was conducted among 1,712 cows from 9 dairy herds in Alberta, Canada. The BLV status was assessed using an antibody ELISA, whereas BLV proviral load in BLV-seropositive cattle was determined with quantitative PCR. Dairy Herd Improvement 305-d milk, fat, and protein production data were obtained for all enrolled cattle. Differences in these milk end points were assessed in 2 ways: first, by categorizing cows based on BLV serostatus (i.e., BLV positive or negative), and second, by categorizing based on BLV proviral load (i.e., BLV negative, low proviral load [LPL] BLV positive, and high proviral load [HPL] BLV positive). A mixed-effect multivariable linear regression model was used to assess differences in milk parameters. We found that BLV positivity, adjusted for parity and natural log-transformed somatic cell count (SCC), was not associated with reduction in 305-d milk, fat, or protein production. However, significant reductions in 305-d milk, fat, and protein yield occurred in HPL cows, but not in LPL cows, compared with BLV-negative cows, when adjusted for parity number and natural log-transformed SCC. In summary, BLV proviral load may predict effects of BLV infection on milk, fat, and protein production.

BoLA-DRB3 Polymorphism Associated with Bovine Leukemia Virus Infection and Proviral Load in Holstein Cattle in Egypt

Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) is the etiological agent of enzootic bovine leukosis, the most prevalent neoplastic disease of cattle worldwide. The immune response to BLV and disease susceptibility and resistance in cattle are strongly correlated with the bovine leukocyte antigen (BoLA)-DRB3 allelic polymorphism. BLV infection continues to spread in Egypt, in part because the relationships between BLV infection, proviral load in Egypt, and BoLA-DRB3 polymorphism are unknown. Here, we identified 18 previously reported alleles in 121 Holstein cows using a polymerase chain reaction sequence-based typing method. Furthermore, BoLA-DRB3 gene polymorphisms in these animals were investigated for their influence on viral infection. BoLA-DRB3*015:01 and BoLA-DRB3*010:01 were identified as susceptible and resistant alleles, respectively, for BLV infection in the tested Holsteins. In addition, BoLA-DRB3*012:01 was associated with low PVL in previous reports but high PVL in Holstein cattle in Egypt. This study is the first to demonstrate that the BoLA-DRB3 polymorphism confers resistance and susceptibility to PVL and infections of BLV in Holstein cattle in Egypt. Our results can be useful for the disease control and eradication of BLV through genetic selection.

Effectiveness of integrated bovine leukemia virus eradication strategies utilizing cattle carrying resistant and susceptible major histocompatibility complex class II DRB3 alleles

Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) has spread worldwide and causes serious problems in the cattle industry owing to the lack of effective treatments and vaccines. Bovine leukemia virus is transmitted via horizontal and vertical infection, and cattle with high BLV proviral load (PVL), which is a useful index for estimating disease progression and transmission risk, are considered major infectious sources within herds. The PVL strongly correlates with highly polymorphic bovine lymphocyte antigen (BoLA)-DRB3 alleles. The BoLA-DRB3*015:01 and *012:01 alleles are known susceptibility-associated markers related to high PVL, and cattle with susceptible alleles may be at a high risk of BLV transmission via direct contact with healthy cows. In contrast, the BoLA-DRB3*009:02 and *014:01:01 alleles comprise resistant markers associated with the development of low PVL, and cattle with resistant alleles may be low-risk spreaders for BLV transmission and disrupt the BLV transmission chain. However, whether polymorphisms in BoLA-DRB3 are useful for BLV eradication in farms remains unknown. Here, we conducted a validation trial of the integrated BLV eradication strategy to prevent new infection by resistant cattle and actively eliminate susceptible cattle in addition to conventional BLV eradication strategies to maximally reduce the BLV prevalence and PVL using a total of 342 cattle at 4 stall-barn farms in Japan from 2017 to 2019. First, we placed the resistant milking cattle between the BLV-positive and BLV-negative milking cattle in a stall barn for 3 yr. Interestingly, the resistant cattle proved to be an effective biological barrier to successfully block the new BLV infections in the stall-barn system among all 4 farms. Concomitantly, we actively eliminated cattle with high PVL, especially susceptible cattle. Indeed, 39 of the 60 susceptible cattle (65%), 76 of the 140 neutral cattle (54%), and 20 of the 41 resistant cattle (48.8%) were culled on 4 farms for 3 years. Consequently, BLV prevalence and mean PVL decreased in all 4 farms. In particular, one farm achieved BLV-free status in May 2020. By decreasing the number of BLV-positive animals, the revenue-enhancing effect was estimated to be ¥5,839,262 ($39,292.39) for the 4 farms over 3 yr. Our results suggest that an integrated BLV eradication program utilization of resistant cattle as a biological barrier and the preferential elimination of susceptible cattle are useful for BLV infection control.

Seroprevalence and haemato-biochemical effects of bovine leucosis in buffalo, Punjab, Pakistan

Enzootic bovine leucosis is caused by bovine leukaemia virus (BLV), a Deltaretrovirus belonging to the family Retroviridae. BLV causes huge economic losses to the dairy industry in the form of decreased milk production, premature culling, and poor reproductive performance of the animals. The aim of the present study was to determine the seroprevalence of BLV infection in buffalo in two districts of Punjab, Pakistan. A total of 384 samples were collected and analysed using a commercial indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to investigate the seroprevalence of BLV through the detection of the anti-BLV gp51 antibody. A predesigned data questionnaire proforma was employed to find out the association of risk factors with disease. Overall, 18.2% of buffaloes were seropositive for BLV in the study population. The results revealed a significant association (P < 0.05) of age with BLV infection. Furthermore, milk yield and pregnancy had a significant association with the seroprevalence of BLV infection in buffalo whereas no significant association was found with sex, breeding, and health status. Biochemical and oxidative stress markers revealed a significant decrease in liver enzymes alanine transaminase (ALT) and aspartate transaminase (AST), glutathione peroxidase (GPX), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) in seropositive animals as compared to healthy animals. It is concluded that BLV has a considerable prevalence in buffalo in Punjab, Pakistan and there is a dire need to investigate the disease epidemiology at both national and international levels and strategies should be developed to implement an effective control program.

The bovine leukemia virus infection prolongs immunosuppression in dairy cows during the periparturient period by sustaining higher expression of immunological checkpoints in T cells

Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) is caused by a deltaretrovirus and has been associated with immunosuppression as well as comorbidities such as bovine mastitis, the costliest disease in the dairy sector. However, no previous study has explored at the synergistic immunosuppressive effect of the peripartum period with an immunosuppressive viral disease such as BLV. Thus, our study explored the effect of BLV infection in the periparturient period on the expression of PD-1 and CTLA-4 in blood T lymphocytes, and the impact of BLV infection on the rate of new intramammary infections during the early lactation. Here, we found that BLV-infected dairy cows always had a statistically significant higher expression of CTLA-4 and PD-1 in blood T cells. Furthermore, our findings indicated that BLV infection prolongs immunosuppression in dairy cows during the periparturient period by sustaining higher expression of immunological checkpoints in T cells. In addition, BLV-infected dairy cows have a higher rate of new intramammary infections during early lactation. Thus, our study provides new insights of the immunosuppressive effect of BLV on the most critical period of the cows' life with marked detrimental effect on protective T-cell immunity and comorbidities, such as bovine mastitis.

Influence of BoLA-DRB3 Polymorphism and Bovine Leukemia Virus (BLV) Infection on Dairy Cattle Productivity

Enzootic bovine leukosis caused by the bovine leukemia virus (BLV) results in substantial damage to the livestock industry; however, we lack an effective cure or vaccine. BoLA-DRB3 polymorphism in BLV-infected cattle is associated with the proviral load (PVL), infectivity in the blood, development of lymphoma, and in utero infection of calves. Additionally, it is related to the PVL, infectivity, and anti-BLV antibody levels in milk. However, the effects of the BoLA-DRB3 allele and BLV infection on dairy cattle productivity remain poorly understood. Therefore, we investigated the effect of BLV infection and BoLA-DRB3 allele polymorphism on dairy cattle productivity in 147 Holstein dams raised on Japanese dairy farms. Our findings suggested that BLV infection significantly increased milk yield. Furthermore, the BoLA-DRB3 allele alone, and the combined effect of BLV infection and the BoLA-DRB3 allele had no effect. These results indicate that on-farm breeding and selection of resistant cattle, or the preferential elimination of susceptible cattle, does not affect dairy cattle productivity. Additionally, BLV infection is more likely to affect dairy cattle productivity than BoLA-DRB3 polymorphism.

Diagnosis and phylogenetic analysis of bovine leukemia virus in dairy cattle in northeastern Brazil

Enzootic bovine leukosis (EBL) is a chronic viral disease of wide distribution in cattle herds and may take several years for the first manifestation of clinical signs. Most animals do not present clinical signs. However, the economic losses are underestimated due to this disease. Thus, this work aimed to detect and characterize BLV in dairy cattle in the Maranhão state, northeastern Brazil. Blood samples were collected from 176 animals from 8 municipalities in the southeastern state of Maranhão. Bovine blood samples were subjected to DNA extraction and molecular diagnosis using nested PCR assays for BLV, targeting gp51 gene. Positive samples were then sequenced and then subjected to phylogenetic inferences. BLV DNA was detected in 16 cattle (16/176, 9.09%) in 4 municipalities. Phylogenetic analyzes showed that the sequence obtained clustered in a clade containing BLV sequences classified as genotype 6, with a high degree of support. Our data shows BLV occurrence in the Northeast of Brazil and the identification of genotype 6 in this region. These findings contribute to the molecular epidemiology of this agent in Brazil.

Anti-BLV antibodies in whey correlate with bovine leukemia virus disease progression and BoLA-DRB3 polymorphism

Introduction

Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) belongs to the family Retroviridae and is a causative agent for enzootic bovine leucosis, the most common neoplastic disease affecting cattle worldwide. BLV proviral load (PVL) is associated with disease progression and transmission risk but requires blood collection and quantitative PCR testing. Anti-BLV antibodies in whey have been used as a diagnostic tool for BLV infection; however, quantitative utilization has not been fully investigated. Furthermore, bovine leukocyte antigen (BoLA)-DRB3 is a polymorphic gene associated with BLV infectivity and PVL, but its effect on anti-BLV antibody levels in whey from BLV infected dams is unknown. Therefore, we aimed to investigate whether it is possible to correctly predict PVL in the blood and milk based on the amount of anti-BLV antibodies in milk, and whether the BoLA-DRB3 alleles associate with the amount of anti-BLV antibodies in milk.

Methods

We examined whey from 442 dams from 11 different dairy farms located in 6 prefectures in Japan, including susceptible dams carrying at least one BoLA-DRB3^* 012:01 or ^* 015:01 allele related with high PVL, resistant dams carrying at least one BoLA-DRB3 ^* 002:01, ^* 009:02, or ^* 014:01:01 allele related with low PVL, and neutral dams carrying other alleles.

Results

First, our results provided compelling evidence that anti-BLV antibody levels in whey were positively correlated with the anti-BLV antibody levels in serum and with BLV PVL in blood and milk, indicating the possibility of estimating BLV PVL in blood and milk by measuring anti-BLV antibody levels in whey. Thus, our results showed that antibody titers in milk might be effective for estimating BLV transmission risk and disease progression in the field. Second, we demonstrated that anti-BLV antibody levels in whey from BLV resistant dams were significantly lower than those from susceptible and neutral dams.

Discussion

This is the first report suggesting that the BoLA-DRB3 polymorphism affects anti-BLV antibody levels in whey from BLV-infected dams. Taken together, our results suggested that anti-BLV antibody levels in whey, measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, may be a useful marker to diagnose the risk of BLV infection and estimate PVL in blood and milk.

Effect of biologically active substances on hematological status of cows

Industry development has a technogenic impact on the environment, thereby posing a threat to health and welfare of farm animals. As a result, toxic substances accumulate in soil, water, feed, and have a long period of decomposition. At the same time, changes in the metabolic profile occur in animals, leading to a decrease in their resistance to viral and bacterial infections. The search for new means and methods to stop the development of pathological conditions and create conditions for the resistance of cows to technogenic stress seems to be relevant. In this regard, the purpose was to study the effect of аminoseleferon-B on hematological parameters and protein metabolism of cows with immune deficiency under technogenic load caused by the chemical industry producing mineral fertilizers in Voronezh region. During monitoring soil and water bodies near this object, an excess of the maximum permissible concentrations for heavy metal content was established. The studies were carried out in industrial livestock complex on 20 highly productive dairy cows with a secondary immunodeficiency state, located in the zone of exposure to chemical emissions into the atmosphere. Control and experimental groups of animals were formed. Experimental cows were injected with аminoseleferon-B. It was revealed that the presence of cows in conditions of technogenic impact on the environment leads to decrease in total protein, change in blood fractional composition, which negatively affects physiological processes in the body. Insufficient levels of and -globulin fractions in cow blood indicate inhibition of natural resistance factors. A negative reaction of animal organism associated with exposure to toxins is indicated by significant increase in the level of -globulins in blood. It was found that аminoseleferon-B had a corrective effect on blood morphological parameters and protein metabolism, significantly increasing number of erythrocytes, leukocytes, hemoglobin, lymphocytes, monocytes, total protein, -globulins, -globulins and reducing content of neutrophils, eosinophils, -globulins to normal levels. Thus, аminoseleferon-B contributed to increase in natural resistance, adaptation to adverse environmental factors and stimulation of metabolic processes in cows.

Hematological and biochemical parameters of bulls’ blood when using mink carcass hydrolyzate as a feed additive

To improve the efficiency of ruminal digestion, researchers have developed a variety of enzyme feed additives. We are also working to find feed additives that improve the nutrition of rumen microflora, that is, prebiotics. For this purpose, we have proposed an animal protein hydrolyzate. The paper presents data reflecting the dynamics of hematological and biochemical parameters of blood serum of calves at the age of 3-4 months when hydrolyzed mink carcasses are included in the diet at doses of 5, 10 and 20 grams per head per day for 30 days. It was shown that after the completion of the experiment in animals treated with hydrolyzate at doses of 10 and 20 grams per head, there was a significant decrease in the content of leukocytes within the reference values and an increase in the percentage of lymphocytes in the leukogram. The change in the biochemical parameters of the groups of experimental bulls was characterized by a dose-dependent statistically significant increase in the concentration of protein, urea and reserve alkalinity. The concentration of total bilirubin, ALT, LDH significantly decreased, AST- increased. The results obtained indicate an increase in the immune reactivity of the animal organism with the use of the feed additive.

Development of a predictive model for bovine leukemia virus proviral load

Background

There is currently no commercially available method in Canada to identify bovine leukemia virus (BLV)‐positive cows with high proviral load (PVL).

Objectives

First, develop a model to predict PVL using common, commercially available, cost‐effective diagnostic tests. Second, investigate the relationship between lymphocyte count and PVL in BLV‐positive cows.

Animals

A total of 339 BLV‐positive and 62 BLV‐seronegative cows on 15 dairy farms.

Methods

Cross‐sectional study. Blood and milk samples were collected from all lactating BLV‐positive cows on each farm and 5 to 10 BLV‐seronegative cows depending on herd size. Blood and milk samples were tested for anti‐BLV antibodies using enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Complete blood counts were performed on blood samples, and standard components analyses were obtained for milk samples. Proviral load was determined by quantitative polymerase chain reaction for each cow.

Results

The inverse of lymphocyte count, the square of the inverse of lymphocyte count, and milk ELISA percent positivity were positively associated with increasing PVL in BLV‐positive cows. For BLV‐positive cows, lymphocyte count >5.2 × 10⁹/L predicted a high PVL (BLV:Bovine DNA of >1 in blood) with a sensitivity of 92.4% and a specificity of 79.8%. For BLV‐positive cows, white blood cell count >10.8 × 10⁹/L predicted a high PVL, with a sensitivity of 85.5% and a specificity of 83.6%.

Conclusions and Clinical Importance

Based on these results, producers can implement commonly available diagnostic tests to identify cows with high probability of having high PVL, which may help in designing effective disease control strategies for BLV‐positive herds.

A safe and effective vaccine against bovine leukemia virus

Previous attempts to develop a vaccine against bovine leukemia virus (BLV) have not been successful because of inadequate or short-lived stimulation of all immunity components. In this study, we designed an approach based on an attenuated BLV provirus by deleting genes dispensable for infectivity but required for efficient replication. The ability of the vaccine to protect from natural BLV infection was investigated in the context of dairy productive conditions in an endemic region. The attenuated vaccine was tested in a farm in which the prevalence rose from 16.7% in young cattle at the beginning of the study to more than 90% in adult individuals. Sterilizing immunity was obtained in 28 out of 29 vaccinated heifers over a period of 48 months, demonstrating the effectiveness of the vaccine. As indicated by the antiviral antibody titers, the humoral response was slightly reduced compared to wild-type infection. After initial post-vaccination bursts, the proviral loads of the attenuated vaccine remained most frequently undetectable. During the first dairy cycle, proviral DNA was not detected by nested-PCR in milk samples from vaccinated cows. During the second dairy cycle, provirus was sporadically detected in milk of two vaccinated cows. Forty-two calves born from vaccinated cows were negative for proviral DNA but had antiviral antibodies in their peripheral blood. The attenuated strain was not transmitted to sentinels, further supporting the safety of the vaccine. Altogether, these data thus demonstrate that the vaccine against BLV is safe and effective in herd conditions characterized by a very high incidence. This cost-effective approach will thus decrease the prevalence of BLV without modification of production practices. After facing a series of challenges pertaining to effectiveness and biosafety, the vaccine is now available for further large-scale delivery. The different challenges and hurdles that were bypassed may be informative for the development of a vaccine against HTLV-1.

Dairy Cows Experimentally Infected With Bovine Leukemia Virus Showed an Increased Milk Production in Lactation Numbers 3–4: A 4-Year Longitudinal Study

Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) is widespread in global cattle populations, but the effects of its infection on milk quantity and quality have not been clearly elucidated in animal models. In this study, 30 healthy first-lactation cows were selected from ≈2,988 cows in a BLV-free farm with the same criteria of parity, age, lactation number, as well as milk yield, SCS, and composition (fat, protein, and lactose). Subsequently, these cows were randomly assigned to the intervention (n = 15) or control (n = 15) group, and reared in different cowsheds. Cows in the intervention group were inoculated with 1 × phosphate-buffered solution (PBS) resuspended in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from a BLV-positive cow, while the controls were inoculated with the inactivated PBMC from the same individual. From June 2016 to July 2021, milk weight (kg) was automatically recorded by milk sensors, and milk SCS and composition were originated from monthly performed dairy herd improvement (DHI) testing. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET)–qPCR and ELISA showed that cows in the intervention group were successfully infected with BLV, while cows in the control group were free of BLV for the entire period. At 45 days post-inoculation (DPI), the numbers of whole blood cells (WBCs) (P = 0.010), lymphocytes (LYMs) (P = 0.002), and monocytes (MNCs) (P = 0.001) and the expression levels of IFN-γ (P = 0.013), IL-10 (P = 0.031), and IL-12p70 (P = 0.008) increased significantly in the BLV infected cows compared to the non-infected. In lactation numbers 2–4, the intervention group had significantly higher overall milk yield (P < 0.001), fat (P = 0.031), and protein (P = 0.050) than the control group, while milk SCS (P = 0.038) and lactose (P = 0.036) decreased significantly. Further analysis indicated that BLV infection was associated with increased milk yield at each lactation stage in lactation numbers 3–4 (P = 0.021 or P < 0.001), but not with SCS and milk composition. Together, this 4-year longitudinal study revealed that artificial inoculation of BLV increased the milk yield in cows in this BLV challenge model.

BoLA-DRB3 Polymorphism Controls Proviral Load and Infectivity of Bovine Leukemia Virus (BLV) in Milk

Bovine leukemia virus (BLV), which causes enzootic bovine leukosis, is transmitted to calves through the milk of BLV-infected dams. Bovine leukocyte antigen (BoLA)-DRB3 is a polymorphic gene associated with BLV infectivity and proviral load (PVL). However, the effect of BoLA-DRB3 polymorphism on the infectivity and PVL of milk from BLV-infected dams remains unknown. This study examined milk from 259 BLV-infected dams, including susceptible dams carrying at least one BoLA-DRB3*012:01 or *015:01 allele with high PVL, resistant dams carrying at least one BoLA-DRB3*002:01, *009:02, or *014:01:01 allele with low PVL, and neutral dams carrying other alleles. The detection rate of BLV provirus and PVL were significantly higher in milk from susceptible dams than in that from resistant dams. This result was confirmed in a three-year follow-up study in which milk from susceptible dams showed a higher BLV provirus detection rate over a longer period than that from resistant dams. The visualization of infectivity of milk cells using a luminescence syncytium induction assay showed that the infectious risk of milk from BLV-infected dams was markedly high for susceptible dams compared to resistant ones. This is the first report confirming that BoLA-DRB3 polymorphism affects the PVL and infectivity of milk from BLV-infected dams.

Estimation of economic loss by carcass weight reduction of Japanese dairy cows due to infection with bovine leukemia virus

Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) infection is endemic in Japanese dairy farms. To promote the participation of farmers in BLV infection control in Japan, it is important to provide estimates of the economic losses caused by this infection. We hypothesized that decreased immune function due to BLV infection would increase visceral abnormalities, in turn reducing carcass weight. We employed mediation analysis to estimate the annual economic loss due to carcass weight reduction caused by BLV infection. Culled Holstein cows from 12 commercial dairy farms in the Nemuro and Kushiro regions of Hokkaido, Japan, were traced. Information on age and the last delivery day were collected. A non-infected culled cow was defined as a cow from which BLV provirus was not detected. A high-proviral-load (H-PVL) cow was defined as a cow whose PVL titer was above 2465 copies/50 ng DNA or 56,765 copies/10⁵ cells. A BLV-infected cow with PVL titer lower than the thresholds was categorized as low-proviral load (L-PVL). Post-mortem examination results for culled cows were collected from a meat inspection center. The hypothesis was tested by three models, using data from 222 culled dairy cows. Model 1, a generalized linear mixed-effects model, selected carcass weight as an outcome variable, BLV status and the potential confounders (lactation stage and age) as explanatory variables, and herd as a random effect. Model 2 additionally included the number of abnormal findings in the post-mortem examination (AFPE) as an explanatory variable. Model 3 applied a Bayesian generalized linear mixed model, which employed a mediator separately modeled for AFPE, to estimate the amount of direct, indirect, and total carcass weight loss with adjustment for known confounding factors. Compared to the mean carcass weight for the non-infected culled cows, the carcass weight for H-PVL culled cows was significantly decreased by 30.4 kg on average. For each increase of one in the number of AFPE, the mean carcass weight was decreased by 8.6 kg. Only the indirect effect of BLV H-PVL status on carcass weight loss through AFPE was significant, accounting for 21.6 % of the total effect on carcass weight reduction. In 2017, 73,650 culled dairy cows were slaughtered in Hokkaido, and the economic loss due to carcass weight loss caused by BLV infection that year was estimated to be US $1,391,649. In summary, unlike L-PVL cows, H-PVL status was associated with carcass weight reduction, which was partially mediated by an increase in the number of visceral abnormalities.

Bovine Leukaemia Virus: Current Epidemiological Circumstance and Future Prospective

Bovine leukaemia virus (BLV) is a deltaretrovirus that is closely related to human T-cell leukaemia virus types 1 and 2 (HTLV-1 and -2). It causes enzootic bovine leukosis (EBL), which is the most important neoplastic disease in cattle. Most BLV-infected cattle are asymptomatic, which potentiates extremely high shedding rates of the virus in many cattle populations. Approximately 30% of them show persistent lymphocytosis that has various clinical outcomes; only a small proportion of animals (less than 5%) exhibit signs of EBL. BLV causes major economic losses in the cattle industry, especially in dairy farms. Direct costs are due to a decrease in animal productivity and in cow longevity; indirect costs are caused by restrictions that are placed on the import of animals and animal products from infected areas. Most European regions have implemented an efficient eradication programme, yet BLV prevalence remains high worldwide. Control of the disease is not feasible because there is no effective vaccine against it. Therefore, detection and early diagnosis of the disease are essential in order to diminish its spreading and the economic losses it causes. This review comprises an overview of bovine leukosis, which highlights the epidemiology of the disease, diagnostic tests that are used and effective control strategies.

Effect of BLV Infection on the Immune Function of Polymorphonuclear Neutrophil in Dairy Cows

Enzootic bovine leukemia is a late-onset, neoplastic infection caused by the bovine leukemia virus (BLV). BLV infection hinders the function of the immune system and induces other diseases, which negatively affects the performance and health of the infected cows. As the first line of defense against invading foreign pathogenic microorganisms, polymorphonuclear neutrophil (PMN) plays a vital role in the immune system of dairy cows. However, research on the effect of BLV infection on the immune function of PMN in dairy cows is scarce. Therefore, this experiment aimed to elucidate the effects and effect mechanisms of BLV infection on the immune function of PMN in dairy cows with different BLV provirus loads by detecting the chemotaxis, migration, adhesion, phagocytosis, respiratory burst function, and the formation of NETs. The experimental results showed that BLV infection had no significant effect on the phagocytosis of PMN but inhibited their migration and respiratory burst function, and the effects were closely related to the BLV provirus load. Under high BLV provirus load, PMN produced large amounts of NETs, chemokine CXCL7, adhesion molecule CD18, and pro-inflammatory factors IL-8 and TNF-α, triggering inflammatory responses, and tissue damage. The results of this study will help reveal the reason why BLV infection causes the high incidence of mammary gland inflammation in dairy cows.

Seropositivity and risk factors associated with the presentation of bovine leukosis virus in Sotaquirá, Colombia

Background and Aim

Enzootic bovine leukosis is a disease economically important to the dairy farming industry worldwide. The virus is of the Deltaretrovirus genus and is primarily transmitted iatrogenically. Most bovines infected with the virus remain asymptomatic with only 5-10% of cattle having lymphomas. This study aimed to determine the seroprevalence of bovine leukosis virus (BLV) in Sotaquirá, Boyacá, Colombia.

Materials and Methods

We conducted a descriptive, observational epidemiological cross-sectional study using the simple random sampling method with a sample size of 1000. Blood samples from random bovine were processed using the SERELISA^® BLV Ab Mono Blocking indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kit (Zoetis, USA). The assay had a sensitivity of 97% and a specificity of 98%. The collected data were processed using Epi Info^® (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; Atlanta, Georgia). From the study, we could determine a high seroprevalence of BLV in Sotaquirá.

Results

We established a high seroprevalence on BLV in the municipality, with 31.1% apparent seroprevalence and 30.6% real seroprevalence rate. We found that male cattle more than 4 years old (39.4%) and the Ayrshire breed (45.5%) had the highest prevalence rates of the virus. In this study, we could establish statistically significant associations according to breed, age, and gender of the cattle under study. Moreover, we identified the risk factors for BLV infection. We found that in cattle aged <1 year and those older than 4 years of age and those of the Holstein breed, the presentation of infectious bovine rhinotracheitis, mucosal secretions, mastitis, fetal death, the presence of a corral, and the implementation of artificial insemination practices were risk factors for BLV infection.

Conclusion

Determining the prevalence of BLV within the herd and identifying the associated risk factors for the disease are fundamental in developing efficient programs for the control and eradication of BLV within herds.

Cytokine TNF-α and its receptors TNFRI and TNFRII play a key role in the in vitro proliferative response of BLV infected animals

Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) main host cells are B lymphocytes. Infected animals can be classified into high or low proviral load (HPL or LPL respectively), regarding the number of proviral copies infected lymphocytes they carry. After infection, there is an overexpression of several cytokines, particularly TNF-α, which has a delicate regulation mediated by receptors TNFRI and TNFRII; the first one involved with apoptosis, while the other stimulates cell proliferation. The study aimed to quantify TNF-α and its receptors mRNA expression, and in which extent in vitro proliferation was affected, in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from BLV-infected animals with different proviral loads, after the addition or not of synthetic TNF-α (rTNF-α) for 48 h. PBMC from BLV-infected animals showed spontaneous proliferation after 48 h in culture but did not show changes in proliferation rates after 48 h incubation in the presence of the rTNF-α. TNF-α mRNA expression after 48 h culture without exogenous stimulation was significantly lower, regardless of the proviral load of the donor, compared to non-infected animals. In the LPL animals, the expression of TNF-α mRNA was significantly lower with respect to the control group while the expression of TNFRI mRNA was significantly increased. The HPL animals showed a significant decrease in the expression of TNF-α and TNFRII mRNA respect to the control group. After 48 h incubation with rTNF-α, PBMC from infected animals had different responses: TNF-α and TNFRI mRNA expression was reduced in PBMC from the LPL group compared to the BLV negative group, but no differences were observed in PBMC from the HPL group. TNFRII mRNA expression showed no differences between HPL, LPL, and BLV negative groups, though HPL animals expressed 10.35 times more TNFRI mRNA than LPL. These results support the hypothesis that LPL animals, when faced with viral reactivation, present a pro-apoptotic and anti-proliferative state. However, complementary studies are needed to explain the influence of TNFRII on the development of the HLP profile. On the other hand, exogenous stimulation studies reinforce the hypothesis that BLV infection compromises the immune response of the animals.

Diagnostic Measures of Disease Progression in Cattle Following Natural Infection with Bovine Leukemia Virus

This study describes the longitudinal changes in bovine leukemia virus (BLV) ELISA antibodies, proviral load (PVL), and blood lymphocyte counts (LC) observed over a 2.5-year period in naturally infected cattle. The dataset utilized was from a BLV intervention field trial on three Midwestern dairy herds. Our analysis showed ELISA false negatives were more likely to occur in cattle with low PVL and normal LC. On average, negligible changes in LC were observed during six-month intervals. Periods of lymphocytosis, defined as >10,000 lymphocytes per uL of blood, were observed in 31.5% (68/216) of BLV test-positive cattle. In BLV test-positive cows, an average increase of 2900 to 3100 proviral copies per 100,000 cells was observed during each subsequent six-month sampling interval. The difference between the minimum and maximum PVL observed for an ELISA-positive cow with 3 or more observations ranged from 0 to 115,600 copies per 100,000 cells (median: 12,900; mean: 19,200). Therefore, following the identification of ELISA-positive cattle and the assessment of PVL and LC, subsequent semiannual tests to assess disease progression may not be needed. Further work is needed to determine how available diagnostic tests can be optimized to design cost-effective testing schemes for BLV control programs.

Natural Infection of Dairy Cows with Bovine Leukemia Virus Affects Immunoglobulin Levels in Saliva and Serum but Not Milk

Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) is a retroviral infection that disrupts the immune function of infected animals. It is widespread among U.S. dairy cattle. In this pilot study, the average total IgA and IgM concentrations in milk, saliva, and serum samples from BLV ELISA-positive (ELISA+) dairy cows were compared against samples from BLV ELISA-negative (ELISA−) cows using the Kruskal–Wallis test (with ties). The results from ELISA+ cows were also stratified by lymphocyte count (LC) and proviral load (PVL). In milk and saliva from ELISA+ cows, the average total IgA and IgM concentrations were decreased compared to ELISA− cows, although this was only statistically significant for saliva IgM in cows with low PVL (p = 0.0424). Numerically, the average total IgA concentrations were 33.6% lower in milk and 23.7% lower in saliva, and the average total IgM concentrations were 42.4% lower in milk and 15.5% lower in saliva. No significant differences were observed in the total serum IgA concentrations, regardless of PVL and LC. The total serum IgM from ELISA+ cows was significantly decreased (p = 0.0223), with the largest decreases occurring in the highest PVL and LC subgroups. This pilot study is a first step in investigating the impact of BLV on mucosal immunity and will require further exploration in each of the various stages of disease progression.

Milk Macrophage Function in Bovine Leukemia Virus-Infected Dairy Cows

The implications of bovine leukemia virus (BLV) on innate and adaptive immune responses have been widely investigated; however, the effects of BLV on mammary gland immunity require further investigation. The present study investigated the viability, phagocytic capacity, and intracellular production of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS) by macrophages in milk samples from dairy cows naturally infected with BLV with or without persistent lymphocytosis (PL). No effect of BLV infection in the overall number of macrophages per milliliter and in the percentage of viable macrophages among overall milk viable cells was found. Furthermore, BLV-infected dairy cows had a higher frequency of viable milk macrophages, while healthy animals had a tendency toward a higher percentage of apoptotic milk macrophages. The percentage of milk macrophages that phagocytosed Staphylococcus aureus in seronegative animals was higher than that in BLV-infected dairy cows. No effect of BLV infection on the intracellular RONS production and the intensity of phagocytosis by milk macrophages was observed. Thus, this study provides new insights into the implications of BLV infections in the bovine mammary gland.

Overview of Mitigation Programs for Non-EU-Regulated Cattle Diseases in Austria

Background: The non-mandatory regulation of animal diseases at the European Union (EU) level enables member states to implement mitigation programs based on their own country-specific conditions such as priority settings of the governments, availability of financial resources, and epidemiological situation. This can result in a heterogeneous distribution of mitigation activities and prevalence levels within and/or between countries, which can cause difficulties for intracommunity trade. This article aims to describe the past, current, and future mitigation activities and associated prevalence levels for four animal diseases, i.e., enzootic bovine leukosis (EBL), infectious bovine rhinotracheitis/infectious pustular vulvovaginitis (IBR/IPV), bovine viral diarrhea (BVD), and bluetongue disease (BT) for Austria. Over a period of 40 years (1978–2020), regulations concerning EBL, IBR/IPV, BVD, and BT were retraced to analyze the changes of legislation, focusing on sampling, testing, and mitigation activities in Austria, and were linked to the collected diagnostic testing results. The study results clearly demonstrate the adoption of the legislation by the Austrian governments in dependency of the epidemiological situations. Furthermore, our study shows that, related to the forthcoming Animal Health Law on April 21, 2021, Austria has a good initial situation to achieve disease-free status and/or free from infection status based on the current available epidemiological situation and previously implemented mitigation activities. The study results presented here are intended to contribute to a better comparison of the eradication status across European countries for cattle diseases by providing information about the mitigation activities and data of testing results over a period of 40 years.

Bovine major histocompatibility complex (BoLA) heterozygote advantage against the outcome of bovine leukemia virus infection

Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) causes enzootic bovine leucosis. Host genetic heterozygosity at the major histocompatibility complex can enhance the ability to combat infectious diseases. However, heterozygote advantage is loci specific and depends on disease type. Bovine leukocyte antigen (BoLA)-DRB3 polymorphisms are related with BLV-infection outcome; however, whether BoLA-DRB3 heterozygotes have an advantage against BLV-induced lymphoma and proviral load (PVL) remains unclear. By analyzing 1567 BLV-infected individuals, we found that BoLA-DRB3 heterozygous status was significantly associated with lymphoma resistance irrespective of cattle breeds (p < 0.0001). Similarly, decreased PVL was observed in BoLA-DRB3 heterozygotes (p = 0.0407 for Holstein cows; p = 0.0889 for Japanese Black cattle). Our report provides first evidence of BoLA-DRB3 heterozygote advantage against BLV infection outcome.

Invited review: Bovine leukemia virus-Transmission, control, and eradication

Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) infection, endemic in North American dairy herds, has production-limiting effects. A literature review of available papers published since 1995 concerning BLV transmission and its control was conducted. Although confirmed transmission routes were reviewed (blood, natural breeding, in utero, colostrum, and milk), there is still a lack of detailed information on other specific risks for transmission (e.g., contact transmission and hoof-trimming knives). Eradication of BLV has been achieved by combined management, segregation, and culling approaches. In contrast, although sole implementation of best management practices aimed at prevention of BLV transmission has decreased within-herd BLV prevalence, it has not eradicated BLV from a herd. Therefore, control and eradication of BLV by best management practices only should be further investigated. Additionally, the role of proviral load in infected cattle was investigated. Cattle with a high proviral load seem to be more likely to infect others, whereas those with a very low proviral load seem to have low risks of transmitting BLV. Information on proviral load could be taken into account when controlling BLV in high-prevalence herds. In conclusion, there is a need for detailed, large-scale studies investigating roles of specific transmission routes, knowing proviral load of infected individuals.

High herd-level seroprevalence and associated factors for bovine leukemia virus in the semi-arid Paraíba state, Northeast Region of Brazil

Epidemiological surveys that investigate infectious diseases such as enzootic bovine leukosis (EBL) are important. Furthermore, estimating the prevalence of such infectious diseases and associated factors is key to assess the disease impact and design control programs. In this study, we identified a high herd-level seroprevalence of EBL in cattle from the semi-arid Paraíba state, Northeast Region of Brazil, using a planned cross-sectional survey. Herd-level and animal-level prevalence were estimated using a two-stage random sampling survey. In total, 2067 cows aged ≥24 months from 400 herds were sampled. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was used to detect specific antibodies directed to the bovine leukosis virus gp51 antigen in both individual and pooled sera. The herd-level and animal-level prevalence was 23.4 % (95 % CI = 19.2-28.1 %) and 10.8 % (95 % CI = 7.5 %-15.3 %), respectively. There were no significant clusters of positive herds (within a radius of 2 km). The factors associated with herd-level prevalence were the exclusive use of hand milking (prevalence ratio [PR] = 1.88), herd size (PR = 1.005), artificial insemination (PR = 2.03), purchase of animals in the previous year (PR = 1.87), and peri-urban farms (PR = 2.09). Prevention measures should be applied at the herd-level, particularly for farms located in peri-urban areas, focusing on good hygiene in hand milking, robust practices and standards for artificial insemination, and serological testing of animals prior to purchase.

Current Developments in the Epidemiology and Control of Enzootic Bovine Leukosis as Caused by Bovine Leukemia Virus

Enzootic Bovine Leukosis (EBL) caused by the bovine leukemia virus (BLV) has been eradicated in over 20 countries. In contrast, the U.S. and many other nations are experiencing increasing prevalence in the absence of efforts to control transmission. Recent studies have shown that BLV infection in dairy cattle has a greater impact beyond the long-recognized lymphoma development that occurs in <5% of infected cattle. Like other retroviruses, BLV appears to cause multiple immune system disruptions, affecting both cellular and humoral immunity, which are likely responsible for increasingly documented associations with decreased dairy production and decreased productive lifespan. Realization of these economic losses has increased interest in controlling BLV using technology that was unavailable decades ago, when many nations eradicated BLV via traditional antibody testing and slaughter methods. This traditional control is not economically feasible for many nations where the average herd antibody prevalence is rapidly approaching 50%. The ELISA screening of cattle with follow-up testing via qPCR for proviral load helps prioritize the most infectious cattle for segregation or culling. The efficacy of this approach has been demonstrated in at least four herds. Breeding cattle for resistance to BLV disease progression also appears to hold promise, and several laboratories are working on BLV vaccines. There are many research priorities for a wide variety of disciplines, especially including the need to investigate the reports linking BLV and human breast cancer.

Bovine leukemia virus detection and dynamics following experimental inoculation

Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) infects more than 40% of the United States cattle population and impacts animal health and production. Control programs aiming to reduce disease prevalence and incidence depend on the ability to detect the BLV provirus, anti-BLV antibodies, and differences in blood lymphocyte counts following infection. These disease parameters also can be indicative of long-term disease progression. The objectives of this study were to determine the timing and to describe early fluctuations of BLV-detection by qPCR, ELISA, and lymphocyte counts. Fifteen Holstein steers were experimentally inoculated with 100 μL of a blood saline inoculum. Three steers served as in-pen negative controls and were housed with the experimentally infected steers to observe the potential for contract transmission. Five additional negative controls were housed separately. Steers were followed for 147 days post-inoculation (DPI). Infections were detected in experimentally infected steers by qPCR and ELISA an average of 24- and 36 DPI, respectively. Significant differences in lymphocyte counts between experimentally infected and control steers were observed from 30 to 45 DPI. Furthermore, a wide variation in peak proviral load and establishment was observed between experimentally infected steers. The results of this study can be used to inform control programs focused on the detection and removal of infectious cattle.

Changes in bovine leukemia virus serological status and lymphocyte count between dry-off and early lactation in Michigan dairy cows

This study addresses how the serological status of bovine leukemia virus (BLV) and lymphocyte count fluctuate from dry-off to early lactation in dairy cattle. Very few studies have investigated how BLV antibody status and lymphocyte count of cows changes longitudinally during the lactation cycle. Blood samples were collected from dairy cattle (n = 149) on 5 commercial dairy herds in Michigan at dry-off, close-up, and 7 to 10 d after calving. Plasma was analyzed for anti-BLV antibodies using a BLV-ELISA and whole blood was analyzed for lymphocyte counts. We found that BLV seroprevalence increased from dry-off (38.9%) to close-up (43.6%), then slightly decreased from close-up to 7 to 10 d after calving (43.0%). However, the change in seroprevalence was only significant from dry-off to close-up. Cows of third or higher parity were more likely to seroconvert than cows of lower parity and had the highest ELISA-negative prevalence of BLV. Lymphocyte counts were significantly higher in ELISA-positive animals, but only among second and third or greater parity animals. These results indicate that the use of lymphocyte counts as a disease severity monitoring tool for BLV should differ by parity group. Future studies should investigate if changes in seroprevalence are due to new infections or natural changes in antibody concentrations as the cow prepares for colostrum production. More accurate lymphocyte guidelines to be used for monitoring the progression of BLV should be created that consider parity and lactation stage.

Development and implementation of a risk assessment and management program for enzootic bovine leukosis in Atlantic Canada

Over the past 30 yr, the prevalence of bovine leukemia virus (BLV) infection has increased in North America, including Atlantic Canada, at both the herd and individual cow levels. This has occurred despite increased awareness of the disease and its deleterious effects and despite implementation of management practices aimed at reducing disease transmission. Our objectives were to identify risk factors associated with the within-herd prevalence of BLV-infected cows by using a risk assessment and management program workbook, as well as to determine the current level of BLV prevalence in the Atlantic Canada region. We hypothesized that previously established risk factors, including management practices associated with calf rearing and fly control, would affect within-herd BLV prevalence. Bulk tank milk (BTM) samples were collected in January and April of 2016 and again during the same months in 2017 and 2018 from all dairy farms shipping milk in the region. Samples were tested with ELISA for levels of anti-BLV antibodies to estimate within-herd prevalence. Regional BLV prevalence at the herd level was 88.39% of dairy herds infected in 2016 and 89.30% in 2018. All dairy farms shipping milk and who had BTM samples collected in 2017 (n = 605) were eligible to participate in the risk assessment and management program questionnaire (RAMP), which was developed and distributed to all bovine veterinarians in Atlantic Canada. One hundred and six RAMP were returned, with representation from all 4 provinces. The RAMP results were combined with the mean BTM ELISA results, and univariable logistic regression followed by multivariable logistic regression was performed to investigate the association between RAMP risk factors and the estimated within-herd BLV prevalence. Factors in the multivariable model significantly associated with the odds of a herd being classified as >25% estimated within-herd prevalence included history of diagnosis of clinical BLV and calves receiving colostrum from cows with unknown BLV status. Differences in within-herd prevalence were not associated with hypodermic needle and injection practices, rectal sleeve practices, or using bulls for natural breeding, based on these 106 dairy farms.

Herd management practices associated with bovine leukemia virus incidence rate in Michigan dairy farms

The objective of this study was to identify associations between herd management practices and the incidence rate of bovine leukemia virus (BLV) infections in Michigan dairy herds. Previous management risk factor studies were of antibody prevalence rather than the rate of recent infections. Milk samples were collected from cohorts of cows on 112 Michigan dairy herds and tested for BLV using an antibody capture ELISA (n = 3849 cows). Cows were subsequently followed for an average of 21 months. Cows negative for anti-BLV antibodies and still present in their respective herds were retested by the same antibody capture ELISA to estimate within-herd incidence rates. The overall crude incidence rate was 1.46 infections per 100 cow-months at risk for the 1314 retested cows in 107 herds. The average within-herd incidence rate was 2.28 infections per 100 cow-months (range: 0 to 9.76 infections per 100 cow-months). A negative binomial regression model was used to identify herd management practices associated with the within-herd incidence rate. Results of the final multivariable model identified higher herd prevalence, milking frequency, needle reuse, as well as housing post-parturient cows separately, to be associated with increased incidence rate. Utilization of sand bedding for the lactating herd was found to be associated with decreased incidence rates. Results of this study suggest potential routes of BLV transmission which should be further investigated as disease control targets in ongoing control programs.

New evidence of bovine leukemia virus circulating in Myanmar cattle through epidemiological and molecular characterization

Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) is the etiological agent of enzootic bovine leukosis, which is the most common neoplastic disease of cattle. BLV infects cattle worldwide and causes serious problems for the cattle industry. In this study, we examined the prevalence of BLV infection and the distribution of BLV genotypes in cattle in the northern, central, and southern parts of Myanmar. The prevalence of BLV infection among Myanmar cattle (37.04%) in this study was markedly higher than the prevalence (9.1%) observed in our earlier study in which BLV was detected from the limited number of cattle only from a small area of Myanmar. Phylogenetic analysis of partial env-gp51 sequence of the isolated BLV strains revealed that there are at least three BLV genotypes (genotype-1, genotype-6, and genotype-10) in Myanmar, which have also been detected in the neighboring countries. We performed this study to estimate the BLV proviral load, which is a major diagnosis index for determining the virus transmission risk. The cattle of the three test regions with warm, wet, and humid climatic conditions (upper Sagaing, Yangon, and Kayin) exhibited a high mean proviral load, while cattle of three other regions with low annual rainfall and very high temperature (Mandalay, Magway, and upper Bago) exhibited a low mean proviral load. Further, the level of proviral load and the prevalence of BLV infection in Myanmar native cattle (N = 235) were lower than that in the hybrid cattle (Holstein Friesian × Myanmar native) (N = 62). We also observed that the cattle with high risk for BLV transmission, which have high proviral load, may enhance the BLV infection rate. Hence, to control BLV transmission, it is necessary to eliminate these cattle with high-risk for BLV transmission and to diagnose BLV provirus in cattle in the remaining regions/states of Myanmar sharing a boundary with neighboring countries.

Microbiota in viral infection and disease in humans and farm animals

The influence of the microbiota on viral infection susceptibility and disease outcome is undisputable although varies among viruses. The purpose of understanding the interactions between microbiota, virus, and host is to identify practical, effective, and safe approaches that target microbiota for the prevention and treatment of viral diseases in humans and animals, as currently there are few effective and reliable antiviral therapies available. The initial step for achieving this goal is to gather clinical evidences, focusing on the viral pathogens-from human and animal studies-that have already been shown to interact with microbiota. The subsequent step is to identify mechanisms, through experimental evidences, to support the development of translational applications that target microbiota. In this chapter, we review evidences of virus infections altering microbiota and of microbiota enhancing or suppressing infectivity, altering host susceptibility to certain viral diseases, and influencing vaccine immunogenicity in humans and farm animals.

Examination of the fecal microbiota in dairy cows infected with bovine leukemia virus

Infection of cattle by bovine leukemia virus (BLV) causes significant economic losses in terms of milk and meat production in many countries. Because the gut microbiota may be altered by immunomodulation resulting from viral infections, we hypothesized that latent BLV infection would change the gut (i.e., rumen and hindgut) microbiota of infected cattle. In this study, we compared the gut microbiota of 22 uninfected and 29 BLV-infected Holstein-Friesian cows kept on the same farm, by 16S rRNA amplicon sequence analysis of fecal samples. First, we found that the fecal microbial diversity of BLV-infected cows differed slightly from that of uninfected cows. According to differential abundance analysis, some bacterial taxa associated with ruminal fermentation, such as Lachnospiraceae and Veillonellaceae families, were enriched in the fecal microbiota of uninfected cows. Second, the virus propagation ability of BLV strains was examined in vitro, and the correlation of the fecal microbiota with this virus propagation ability was analyzed. Higher virus propagation was shown to lead to less diversity in the microbiota. Differential abundance analysis showed that one bacterial taxon of genus Sanguibacteroides was negatively correlated with the virus propagation ability of BLV strains. Considering these results, BLV infection was speculated to decrease energy production efficiency in the cows via modification of rumen and hindgut microbiota, which partly relies on the virus propagation ability of BLV strains. This may explain the secondary negative effects of BLV infections such as increased susceptibility to other infections and decreased lifetime milk production and reproductive efficiency.

BLV: lessons on vaccine development

Vaccination against retroviruses is a challenge because of their ability to stably integrate into the host genome, undergo long-term latency in a proportion of infected cells and thereby escape immune response. Since clearance of the virus is almost impossible once infection is established, the primary goal is to achieve sterilizing immunity. Besides efficacy, safety is the major issue since vaccination has been associated with increased infection or reversion to pathogenicity. In this review, we discuss the different issues that we faced during the development of an efficient vaccine against bovine leukemia virus (BLV). We summarize the historical failures of inactivated vaccines, the efficacy and safety of a live-attenuated vaccine and the economical constraints of further industrial development.

Evaluation of a serum ELISA for detection of bovine leukemia viral antibodies in milk samples

Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) infection has worldwide distribution in both dairy and beef herds. Our study was initiated in order to encourage control of BLV infection by using milk samples, in lieu of serum samples, to readily test lactating animals prior to dry-off and calving. Two Holstein dairy herds (A and B), with known status of BLV infection as determined by serology, were sampled by the collection of serum and fresh milk samples. Selected samples were tested using a USDA-licensed BLV antibody ELISA kit (Bovine leukemia virus antibody test kit; VMRD, Pullman, WA) for serum. Forty-one lactating cows from each herd were sampled. Herd A was confirmed to have endemic BLV infection; herd B was confirmed to be free of BLV infection. The milk ELISA results demonstrated 100% identification of positive and negative animals compared with the serum results. The correlation of the ELISA values between serum and milk samples was 97%, which supports the use of this BLV ELISA on milk samples.

Bovine leukemia virus proviral load is more strongly associated with bovine major histocompatibility complex class II DRB3 polymorphism than with DQA1 polymorphism in Holstein cow in Japan

Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) causes enzootic bovine leukosis and is closely related to the human T-lymphotropic virus. Bovine major histocompatibility complex (BoLAs) are used extensively as markers of disease and immunological traits in cattle. For BLV diagnosis, proviral load is a major diagnosis index for the determination of disease progression and transmission risk. Therefore, we investigated the frequency of BoLA-DRB3 alleles, BoLA-DQA1 alleles, and haplotypes of BoLA class II isolated from the heads of 910 BLV-infected cows out of 1290 cows assessed from BLV-positive farms, in a nationwide survey from 2011 to 2014 in Japan. Our aim was to identify BoLA class II polymorphisms associated with the BLV proviral load in the Holstein cow. The study examined 569 cows with a high proviral load and 341 cows with a low proviral load. Using the highest odds ratio (OR) as a comparison index, we confirmed that BoLA-DRB3 was the best marker for determining which cow spread the BLV (OR 13.9 for BoLA-DRB3, OR 11.5 for BoLA-DQA1, and OR 6.2 for BoLA class II haplotype). In addition, DRB3*002:01, *009:02, *012:01, *014:01, and *015:01 were determined as BLV provirus associated alleles. BoLA-DRB3*002:01, *009:02, and *014:01 were determined as resistant alleles (OR > 1), and BoLA-DRB3*012:01 and *015:01 were determined as susceptible alleles (OR < 1). In this study, we showed that BoLA-DRB3 was a good marker for determining which cow spread BLV, and we found not only one resistant allele (BoLA-DRB3*009:02), but also two other disease-resistant alleles and two disease-susceptible alleles. This designation of major alleles as markers of susceptibility or resistance can allow the determination of the susceptibility or resistance of most cows to disease. Overall, the results of this study may be useful in eliminating BLV from farms without having to separate cows into several cowsheds.

Prevalence of Bovine Leukemia Virus Antibodies in US Dairy Cattle

OBJECTIVE

To estimate current US herd-level and animal-level prevalence of bovine leukemia virus (BLV) in dairy cows and characterize epidemiologic features.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional observational study design and survey.

ANIMALS

4120 dairy cows from 103 commercial dairy herds in 11 states across the US.

PROCEDURES

Milk samples were collected from dairy cows through routine commercial sampling and tested for anti-BLV antibodies by antibody capture ELISA. Based on the ELISA results of a sample of an average of 40 cows per herd, within-herd apparent prevalence (AP) was estimated by a directly standardized method and by a lactation-weighted method for each herd. Within-herd AP estimates were summarized to give estimates of US herd-level and animal-level AP. Differences in AP by lactation, region, state, breed, and herd size were examined to characterize basic epidemiologic features of BLV infection.

RESULTS

94.2% of herds had at least one BLV antibody positive cow detected. The average within-herd standardized AP was 46.5%. Lactation-specific AP increased with increasing lactation number, from 29.7% in first lactation cows to 58.9% in 4th and greater lactation cows. Significant differences were not observed based on region, state, breed, or herd size.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

These results are consistent with a historical trend of increasing prevalence of BLV among US dairy cattle. Given the findings of other studies on the negative impacts of BLV infection on milk production and cow longevity, these findings are clinically relevant for veterinarians counseling dairy clients on the risks of BLV to their herds.

Development of an indirect ELISA based on recombinant capsid protein to detect antibodies to bovine leukemia virus

Serological testing and culling infected animals are key management practices aiming eradication of bovine leukemia virus infection. Here, we report the development of an indirect ELISA based on BLV recombinant capsid protein (BLVp24r) to detect anti-BLV antibodies in cattle serum. The BLVp24r was expressed in Escherichia coli and purified by affinity chromatography, and then used to set up the ELISA parameters. The Polysorp® plate coated with 50ng of antigen/well and bovine serum diluted 1:100 gave the best results during standardization. Using sera from infected and non-infected cattle we set up the cutoff point at 0.320 (OD450nm) with a sensitivity of 98.5% and specificity of 100.0%. Then, we tested 1.187 serum samples from dairy (736 samples) and beef cattle (451 samples) with unknown status to BLV. We found that 31.1% (229/736) and 9.5% (43/451) of samples amongst dairy and beef cattle, respectively, had IgGs to BLV. The rate of agreement with a commercial competitive ELISA was 84.3% with a κ value of 0.68. Thus, our BLVp24r iELISA is suitable to detect BLV infected animals and should be a useful tool to control BLV infection in cattle.

Genome-wide scan for commons SNPs affecting bovine leukemia virus infection level in dairy cattle

BACKGROUND

Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) infection is omnipresent in dairy herds causing direct economic losses due to trade restrictions and lymphosarcoma-related deaths. Milk production drops and increase in the culling rate are also relevant and usually neglected. The BLV provirus persists throughout a lifetime and an inter-individual variation is observed in the level of infection (LI) in vivo. High LI is strongly correlated with disease progression and BLV transmission among herd mates. In a context of high prevalence, classical control strategies are economically prohibitive. Alternatively, host genomics studies aiming to dissect loci associated with LI are potentially useful tools for genetic selection programs tending to abrogate the viral spreading. The LI was measured through the proviral load (PVL) set-point and white blood cells (WBC) counts. The goals of this work were to gain insight into the contribution of SNPs (bovine 50KSNP panel) on LI variability and to identify genomics regions underlying this trait.

RESULTS

We quantified anti-p24 response and total leukocytes count in peripheral blood from 1800 cows and used these to select 800 individuals with extreme phenotypes in WBCs and PVL. Two case-control genomic association studies using linear mixed models (LMMs) considering population stratification were performed. The proportion of the variance captured by all QC-passed SNPs represented 0.63 (SE ± 0.14) of the phenotypic variance for PVL and 0.56 (SE ± 0.15) for WBCs. Overall, significant associations (Bonferroni's corrected -log10p > 5.94) were shared for both phenotypes by 24 SNPs within the Bovine MHC. Founder haplotypes were used to measure the linkage disequilibrium (LD) extent (r2 = 0.22 ± 0.27 at inter-SNP distance of 25-50 kb). The SNPs and LD blocks indicated genes potentially associated with LI in infected cows: i.e. relevant immune response related genes (DQA1, DRB3, BOLA-A, LTA, LTB, TNF, IER3, GRP111, CRISP1), several genes involved in cell cytoskeletal reorganization (CD2AP, PKHD1, FLOT1, TUBB5) and modelling of the extracellular matrix (TRAM2, TNXB). Host transcription factors (TFs) were also highlighted (TFAP2D; ABT1, GCM1, PRRC2A).

CONCLUSIONS

Data obtained represent a step forward to understand the biology of BLV-bovine interaction, and provide genetic information potentially applicable to selective breeding programs.

In vitro and in vivo antivirus activity of an anti-programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) rat-bovine chimeric antibody against bovine leukemia virus infection

Programmed death-1 (PD-1), an immunoinhibitory receptor on T cells, is known to be involved in immune evasion through its binding to PD-ligand 1 (PD-L1) in many chronic diseases. We previously found that PD-L1 expression was upregulated in cattle infected with bovine leukemia virus (BLV) and that an antibody that blocked the PD-1/PD-L1 interaction reactivated T-cell function in vitro. Therefore, this study assessed its antivirus activities in vivo. First, we inoculated the anti-bovine PD-L1 rat monoclonal antibody 4G12 into a BLV-infected cow. However, this did not induce T-cell proliferation or reduction of BLV provirus loads during the test period, and only bound to circulating IgM⁺ B cells until one week post-inoculation. We hypothesized that this lack of in vivo effects was due to its lower stability in cattle and so established an anti-PD-L1 rat-bovine chimeric antibody (Boch4G12). Boch4G12 was able to bind specifically with bovine PD-L1, interrupt the PD-1/PD-L1 interaction, and activate the immune response in both healthy and BLV-infected cattle in vitro. Therefore, we experimentally infected a healthy calf with BLV and inoculated it intravenously with 1 mg/kg of Boch4G12 once it reached the aleukemic (AL) stage. Cultivation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) isolated from the tested calf indicated that the proliferation of CD4⁺ T cells was increased by Boch4G12 inoculation, while BLV provirus loads were significantly reduced, clearly demonstrating that this treatment induced antivirus activities. Therefore, further studies using a large number of animals are required to support its efficacy for clinical application.

Single nucleotide polymorphisms in the bovine MHC region of Japanese Black cattle are associated with bovine leukemia virus proviral load

Bovine leukemia virus (BLV) is the causative agent of enzootic bovine leukosis, a malignant B cell lymphoma that has spread worldwide and causes serious problems for the cattle industry. The BLV proviral load, which represents the BLV genome integrated into host genome, is a useful index for estimating disease progression and transmission risk. Here, we conducted a genome-wide association study to identify single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with BLV proviral load in Japanese Black cattle. The study examined 93 cattle with a high proviral load and 266 with a low proviral load. Three SNPs showed a significant association with proviral load. One SNP was detected in the CNTN3 gene on chromosome 22, and two (which were not in linkage disequilibrium) were detected in the bovine major histocompatibility complex region on chromosome 23. These results suggest that polymorphisms in the major histocompatibility complex region affect proviral load. This is the first report to detect SNPs associated with BLV proviral load in Japanese Black cattle using whole genome association study, and understanding host factors may provide important clues for controlling the spread of BLV in Japanese Black cattle.