Influence of ochratoxin A and T-2 toxin singly and in combination on broiler chickens

Effects of T-2 toxin on growth performance, feather quality, tibia development and blood parameters in Yangzhou goslings

T-2 toxin is a dangerous natural pollutant and widely exists in animal feed, often causing toxic damage to poultry, such as slow growth and development, immunosuppression, and death. Although geese are considered the most sensitive poultry to T-2 toxin, the exact damage caused by T-2 toxin to geese is elusive. In the present study, a total of forty two 1-day-old healthy Yangzhou male goslings were randomly allotted seven diets contaminated with 0, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, or 2.0 mg/kg T-2 toxin for 21 d, and the effects of T-2 toxin exposure on growth performance, feather quality, tibia development, and blood parameters were investigated. The results showed that T-2 toxin exposure significantly inhibited feed intake, body weight gain, shank length growth, and organ development (e.g., ileum, cecum, liver, spleen, bursa, and tibia) in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, the more serious feathering abnormalities and feather damage were observed in goslings exposed to a high dose of T-2 toxin (0.8, 1.0, and 2.0 mg/kg), which were mainly sparsely covered with short, dry, rough, curly, and gloss-free feathers on the back. We also found that hypertrophic chondrocytes of the tibial growth plate exhibited abnormal morphology and nuclear consolidation or loss, accompanied by necrosis and excessive apoptosis under 2.0 mg/kg T-2 toxin exposure. Moreover, 2.0 mg/kg T-2 toxin exposure triggered erythropenia, thrombocytosis, alanine aminotransferase, and aspartate aminotransferase activity, as well as high blood urea nitrogen, uric acid, and lactic dehydrogenase levels. Collectively, these data indicate that T-2 toxin had an adverse effect on the growth performance, feather quality, and tibia development, and caused liver and kidney damage and abnormal blood parameters in Yangzhou goslings, providing crucial information toward the prevention and control of T-2 toxin contamination in poultry feed.

Differential Effects of Green Tea Powders on the Protection of Brown Tsaiya and Kaiya Ducklings against Trichothecene T-2 Toxin Toxicity

Simple Summary

The objective of this study is to examine the effects of T-2 toxin (T-2) and green tea powders (GTP) on growth performance, hematology, and pathology parameters in Brown Tsaiya ducklings (BTDs) and Kaiya ducklings (KDs). T-2 toxin shows a strong and differential toxicity in growth suppression, as well as abnormalities in the hematological and pathological parameters of BTDs and KDs. We found that GTP could potentially prevent T-2-induced poor growth performance and improve some hematological parameters. Moreover, BTDs were more sensitive than KDs in terms of responses to T-2 toxicity and GTP detoxification.

Abstract

A 3-week feeding trial in a 3 × 2 × 2 factorial design was conducted with three concentrations (0, 0.5, and 5 mg/kg) of T-2 toxin (T-2) and two levels (0% and 0.5%) of green tea powder (GTP) supplements used in the diets of female brown Tsaiya ducklings (BTDs) and Kaiya ducklings (KDs), respectively. Breed had a significant effect on the growth performances and the relative weights of organs and carcass. In general, the growth performances of KDs were better than BTDs. The relative weights of organs and carcass of BTDs were typically heavier than those of KDs; however, the breast of KDs was heavier than those of BTDs. Both ducklings received 5 mg/kg of T-2 blended in the diet showed lower feed intake and body weight gain (BWG) in the second and the third week. The diet containing 5 mg/kg of T-2 and 0.5% GTP improved the BWG compared to those fed the diet supplemented with 5 mg/kg of T-2 without GTP in BTDs. Ducklings fed the diet containing 5 mg/kg of T-2 induced hypocalcemia and hypomagnesemia, as well as decreased concentrations of creatine phosphokinase and alkaline phosphatase. The concentrations of blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase (GOT) were increased in KDs and BTDs fed the diet containing 5 mg/kg of T-2 without GTP, respectively. However, duckling diets containing 5 mg/kg of T-2 with 0.5% GTP lowered concentrations of BUN and GOT in the blood plasma of KDs and BTDs, respectively. The diet containing 5 mg/kg of T-2 increased the relative kidney weight but decreased the relative breast weight of ducklings. Enlarged gizzards and reduced relative leg weights were observed in BTDs fed the diets containing 5 mg/kg of T-2. In summary, BTDs are more sensitive than KDs in responding to T-2 toxicity and GTP detoxification. Green tea powder has detoxification ability and could potentially mitigate T-2 toxicity on BWG, BUN, and GOT in ducklings.

Influence of Saccharomyces cerevisiae to ameliorate adverse effects of ochratoxin on biochemical profile and immune response in broiler chickens

To establish the ochratoxicosis ameliorating efficacy of dietary Saccharomyces cerevisiae (SC), day-old broiler chicks (240) were divided into 6 treatment groups (T1, control (basal diet); T2, T1 + 200 ppb OTA; T3, T1 + 0.05% SC; T4, T1 + 0.1% SC; T5, T2 + 0.05% SC and T6, T2 + 0.1% SC). Each diet was fed to 5 replicated groups of 8 birds each from 1 to 42 days of age. The total serum protein and haemoglobin (Hb) in T2 and T5 were lower than that of control (T1). The serum protein and Hb content in group T6 was higher than that of T2 and statistically similar to that of control. The serum uric acid, creatinine, ALP, SGOT, SGPT and H/L ratio in ochratoxin fed group (T2) was higher than that of T1. The serum uric acid, creatinine, ALP, SGOT, SGPT and H/L ratio in T6 was lower than that of T2 and statistically similar to that of T1. The CMI and HA titre value in ochratoxin fed group (T2) was lower than that of T1. The CMI and HA titre value in T5 and T6 was lower than T1 but higher than T2. It was concluded that ochratoxin contamination at 200 ppb level in broiler diet altered the biochemical parameters and immune response. Inclusion of Saccharomyces cerevisiae at 0.1% level to the ochratoxin contaminated diet ameliorated the adverse effects of ochratoxicosis on biochemical parameters and immune response of broiler chickens.

Associated efficiency of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and vitamin E in ameliorating adverse effects of ochratoxin A on biochemical profile and immune response in broiler chickens

The associated efficacy of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and vitamin E, in ameliorating ochratoxicosis was investigated in broiler chickens. Day-old broiler chicks (320) were divided into 8 treatment groups, viz. T1 (control; basal diet); T2 (T1 + 150 ppb OTA); T3 (T2 + 0.05% SC + 100 mg vitamin E-VE); T4 (T2 + 0.075% SC + 100 mg VE); T5 (T2 + 0.1% SC + 100 mg VE); T6 (T2 + 0.05% SC + 200 mg VE); T7 (T2 + 0.075% SC + 200 mg VE) and T8 (T2 + 0.1% SC + 200 mg VE/kg diet). Each diet was fed to 5 replicated groups of 8 birds from 0–42 days of age. The total serum protein, cholesterol and haemoglobin content of control group (T1) was higher than that of ochratoxin fed group (T2). The serum protein, cholesterol and haemoglobin value in groups T5, T7 and T8 was higher than T2 but statistically similar to that of control. The serum uric acid, creatinine, ALP, SGOT, SGPT and H/L ratio value in T1 was lower than that of T2. The uric acid, creatinine, ALP, SGOT, SGPT and H/L ratio value in T5, T7 and T8 was lower than T2 and statistically similar to that of control. The CMI and HA titre value of T1 was higher than that of T2. The CMI and HA titre value in T5, T7 and T8 was higher than that of T2 but statistically similar to that of control. It can be concluded that ochratoxin contamination at the rate of 150 ppb in the feed resulted in decreased total serum protein, cholesterol and haemoglobin content and increased serum uric acid, creatinine, ALP, SGOT, SGPT and H/L ratio value. Inclusion of Saccharomyces cerevisiae at 0.1% level along with 100 mg vitamin E or Saccharomyces cerevisiae at 0.075% level along with 200 mg vitamin E/kg diet to the ochratoxin (150 ppb) contaminated feed ameliorated the adverse effects of ochratoxicosis on biochemical profile and immune response in broiler chickens.

Effects of L-lysine·H2SO4 product on the intestinal morphology and liver pathology using broiler model

Background

Lysine is used widely in livestock production due to the shortage of feed protein resources. L-lysine·H₂SO₄ contains L-lysine sulphate as well as fermentation co-products which contain other amino acids and phosphorus. However, there are few articles about L-lysine·H₂SO₄ product regarding intestinal morphology and liver pathology of broiler chickens. In this article, we focus on the absorption and metabolism of L-lysine·H₂SO₄ revealed in the variation of intestinal morphology and liver pathology to determine the tolerance of chicks for L-lysine·H₂SO₄.

Methods

To evaluate the tolerance of broilers for L-lysine·H₂SO₄, 240 one day old broilers were allocated randomly to one of five dietary treatments which included corn-soybean diets containing 0, 1%, 4%, 7% or 10% L-lysine·H₂SO₄ (L-lysine content = 55%).

Results

Supplementation of 1% L-lysine·H₂SO₄ in the diet had no negative effects. However, 4%, 7% or 10% L-lysine·H₂SO₄ supplementation produced negative responses on broiler performance, carcass characteristics, blood biochemistry, and particularly on intestinal morphology and liver pathology compared with broilers fed the control diet.

Conclusion

Our results show that supplementation with 1% L-lysine·H₂SO₄ had no negative effects on performance, carcass characteristics, blood biochemistry, intestinal morphology and liver pathology in broilers, but supplementation with 4%, 7% or 10% L-lysine·H₂SO₄ produced a negative response, particularly with respect to intestinal morphology and liver pathology.

Associated efficiency of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and vitamin E in ameliorating adverse effects of ochratoxin A on production performance in broiler chickens

In the present study, efficiency of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and vitamin E together in ameliorating ochratoxicosis in broiler chickens was investigated. Day-old broiler chicks (320) were divided into 8 treatment groups (T1- control (basal diet); T2- T1+ 150 ppb OTA; T3-T2 + 0.05% SC + 100 mg vitamin E-VE; T4- T2 + 0.075% SC + 100 mg VE; T5- T2 + 0.1% SC + 100 mg VE; T6- T2 + 0.05% SC + 200 mg VE; T7- T2 + 0.075% SC + 200 mg VE; T8- T2 + 0.1% SC + 200 mg VE per kg diet). Each diet was fed to 5 replicated groups of 8 birds from 0 to 42 days of age. During overall growth period (0–6 weeks), the body weight gain (BWG) of birds fed ochratoxin contaminated diet (T2) was lower than that of control group (T1). The BWG of group T5, T7 and T8 was higher than T2 but statistically similar to that of control. During overall growth period, the FI in control group was statistically similar to other treatment groups. The FI in groups T7 and T8 was higher than that of group received basal diet with toxin (T2). The overall FCR in control group (T1) was lower than that of T2. The FCR in groups T3, T4 and T6 was higher than the control, but lower than that of T2. The FCR in groups T5, T7 and T8 was lower than T2 and statistically similar to that of control (T1).The overall liveability percentage in control group (T1) was higher than that of ochratoxin fed group (T2). The liveability percentage in group T3 was lower than control and similar to that of T2. The liveability percentage in groups T4 to T8 was statistically similar to that of control. Ochratoxin contamination in diet caused significant reduction in body weight gain, feed consumption, feed efficiency and livability percentage. It was concluded that inclusion of S. cerevisiae at 0.1% level along with 100 mg vitamin E per kg diet or S. cerevisiae at 0.075% level along with 200 mg vitamin E/kg diet to the ochratoxin (150 ppb) contaminated feed ameliorated the adverse effects of ochratoxicosis on production performance of broiler chickens.

Role of Glutathione Redox System on the T-2 Toxin Tolerance of Pheasant (Phasianus colchicus)

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the effects of different dietary concentrations of T-2 toxin on blood plasma protein content, lipid peroxidation and glutathione redox system of pheasant (Phasianus colchicus). A total of 320 one-day-old female pheasants were randomly assigned to four treatment groups fed with a diet contaminated with different concentrations of T-2 toxin (control, 4 mg/kg, 8 mg/kg and 16 mg/kg). Birds were sacrificed at early (12, 24 and 72 hr) and late (1, 2 and 3 weeks) stages of the experiment to demonstrate the effect of T-2 toxin on lipid peroxidation and glutathione redox status in different tissues. Feed refusal and impaired growth were observed with dose dependent manner. Lipid-peroxidation was not induced in the liver, while the glutathione redox system was activated partly in the liver, but primarily in the blood plasma. Glutathione peroxidase activity has changed parallel with reduced glutathione concentration in all tissues. Based on our results, pheasants seem to have higher tolerance to T-2 toxin than other avian species, and glutathione redox system might contribute in some extent to this higher tolerance, in particular against free-radical mediated oxidative damage of tissues, such as liver.

Revisión: Implicaciones toxicológicas y nutricionales de la toxina T-2 / Review: Toxicological and nutritional implications of T-2 toxin

Trichothecenes are mycotoxins produced by species of the genus Fusarium. These toxins are associated with health problems in humans and animals. The most common trichothecenes in cereals are deoxynivalenol, HT-2 toxin, diacetoxyscirpenol, nivalenol, neosolaniol and T-2 toxin; the latter is the most widely studied because it is easy to produce in the laboratory. The effects of T-2 toxicosis include dermatonecrosis, reduced body weight and efficiency of food utilization, severe diarrhoea, haemorrhage, necrosis of the upper alimentary tract, anaemia, immuno suppression ; and in birds, poor feathering. This paper reviews the latest information about the occurrence, chemical characteristics, toxicity, metabolic alterations, biotransformation and detoxifi cation methods of the T-2 toxin.

Experimental pathology of T-2 toxicosis and mycoplasma infection on performance and hepatic functions of broiler chickens

This experiment was conducted using 192 day-old Ross 308 chicks, divided into 4 groups of 4 replicate consisting 48 birds. Group I was fed a control diet, Group II was fed control diet supplemented with 0.5 ppm T-2 toxin for 5 weeks, Group III was fed control diet supplemented with 8 × 10(8) cfu/mL of Mycoplasma gallisepticum, and group IV was fed control diet supplemented by T-2 toxin and Mycoplasma gallisepticum. Body weight and feed conversation ratio (FCR), relative organ weights, clinical signs, biochemical characteristics, and gross and histopathological lesions were recorded in the experimental groups at the end of the second and fifth weeks of age. Body weight and relative weights of bursa of Fabricius, thymus, and spleen decreased and FCR increased significantly (P ≤ 0.05), but the relative weights of liver and kidney showed no significant decrease (P ≤ 0.05) in the serum total proteins, albumin, and increase in aspartate aminotransferase and alanine transaminase were observed in T-2 toxin and T-2 accompanied with Mycoplasma fed birds when compared to the control group. Liver was enlarged, friable, and yellowish discoloration with distended gall bladder was noticed. Lymphoid organs such as bursa of Fabricius, thymus, and spleen were atrophied in group II and group IV throughout the study. Microscopically, liver showed vacuolar degeneration of hepatocytes, with increased Kupffer cell activity, bile duct epithelial hyperplasia, and infiltration of inflammatory cells. Kidney showed vacuolar degeneration of tubular epithelium along with pyknotic nuclei. Lymphoid organs showed lymphocytolysis and depletion with prominent reticuloepithelial cells. Proventriculus revealed desquamation of villous epithelial cells and lymphoid infiltration in submucosa. Heart showed mild hemorrhage with infiltration of inflammatory cells. Lung showed edema and inflammatory cells in the bronchioles. Trachea showed desquamation and erosions of mucosa. Proliferation of mucosal glands with increased mucous secretion was obvious. Air sacs showed thickening with presence of inflammatory cells and edema.

Meta-analysis of the relationship of mycotoxins with biochemical and hematological parameters in broilers

A meta-analysis was carried out to study the association of mycotoxins with hematological and biochemical profiles in broilers. Ninety-eight articles published between 1980 and 2009 were used in the database, totaling 37,371 broilers. The information was selected from the Materials and Methods and Results sections in the selected articles and then tabulated in a database. Meta-analysis followed 3 sequential analyses: graphic, correlation, and variance-covariance. Mycotoxins reduced (P < 0.05) the hematocrit (-5%), hemoglobin (-15%), leukocytes (-25%), heterophils (-2%), lymphocytes (-2%), uric acid (-31%), creatine kinase (-27%), creatinine (-23%), triglycerides (-39%), albumin (-17%), globulin (-1%), total cholesterol (-14%), calcium (-5%), and inorganic phosphorus (-12%). Mycotoxins also altered (P < 0.05) the concentrations of alkaline phosphatase, alanine aminotransferase, and aspartate aminotransferase. A quadratic effect was observed on the relationship between the concentration of aflatoxin in diets and the serum concentration of alkaline phosphatase, γ-glutamyl transferase, alanine aminotransferase, and aspartate aminotransferase. The total protein concentration in blood was 18% lower (P < 0.05) in broilers challenged by aflatoxins compared with that of the unchallenged ones. The inclusion of antimycotoxin additives in diets with aflatoxins altered (P < 0.05) some variables (uric acid, creatinine, alkaline phosphatase, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, and γ-glutamyl transferase) in relation to the group that received diets with the mycotoxin and without the additive. The meta-analysis performed in this study allowed us to address and quantify systematically the relationship of mycotoxins with alterations in hematologic and biochemical profiles in broilers.

Mycotoxin co-contamination of food and feed: meta-analysis of publications describing toxicological interactions

Most fungi are able to produce several mycotoxins simultaneously; moreover food and feed can be contaminated by several fungi species at the same time. Thus, humans and animals are generally not exposed to one mycotoxin but to several toxins at the same time. Most of the studies concerning the toxicological effect of mycotoxins have been carried out taking into account only one mycotoxin. In the present review, we analysed 112 reports where laboratory or farm animals were exposed to a combination of mycotoxins, and we determined for each parameter measured the type of interaction that was observed. Most of the published papers concern interactions with aflatoxins and other mycotoxins, especially fumonisins, ochratoxin A and trichothecenes. A few papers also investigated the interaction between ochratoxin A and citrinin, or between different toxins from Fusarium species. Only experiments with a 2×2 factorial design with individual and combined effects of the mycotoxins were selected. Based on the raw published data, we classified the interactions in four different categories: synergistic, additive, less than additive or antagonistic effects. This review highlights the complexity of mycotoxins interactions which varies according to the animal species, the dose of toxins, the length of exposure, but also the parameters measured.

Ochratoxin A in feed of food-producing animals: an undesirable mycotoxin with health and performance effects

Mycotoxins are secondary fungal metabolites, whose presence in feed- and foodstuffs is unavoidable. Ochratoxin A (OTA) is one of the known mycotoxins with greatest public health and agro-economic significance. Several toxic effects have been ascribed following exposure, namely nephrotoxicity, as well negative impacts in the performance of farm animals, resulting in major economic implications. Of no less importance for the route of human exposure that can also embody the carry-over of OTA from feed into animal-derived products is also a concern. For all these reasons the present article updates the worldwide occurrence of OTA in different raw ingredients and finished feed destined to food-producing animals. After that a brief characterization of specie susceptibility and the major rationales is made. An historical overview of field outbreaks linked to OTA exposure in farm animals, concerning the implicated feeds, contamination levels and major clinical and productivity effects is presented. Finally a review of the major animal health and performance potential impacts of animals being reared on contaminated feed is made allied to a perspective regarding its co-occurrence with other mycotoxins, and simultaneous parasitic and bacterial infections. Ultimately, this article aims to be instructive and draw attention to a mycotoxin so often neglected and elapsed from the list of differential diagnosis in farm practice. For the unpredictability and unavoidability of occurrence, OTA will definitely be an enduring problem in animal production.

Use ofTrichosporon mycotoxinivoransto suppress the effects of ochratoxicosis on the immune system of broiler chicks

(1) The objective of this study was to determine whether the dietary inclusion of Trichosporon mycotoxinivorans (TRM) could suppress the detrimental effects of ochratoxin A (OTA) on the immune system of broiler chicks. (2) Six experimental treatments were tested in 300 1-d-old broiler chicks. Treatments included addition to a standard broiler ration of neither OTA nor TRM (Diet 1), OTA alone (500 microg/kg), OTA plus TRM at three inclusion rates (10(4) CFU/g of feed, 10(5) CFU/g, 10(6) CFU/g) and TRM alone at 10(5) CFU/g of feed. The ration was fed to chicks for 42 d. (3) Blood samples were collected at d 10, 20, 30 and 40 and macrophages and heterophils were isolated. The following variables were determined in macrophages and heterophils activated by phorbol myristate acetate (65 microM): cell viability, total cell-associated urokinase-plasminogen activator (u-PA), membrane-bound u-PA, free u-PA binding sites and superoxide production. (4) There was a decrease in the viability of macrophages and heterophils from chicks receiving OTA-contaminated feed compared to the viability of cells from control birds at d 40. Dietary TRM completely blocked the effect of OTA on cell viability; all three inclusion rates were equally effective. There was a decrease in total cell-associated and membrane-bound u-PA in macrophages and heterophils of chicks receiving OTA-contaminated feed compared to the corresponding values in control birds for heterophils at d 30 and 40 and for the macrophages at d 40. (5) Similarly, dietary TRM abolished the effect of OTA on total cell-associated and membrane-bound u-PA activity. All three inclusion rates of yeast were equally effective. Heterophils, but not macrophages, isolated from chicks receiving OTA-contaminated diet produced less superoxide anion compared to all other diet groups at d 30 and 40. (6) The immune system is a primary target of OTA toxicity in broilers: several functional properties of macrophages and heterophils were depressed in chicks fed OTA-contaminated feed. There was a delay of 30d before the immunosuppressive effect became apparent. The dietary inclusion of TRM completely blocked the detrimental effects of OTA on several immune properties in broilers.

Effects of ochratoxin a on livestock production

Ochratoxin A (OTA) contamination often causes large economic losses on livestock production. The intake of feed contaminated by OTA also represents a potential risk for animal health and a food safety issue due to the transfer of the toxin through the food chain to humans. The aim of this paper is to review the available literature on: (1) the frequency and degree of occurrence of OTA in different feedstuffs; (2) the toxicological effects of OTA intake on the performance of the main livestock (i.e., poultry, swine, cattle, goats and sheep); and (3) the transfer of OTA, or its metabolites, from animal feed into animal products such as milk, meat and eggs.

Occurrence of mycotoxins in feed as analyzed by a multi-mycotoxin LC-MS/MS method

Crops used for animal feed can be easily contaminated by fungi during growth, harvest, or storage, resulting in the occurrence of mycotoxins. Because animal feed plays an important role in the food safety chain, the European Commission has set maximum levels for aflatoxin B1 and recommended maximum levels for deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, ochratoxin A, and the sum of fumonisin B1 and B2. A multimycotoxin LC-MS/MS method was developed, validated according to Commission Decision 2002/657/EC and EN ISO 17025 accredited for the simultaneous detection of 23 mycotoxins (aflatoxin-B1, aflatoxin-B2, aflatoxin-G1, aflatoxin-G2, ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, fumonisin B1, fumonisin B2, fumonisin B3, T2-toxin, HT2-toxin, nivalenol, 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, 15-acetyldeoxynivalenol, diacetoxyscirpenol, fusarenon-X, neosolaniol, altenuene, alternariol, alternariol methyl ether, roquefortine-C, and sterigmatocystin) in feed. The decision limits of the multimycotoxin method varied from 0.7 to 60.6 microg/kg. The apparent recovery and the results of the precision study fulfilled the performance criteria as set in Commission Decision 2002/657/EC. The analysis of three different feed matrices (sow feed, wheat, and maize) provided a good basis for the evaluation of the toxin exposure in animal production. In total, 67 samples out of 82 (82%) were contaminated; type B-trichothecenes and fumonisins occurred most often. The majority of the infected feed samples (75%) were contaminated with more than one type of mycotoxin.

Effect of combined treatment with aflatoxin B1 and T-2 toxin and metabolites on some production traits and lipid peroxide status parameters of broiler chickens

Three groups of cockerels were fed with a control diet, with a diet contaminated with T-2 and HT-2 toxin (0.31 and 0.26 mg/kg) or with that containing a combination of T-2 and HT-2 toxin (0.32 and 0.25 mg/kg) and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1, 0.38 mg/kg) for 21 days. Body weight gain and feed conversion ratio did not differ significantly among the groups. Malondialdehyde concentration of the liver was lower in the group fed the diet contaminated with the combination of T-2 + HT-2 toxin and aflatoxin B1 as compared to the control group or the group fed T-2 + HT-2 toxins. Reduced glutathione (GSH) content of the liver was lower in the T-2 + HT-2 group than in the group fed a combination of T-2, HT-2 and aflatoxin. Reduced glutathione content of the heart was higher in the T-2 + HT-2 group than in the control group. Mycotoxin contamination had no effect on glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) activity in comparison to the control, but significantly lower GSH-Px activity was found in the heart of chickens in the T-2 + HT-2 + AFB1 group than in the T-2 + HT-2 group. In this study, T-2 + HT-2 toxin and aflatoxin B1 contamination of the diets did not affect the production traits adversely and did not exert additive effects on lipid peroxidation and on the glutathione redox system.

Plasma haptoglobin and immunoglobulins as diagnostic indicators of deoxynivalenol intoxication

This study aimed to discover potential biomarkers for dioxynivalenol (DON) intoxication. B6C3F1 male mice were orally exposed to 0.83, 2.5 and 7.5 mg/kg body weight (bw) DON for 8 days and the differential protein expressions in their blood plasma were determined by SELDI - Time-of-Flight/Mass Spectrometry (TOF/MS) and the immunoglobulins (Igs) G, A, M and E in the serum were investigated. 11.7 kDa protein was significantly highly expressed according to DON administration and this protein was purified by employing a methyl ceramic HyperD F column with using optimization buffer for adsorption and desorption. The purified protein was identified as a haptoglobin precursor by peptide mapping with using LC/Q-TOF/MS and MALDI-TOF/MS and this was confirmed by western blotting and ELISA. IgG and IgM in serum were decreased in a dose-dependent manner and IgA was decreased at 7.5 mg/kg bw DON administration, but the IgE level was not changed. To compare the expressions of haptoglobin and the Igs patterns between aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), zearalenone (ZEA) and DON intoxications, rats were orally administered with AFB1 1.0, ZEA 240 and DON 7.5 mg/kg bw for 8 days. Haptoglobin was increased only at DON 7.5 mg/kg bw, while it was slightly decreased at ZEA 240 mg/kg bw and it was not detected at all at AFB1 1.0 mg/kg bw. IgG and IgA were decreased by DON, but IgG, IgA, IgM and IgE were all increased by AFB1. No changes were observed by ZEA administration. These results show that plasma haptoglobin could be a diagnostic biomarker for DON intoxication when this is combined with examining the serum Igs.

Toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics of ochratoxin A, an update

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin produced by fungi of two genera: Penicillium and Aspergillus. OTA has been shown to be nephrotoxic, hepatotoxic, teratogenic and immunotoxic to several species of animals and to cause kidney and liver tumours in mice and rats. Because of differences in the physiology of animal species, wide variations are seen in the toxicokinetic patterns of absorption, distribution and elimination of the toxin. Biotransformation of OTA has not been entirely elucidated. At present, data regarding OTA metabolism are controversial. Several metabolites have been characterized in vitro and/or in vivo, whereas other metabolites remain to be characterized. Several major mechanisms have been shown as involved in the toxicity of OTA: inhibition of protein synthesis, promotion of membrane peroxidation, disruption of calcium homeostasis, inhibition of mitochondrial respiration and DNA damage. The contribution of metabolites in OTA genotoxicity and carcinogenicity is still unclear. The genotoxic status of OTA is still controversial because contradictory results were obtained in various microbial and mammalian tests, notably regarding the formation of DNA adducts. More recent studies are focused on the OTA ability to disturb cellular signalling and regulation, to modulate physiological signals and thereby to influence cells viability and proliferation. The present paper offers an update on these different issues. In addition since humans and animals are likely to be simultaneously exposed to several mycotoxins, especially through their diet, the little information available on the combined effects of OTA and other mycotoxins has also been reviewed.

Effects of deoxynivalenol on general performance and electrophysiological properties of intestinal mucosa of broiler chickens

A feeding trial was conducted to evaluate the effects of diets contaminated with deoxynivalenol (DON on the performance of broilers and on the electro-physiological parameters of the gut. The control group was fed the starter and finisher diets without addition of DON. Another group of broilers was fed the starter and finisher diets with 10 mg/kg DON, whereas another group was fed the DON-contaminated diets supplemented with a microbial feed additive (Eubacterium sp.). The diets were provided ad libitum for 6 wk. DON had no effect (P > 0.05) on feed consumption, feed conversion, or body weight. The effect of DON on the electrophysiological parameters of the jejunum was studied in vitro using isolated gut mucosa in Ussing chambers. At the end of the feeding period, 7 birds from each group were killed, and the basal and glucose stimulated transmural potential difference (PD), short-circuit current (Isc), and electrical resistance (R) were measured in the isolated gut mucosa to characterize the electrical properties of the gut. The transmural PD did not differ (P > 0.05) among groups. The tissue resistance was greater (P < 0.05) in birds receiving DON and the microbial feed additive than in the controls and DON group. Addition of D-glucose on the luminal side of the isolated mucosa increased (P < 0.05) Isc in the control and DON-probiotic (Eubacterium sp.; PB) groups, whereas it decreased (P < 0.05) in the DON group indicating that the glucose-induced Isc was altered by DON. Addition of the eubacteria to the DON contaminated feed of the broilers led to electrophysiological properties in the gut that were comparable with those of the control group. It could be concluded that 10 mg/kg DON in the diet impaired the Na(+)-D-glucose cotransport in the jejunum of broilers. In the absence of clinical signs, and without impaired performance, DON appeared to alter the gut function of broilers. The addition of Eubacterium sp. may be useful in counteracting the toxic effects of DON on intestinal glucose transport.

Evaluation of Two Mycotoxin Binders to Reduce Toxicity of Broiler Diets Containing Ochratoxin A and T-2 Toxin Contaminated Grain

In order to assess ochratoxin A (OA) and T-2 toxin (T-2) binding ability of two commercial sorbents, both in vitro and in vivo trials with broilers were performed. Crude OA and T-2 extracts from contaminated grain were used to assess in vitro binding ability of two sorbents (Zeotek [Zk] and Mycofix [Mx]), by quantifying free mycotoxin through an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) test. For in vivo trial, a 3 x 2 x 2 factorial arrangement was used for this experiment, being the factors: adsorbents (none, Zk, and Mx), OA (0 and 567 parts per billion [ppb]) and T-2 (0 and 927 ppb). OA and T-2 contaminated wheat and corn, respectively, were added to sorghum-soybean meal diets to meet 567 ppb of OA and 927 ppb of T-2. Mycotoxins were fed alone or combined in treatments. After 21 days, blood chemistry, gross, and histological evaluations were performed. Relative weights of liver, kidney, and bursa of Fabricius were obtained. Zk had the highest OA and T-2 in vitro binding ability (100% and 8.67%, respectively). Chickens fed OA with or without sorbents had a lower body weight and feed intake reduction. However, those birds fed T-2 were partly protected by a sorbent. Birds fed both toxins showed toxic additive effects, and no protection of any adsorbent was observed. A significant reduction in plasma proteins, albumin, and globulins was a characteristic observed in all birds fed diets with OA both with or without adsorbents. Uric acid level in blood was increased in all chickens fed OA-contaminated diets. Histological findings observed in birds fed OA-contaminated diets were necrosis of kidney tubular cells, swollen and necrotic hepatocytes, bile ducts hyperplasia, and increased diameter of proventriculus glands. In birds that received T-2 alone, only the liver, with the same kind of lesions, was affected. According to these results, it can be concluded that there is not a relation between in vitro and in vivo trials. OA toxic effects could not be counteracted by any sorbent. T-2 toxicity could be partially counteracted by an adsorbent used in this research.

The effects of ochratoxin/aluminosilicate interaction on the tissues and humoral immune response of broilers

This study aimed to evaluate the effect of dietary ochratoxin, in the presence or absence of aluminosilicate, on the histology of the bursa of Fabricius, liver and kidneys, and on the humoral immune response of broilers vaccinated against Newcastle disease virus. The exposure of birds to 2 p.p.m. ochratoxin, in the presence or absence of aluminosilicate, reduced their humoral immune response and the number of mitotic cells in the bursa. The relative weight of the livers of the birds exposed to this toxin was increased and, microscopically, there was hepatocyte vacuolation and megalocytosis with accompanying hyperplasia of the biliary epithelium. The kidneys showed hypertrophy of the renal proximal tubular epithelium, with thickening of the glomerular basement membrane. Aluminosilicate did not ameliorate the deleterious effects of the ochratoxin.

Cecal volatile fatty acids and broiler chick susceptibility to Salmonella typhimurium colonization as affected by aflatoxins and T-2 toxin

Four experiments were conducted using day-of-hatch, mixed-sex broiler chicks to evaluate the effects of aflatoxins and T-2 toxin on cecal volatile fatty acids (VFA) and the susceptibility to Salmonella colonization. All chicks in these experiments were challenged orally with 10(4) cfu of Salmonella typhimurium (ST) on Day 3. In Experiments 1 and 2, chicks were fed diets containing 0, 2.5, or 7.5 mg aflatoxins/kg of diet and were allowed to develop their microflora naturally. In Experiment 3, all chicks were orally gavaged on the day of hatch with a competitive exclusion (CE) culture (PREEMPT) and were fed diets containing 0, 2.5, or 7.5 mg T-2 toxin/kg. In Experiment 4, the chicks were fed diets containing 0, 7.5, or 15.0 mg T-2 toxin/kg and one-half of the chicks were orally gavaged on the day of hatch with the CE culture. In Experiments 1 and 2, with the exception of increased total VFA at 5 d in chicks fed the 7.5 mg T-2 aflatoxins/kg diet, there were no treatment effects on cecal propionic acid, total VFA, or incidence or severity of ST colonization. In Experiment 3, the only alteration in concentration of cecal propionic acid or total VFA was a significant reduction in total VFA at 5 d in chicks fed the 2.5 mg T-2 toxin/kg diet. No significant treatment differences were observed for numbers of Salmonella cecal culture-positive chicks or for numbers of ST in the cecal contents. In Experiment 4, with minor exceptions, the chicks treated with the CE culture had higher cecal concentrations of propionic acid and were less susceptible to Salmonella colonization than the non-CE-treated chicks. In the non-CE-treated chicks, T-2 toxin had no effect on any of the parameters, and 85 to 90% of the chicks were Salmonella cecal culture-positive. In the CE-treated chicks, there was a decrease in propionic acid concentration at 3 and 11 d and an increase in susceptibility to Salmonella colonization of the chicks fed the 15.0 mg T-2 toxin/kg diet. These results indicate that cecal concentrations of VFA can be affected by toxins, such as high concentrations of T-2 toxin, and that resistance to Salmonella colonization may be reduced. Further research is necessary to determine the biological significance of these changes.

Toxicological evaluations of cyclopiazonic acid and ochratoxin A in broilers

The individual and combined effects of ochratoxin A (OA) and cyclopiazonic acid (CPA) were evaluated in Petersen x Hubbard broiler chickens from 1 d to 3 wk of age. The experimental design was a 2 x 2 factorial with treatments of 0 and 2.5 mg OA/kg feed and 0 and 34 mg CPA/kg feed. Production performance, serum biochemistry, and gross pathological observations were evaluated. Body weight gain was reduced (P < 0.05) by OA, CPA, and OA-CPA in combination at the end of 3 wk. Ochratoxin A significantly increased the relative weight of the kidney and serum concentrations of uric acid and triglycerides and decreased total protein, albumin, and cholesterol. The toxicity of CPA was expressed primarily through increased relative weights of the proventriculus and increased activity of creatine kinase. Exposure to OA-CPA was characterized by increased relative weights of the liver, kidney, pancreas, and proventriculus; decreased concentrations of serum albumin, total protein, and cholesterol; increased activity of creatine kinase; and increased concentrations of triglycerides and uric acid. Postmortem examination revealed that the chickens fed CPA or OA-CPA had thickened mucosa and dilated proventricular lumen. Data from this study demonstrate that OA, CPA, and the OA-CPA combination can limit broiler performance and adversely affect broiler health. The interaction of the compounds was primarily additive or less than additive in the parameter in which the interaction occurred.

Effects of a hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate (T-Bind) on mycotoxicosis in young broiler chickens

Experiments were conducted to determine the ability of a hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate (T-Bind) sorbent to reduce the toxicity of aflatoxins (AF) or T-2 toxin in male broiler chickens from day of hatch to 21 d of age. In Experiment 1, the sorbent was added at 0.250 or 0.375% to diets containing AF at 5 or T-2 toxin at 8 mg/kg of diet. When compared with controls, AF reduced BW gain by 27% and T-2 toxin reduced BW gain by 17%. The addition of the sorbent at 0.250 or 0.375%, in the absence of added mycotoxins, did not alter the performance of the chicks. The sorbent reduced the toxic effects of 5 mg AF/kg of diet on BW gain by 43% but did not significantly diminish the toxic effects of 8 mg T-2 toxin/kg of diet. The decreased efficiency of feed utilization and the increased relative organ weights caused by AF were significantly diminished to differing degrees by the sorbent. Oral lesions caused by T-2 toxin were not affected by the sorbent. In Experiment 2, the sorbent was added at 0.80% to a diet containing 8 mg T-2 toxin/kg of diet. The sorbent did not diminish the toxic effects of T-2 toxin when added at 0.80% of the diet. These data demonstrate that this specific sorbent can provide protection against the toxicity of AF, but not T-2 toxin, in young broiler chicks.

Individual and combined effects of fumonisin B1 present in Fusarium moniliforme culture material and T-2 toxin or deoxynivalenol in broiler chicks

The individual and combined effects of feeding diets containing 300 mg fumonisin B1 (FB1), and 5 mg T-2 toxin (T-2)/kg of diet, or 15 mg/kg deoxynivalenol (DON, vomitoxin) from naturally contaminated wheat were evaluated in two studies in male broiler chicks from day of hatch to 19 or 21 d of age in Experiments 1 and 2, respectively. When compared with controls, body weight gains were reduced 18 to 20% by FB1, 18% by T-2, 2% by DON, 32% by the FB1 and T-2 combination, and 19% by the FB1 and DON combination. The efficiency of feed utilization was adversely affected by FB1 with or without T-2 or DON. Mortality ranged from none for the controls to 15% for the FB1 and T-2 combination. Relative weights of the liver and kidney were significantly increased by FB1 with or without T-2 or DON. Serum concentrations of cholesterol were increased in chicks fed FB1 with or without T-2 or DON. Activities of aspartate aminotransferase, lactate dehydrogenase, and gamma glutamyltransferase were increased in chicks fed FB1 at 300 mg/kg alone and in combination with T-2 or DON, indicating possible tissue damage and leakage of the enzymes into the blood. Results indicate additive toxicity when chicks were fed diets containing 300 mg FB1 and 5 mg T-2/kg of diet and less than additive toxicity when chicks were fed 300 mg FB1 and 15 mg DON/kg of diet. Of importance to the poultry industry is the fact that toxic synergy was not observed for either of these toxin combinations and the likelihood of encountering FB1 at this concentration in finished feed is small. However, under field conditions with additional stress factors, the toxicity of these mycotoxins could be altered to adversely affect the health and performance of poultry.

Individual and combined effects of fumonisin B1 present in Fusarium moniliforme culture material and diacetoxyscirpenol or ochratoxin A in turkey poults

The individual and combined effects of feeding diets containing 300 mg fumonisin B1 (FB1), and 4 mg diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS) or 3 mg ochratoxin A (OA) were evaluated in two experiments using female turkey poults (Nicholas Large Whites) from day of hatch to 3 wk of age. When compared with controls, body weight gains were reduced 30% (Study 1) and 24% (Study 2) by FB1, 30% by DAS, 8% by OA, 46% by the FB1 and DAS combination, and 37% by the FB1 and OA combination. The efficiency of feed utilization was adversely affected by all treatments except FB1 in Experiment 2. Relative weights of the liver were significantly increased by all treatments except the DAS treatment. Serum concentrations of cholesterol were decreased and activities of aspartate aminotransferase and lactate dehydrogenase were increased and several hematological values were altered in poults fed FB1 alone and in combination with either DAS or OA. Results indicate additive or less than additive toxicity, but not toxic synergy, when poults are fed diets containing 300 mg FB1, and 4 mg DAS or 3 mg OA/kg of diet. The likelihood of encountering FB1, DAS, or OA at these concentrations in finished feed is small. However, under field conditions, other stress factors could alter the impact of these mycotoxins on the health and performance of poultry.

T-2 tetraol is cytotoxic to a chicken macrophage cell line

Cytotoxic effects of T-2 tetraol, a T-2 toxin derivative, on the MQ-NCSU chicken macrophage cell line were quantified by direct in vitro exposure. Macrophage cultures were exposed to 1, 10, 20, 40, 80, 160, and 320 micrograms/mL of T-2 tetraol for 1 h. Macrophage viability after exposure to T-2 tetraol. Macrophage viability was reduced by increasing concentrations of T-2 tetraol (linear effect, P < or = 0.001; quadratic effect, P < or = 0.025). The ability of macrophages to adhere to glass surfaces was impaired by increasing concentrations of T-2 tetraol (linear effect, P < or = 0.003). This experiment demonstrates that T-2 tetraol is cytotoxic to chicken macrophages in vitro.

Influence of fumonisin B1, present in Fusarium moniliforme culture material, and T-2 toxin on turkey poults

Diets containing 300 mg fumonisin B1 (FB1)/kg of feed and 5 mg T-2 toxin/kg of feed singly or in combination were fed to female turkey poults (Nicholas Large White) from day of hatch to 21 d of age. When compared with controls, 21-d body weight gains were reduced 21% by FB1, 26% by T-2, and 47% by the combination. the efficiency of feed utilization was adversely affected by FB1 and the combination of FB1 and T-2. Relative weights (grams/100 g BW) of the liver and gizzard were increased in poults fed the FB1 and the combination diets; whereas, the relative weight of the pancreas was increased in all treated groups. All poults were scored for oral lesions using a scale of 1 to 4 (1 = no visible lesions, 4 = severe lesions). Oral lesions were present in all poults fed the T-2 diet (average score of 3.29) or the combination diet (average score of 3.54). Serum concentration of cholesterol was decreased and lactate dehydrogenase activity was increased in poults fed the FB1 and combination diets. The activity of aspartate aminotransferase and the values for red blood cells, hemoglobin, and hematocrit were increased only in poults fed the combination diet. Inorganic phosphorus concentration was decreased only in poults fed the combination diet. The increased toxicity in poults fed the combination diet for most variables can best be described as additive, although some variables not altered by FB1 or T-2 singly were significantly affected by the combination, indicating that the combination may pose a potentially greater problem to the turkey industry than either of the mycotoxins individually.

Individual and combined toxicity of T-2 toxin and cyclopiazonic acid in broiler chicks

The effects of feeding 6 mg T-2 toxin (T-2) and 34 mg cyclopiazonic acid (CPA)/kg of diet singly and in combination were characterized in male broiler chicks from 1 d to 3 wk of age. Body weights were depressed by T-2, CPA, and the combination of T-2 and CPA. There was a significant synergistic interaction between T-2 and CPA for relative liver and kidney weights and serum cholesterol and triglyceride concentrations and a significant interaction between T-2 and CPA for 3-wk body weights and relative bursa of Fabricius weights, which were less than additive. Neither the efficiency of feed utilization nor mortality was affected by dietary treatments. Oral lesions were present in a majority of the chicks fed diets containing T-2 with or without CPA. When compared with controls, other variables measured exhibited additive or less than additive toxicity. These data demonstrate that T-2 and CPA alone and in combination can cause reduced performance and adversely affect broiler health. The effects of these mycotoxins may be exacerbated by other factors when under field conditions; hence, the potential detrimental effects of these two mycotoxins when present alone or in combination cannot be dismissed.

Individual and combined effects of T-2 toxin and DAS in laying hens

1. The individual and combined effects of T-2 toxin and 4,15-diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS) on laying hens were investigated in an experiment consisting of a 2 x 2 completely randomised factorial design with dietary concentrations of 0 and 2 mg/kg T-2 toxin and 0 and 2 mg/kg DAS. 2. Individually, T-2 toxin and DAS induced oral lesions in half of the hens and decreased significantly egg production and food intake. 3. The effects of T-2 toxin and DAS were additive for reduced food consumption and incidence of oral lesions. However, a synergism for reduced egg production was observed during the last experimental period. 4. No effects on body weight were observed during this study. Mild changes in selected plasma enzymes activities and no change in liver malondialdehyde content were detected. 5. The combination of T-2 toxin and DAS was more toxic than the single mycotoxins, for some parameters, and therefore, may pose a greater economic threat to the poultry industry than either of the toxins individually.

Comparative pathology of a chicken-origin and two duck-origin influenza virus isolates in chickens: the effect of route of inoculation

Forty-nine 5-week-old chickens were inoculated by the intravenous (i.v.), intratracheal (IT), or intranasal (IN) routes with either a chicken-origin or one of two duck-origin type A influenza virus isolates. Twelve control chickens were inoculated with sterile chorioallantoic fluid. For all viruses, i.v. inoculation produced predominate lesions of renal tubule necrosis (nephrosis) and nephritis, and influenza virus nucleoprotein was localized in nuclei and cytoplasm of necrotic renal tubule epithelium. Chickens inoculated by the IT route, and to a lesser extent the IN route, had mild to severe tracheitis, bronchitis, and ventromedial pneumonia associated with secondary bronchi but lacked renal tubule necrosis and nephritis. These data indicate low-virulence avian-origin influenza viruses were nephrotropic during simulated systemic infection (i.v. inoculation) and pneumotropic during simulated local infection (IT and IN inoculation). Gross and histologic kidney lesions produced by i.v. inoculation of the chicken-origin influenza virus were similar to changes reported in outbreaks of low-virulence influenza virus in laying chickens.

Influence of ochratoxin A and diacetoxyscirpenol singly and in combination on broiler chickens

The effects of feeding 2 mg ochratoxin A (OA) and 6 mg 4,15-diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS)/kg of diet singly and in combination were characterized in male broiler chicks from 1 to 19 d of age. Body weights were depressed by OA, DAS, and the OA-DAS combination. There was a significant antagonistic interaction between OA and DAS for uric acid and cholesterol. The efficiency of feed utilization was reduced by DAS alone and by the OA-DAS combination. When compared with controls, additive toxicity was exhibited for reduced efficiency of feed utilization, increased relative weights of the liver and gizzard, and decreased concentration of serum total protein, mean corpuscular volume, and mean corpuscular hemoglobin. All chicks were scored for oral lesions using a scale of 1 to 4 (0 = no visible lesions; 3 = severe lesions). Oral lesions (average score = 2.6) were present in over 90% of the chicks receiving the DAS diet with or without OA. These data demonstrate that both OA and DAS alone and the OA-DAS combination can adversely affect broiler performance and health.

Effects of feeding Fusarium moniliforme culture material, containing known levels of fumonisin B1, on the young broiler chick

The effects of feeding Fusarium moniliforme culture material, containing known concentrations of fumonisin B1 (FB1), were studied in broiler chicks. Day-old chicks were allotted randomly to dietary treatments containing 0, 1.02, 2.04, 3.06, 4.08, 5.10, 6.12, and 7.14% fumonisin culture material (FCM). These levels of FCM supplied 0, 75, 150, 225, 300, 375, 450, and 525 mg of FB1/kg of feed. Each dietary treatment was fed to four pen replicates of six birds each for 21 days. Chicks fed FCM that supplied 450 and 525 mg FB1/kg diet had lower (P < .05) feed intakes and BW gains; increased (P < .05) liver and kidney weights; and increased (P < .05) mean cell hemoglobin, and mean cell hemoglobin concentrations. Compared with controls, chicks fed FCM had increased (P < .05) free sphinganine levels and sphinganine:sphingosine ratios. Treatment-associated histological lesions were only observed in the liver of chicks fed diets containing FCM that supplied 225 mg FB1/kg or higher. Diets containing FCM that supplied levels as low as 75 mg FB1/kg affected the physiology of chicks by increasing free sphinganine levels and sphinganine:sphingosine ratios. Because inhibition of sphingolipid biosynthesis has been hypothesized as the mechanism of action of FB1, this suggests that diets containing 75 mg FB1/kg FCM may be toxic to young broiler chicks.

Fumonisin toxicity in turkey poults

The effects of dietary fumonisin B1 were evaluated in young turkey poults. The experimental design consisted of 3 treatments, with 24 female turkey poults allotted randomly per treatment. Day-old poults were fed diets containing 0 mg (feed control), 100 mg, and 200 mg fumonisin B1/kg feed for 21 days. Body weight gains and efficiency of feed conversion decreased linearly with increasing dietary fumonisin. Liver, kidney, and pancreas weights increased linearly with increasing dietary fumonisin, and spleen and heart weights decreased. Serum aspartate aminotransferase levels increased with increasing dietary fumonisin, and serum cholesterol; alkaline phosphatase, mean cell volume, and mean cell hemoglobin all decreased. Biliary hyperplasia, hypertrophy of Kupffer's cells, thymic cortical atrophy, and moderate widening of the proliferating and degenerating hypertrophied zones of tibial physes were present in poults fed diets containing fumonisin B1. Results indicate that fumonisin B1, from Fusarium moniliforme culture material, is toxic in young poults, and the poult appears to be more sensitive to fumonisin than the broiler chick.

Development of hepatic microsomal activity of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-coenzyme A reductase and cholesterol 7 alpha-hydroxylase in the young chick

1. The 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl-CoA reductase activity increased from 1 to 4 weeks of age, but decreased from 4 to 8 weeks of age. 2. Cholesterol 7 alpha-hydroxylase activity increased from 1 to 4 weeks, decreased from 4 to 6 weeks, and increased again from 6 to 8 weeks of age. 3. Serum total and free cholesterol concentrations decreased from 1 to 6 weeks of age, but increased from 6 to 8 weeks of age.

Toxicological evaluation of aflatoxin and cyclopiazonic acid in broiler chickens

The individual and combined effects of aflatoxin (AF) and cyclopiazonic acid (CPA) were evaluated in day-old Petersen x Hubbard broiler chickens to 3 wk of age. Treatments were arranged in a 2 x 2 factorial with levels of 0 and 3.5 mg AF/kg of feed, and 0 and 50 mg CPA/kg of feed. Production performance, serum biochemistry, and gross pathological observations were evaluated. Body weight gain was significantly (P less than .05) reduced by AF, CPA, and the AF-CPA combination at the end of 3 wk. Aflatoxin significantly increased the relative weight of the kidney and serum concentration of blood urea nitrogen and decreased serum concentrations of protein, albumin, cholesterol, phosphorus, and the activity of lactate dehydrogenase. The toxicity of CPA was expressed through increased relative weights of the liver, kidney, and proventriculus, increased levels of uric acid and cholesterol, and decreased serum phosphorus. The activity of AF-CPA combination was characterized by increased relative weight of the liver, kidney, pancreas, and proventriculus, decreased concentrations of serum albumin and phosphorus, increased concentrations of serum glutamic oxalacetic transaminase and blood urea nitrogen, and decreases in the relative weight of the bursa of Fabricius. Post-mortem examination revealed that the chickens fed CPA and the AF-CPA combination had thickened mucosa and dilated proventricular lumens, hard fibrotic spleen, and atrophy of the gizzard. The data from the present study demonstrate that both AF and CPA alone and the AF-CPA combination can limit broiler performance and adversely affect broiler health. In most cases the effects of AF and CPA were additive.

Mouth lesions in broiler chickens caused by scirpenol mycotoxins

Dietary scirpentriol (STO), triacetoxyscirpenol (TAS), monoacetoxyscirpenol (MAS), and diacetoxyscirpenol (DAS), mycotoxins produced by Fusarium species, were compared for their ability to cause mouth lesions when graded dietary levels (0, 1, 2, 4, and 8 micrograms STO or TAS/g; 0, .5, 1, 2, and 4 micrograms MAS or DAS/g) were fed to male broiler chickens for 21 days after hatching. The mouth lesions provoked by each scirpenol were dose-related. The minimum effective doses (MED) were 4, 2, 1, and .5 micrograms/g for TAS, STO, DAS, and MAS, respectively, whether the number of affected birds or the number of affected mouth parts (angles, upper beak, lower beak, and tongue) was the measured response. Lesion sites in the mouth varied with the toxin. The rank orders from greatest to least affected sites were angles, upper beak, lower beak, and tongue for TAS and STO, upper beak, lower beak, angles, and tongue for MAS, and upper beak, lower beak, tongue, and angles for DAS. Mouth lesions were clearly visible with each toxin after feeding for 1 wk and the numbers of affected mouth parts almost tripled after 2 wk exposure. During Week 3 of exposure, only the increase caused by MAS was significant (P less than .05). The MED for growth inhibition were 2, 2, 2, and 8 micrograms/g for STO, MAS, DAS, and TAS, respectively. Thus, mouth lesions were of equal or greater sensitivity than growth inhibition as an indicator of scirpenol toxicity. It would appear that the discovery of mouth lesions in birds justifies a mold and mycotoxin control program.

Efficacy of a hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate to reduce the toxicity of aflatoxin and T-2 toxin

A hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate (HSCAS) was incorporated into diets (.5%) containing 3.5 mg of aflatoxin (AF) per kg and 8.0 mg of T-2 toxin (T-2) per kg, singly, and in combination. Male broiler chicks (n = 480) were provided with feed and water for ad libitum consumption from 1 to 21 days of age. Body weight gains were significantly depressed by AF and T-2, singly, and further decreased by the combination of the two toxins. Efficiency of feed utilization was not affected. The AF alone and the AF plus T-2 combination caused increases in relative liver, kidney, proventriculus, gizzard, spleen, and pancreas weights. Treatment-related changes in hematological and serum biochemical values and enzyme activities were observed. Oral lesions were observed only in chicks receiving the T-2 diets. The HSCAS fed singly did not alter any of the parameters measured but it did diminish the toxicity of AF for many parameters but did not appear to alter the toxicity of T-2. Addition of HSCAS to the AF plus T-2 combination diet diminished some of the effects of the toxin combination. These findings indicate that HSCAS can diminish many of the adverse effects of dietary AF in the chicken, but it has no effect on T-2 toxicity.