Adipokines, Hepatokines and Myokines: Focus on Their Role and Molecular Mechanisms in Adipose Tissue Inflammation

Disrupted adipokine secretion and inflammatory responses in human adipocyte hypertrophy

Adipocyte hypertrophy is a critical contributor to obesity-induced inflammation and insulin resistance. This study employed a human adipocyte hypertrophy model to investigate the adipokine release, inflammatory responses, and the intracellular singling pathways. Hypertrophic adipocytes exhibited increased lipid content and lipolysis, a decline of anti-inflammatory adipokine adiponectin release and an increase of pro-inflammatory adipokine leptin release compared to mature adipocytes. Moreover, TNFα and LPS exacerbated the decrease in adiponectin secretion by hypertrophic adipocytes while promoting the secretion of leptin, MCP-1 and IL-6, which is associated with impaired activation of p38 and JNK MAPK and persistent activation of ERK and IκBα in hypertrophic adipocytes. These altered adipokine secretions and inflammatory responses within hypertrophic adipocytes may contribute to adipocyte dysfunction in human obesity.

The dual targeting effects of KD025 on casein kinase 2 and ROCK2 in a mouse model of diet-induced obesity

KD025(belumosudil), a selective ROCK2 inhibitor, exhibits unique anti-adipogenic activity through inhibition of casein kinase 2 (CK2). This study investigated the dual inhibitory effects of KD025 on metabolism in a diet-induced obese model. C57BL/6 mice on a high fat diet (HFD) were treated with KD025 for 4 weeks, while fasudil (a pan-ROCK inhibitor) and CX-4945 (a CK2-specific inhibitor) served as comparison treatments. KD025 significantly reduced body weight gain without affecting food intake, serum insulin, or fasting blood glucose levels. In contrast, while both CX-4945 and fasudil treatments showed a trend toward weight reduction, these results were not statistically significant. KD025 improved lipid metabolism by significantly lowering LDL cholesterol and triglyceride, although it slightly impaired glucose metabolism, as observed in insulin and glucose tolerance tests. Weight reduction in the KD025- and CX-4945-treated groups was attributed to decreased adipose tissue mass, particularly in inguinal (ingWAT) and epididymal (epiWAT) fat depots. Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining confirmed smaller adipocyte size in these groups. KD025 had no significant effect on serum levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin 6 (IL-6), or monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) with varied inflammatory responses. Furthermore, KD025 and CX-4945 upregulated adipogenic and browning markers, such as Cebpa, Cidea, and Pparg in the epiWAT, though without significant UCP1 expression. Overall, KD025 effectively reduced weight gain in HFD-fed mice through dual inhibition of CK2 and ROCK2, highlighting its potential as a therapeutic agent for obesity-related conditions.

Time-restricted feeding mitigates HFD-induced sarcopenic obesity in aging mice through improving the sensitivity of FGF21

Time-restricted feeding (TRF) is a dietary intervention that has been shown to have numerous health benefits. However, it is important to further investigate the potential effectiveness of TRF in addressing sarcopenic obesity (SO), which is characterized by a combination of age-related obesity and sarcopenia. In this study, 14-month-old C57BL/6J male mice were fed either regular chow diet or high-fat diet (HFD), and had either ad libitum or restricted access to food for 8 hours daily (Intervention for 7 months). For the human trial (ChiCTR2100052876), obese individuals (n=21) with a Body Mass Index ≥28 were recruited and instructed to adopt an 8-hour eating window and a 16-hour fasting period. Here, we found that the TRF intervention significantly reduced global fat mass (P < .001) and volume (P < .05), and increase lean mass compared to mice fed with HFD. Furthermore, TRF improved overall metabolic mobility (8h TRF+HFD vs. AL+HFD). This intervention also enhanced liver FGF21 protein levels (P < .01) and the expression of FGFR1 and FGF21 target genes in adipose and muscle tissues, thus improving mitochondrial quality control in these tissues. Notably, TRF interventions led to a significant decrease in serum FGF21 levels (P < .05). In the human trial, TRF intervention resulted in a significant reduction in weight (P < .001) and body fat levels (P < .001) among obese individuals, as well as a decrease in serum GLU (P < .001), insulin (P < .001), and TC levels (P < .05). Overall, the findings indicate that TRF intervention improves SO by regulating liver FGF21 expression, thereby enhancing FGF21 sensitivity in adipose and muscle tissues.

Bridging systemic metabolic dysfunction and Alzheimer's disease: the liver interface

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is increasingly recognized as a systemic disorder with a substantial metabolic disorder component, where the liver significantly impacts the brain via the liver-brain axis. Key mechanisms include the liver's role in clearing peripheral β-amyloid (Aβ), the influence of hepatic enzymes and metabolites on cognitive decline, and the systemic effects of metabolic disorders on AD progression. Hepatokines, liver-secreted proteins including fibroblast growth factor (FGF)-21, selenoprotein P (SELENOP), Fetuin-A, Midbrain astrocyte-derived neurotrophic factor (MANF), apolipoprotein J (ApoJ), sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG), Adropin and Angiopoietin-like protein 3 (ANGPTL3), could regulate insulin sensitivity, lipid metabolism, oxidative stress, immune responses, and neurotrophic support. These pathways are closely linked to core AD pathologies, including Aβ aggregation, tau hyperphosphorylation, neuroinflammation, oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction. Lifestyle interventions, including exercise and dietary modifications, that regulate hepatokines expression may offer novel preventive and therapeutic strategies for AD. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the liver-brain crosstalk in AD, emphasizing the mechanistic role of liver in bridging metabolic dysfunction with neurodegeneration and underscores the diagnostic and therapeutic potential of hepatokines in addressing AD's complex pathology.

Unravelling the Relationship Between Obesity and Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Mirroring the global obesity epidemic, obesity rates in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) patients is rising. Several epidemiological studies propose that 15%-40% of adult patients with IBD are obese, and an additional 25%-40% fall into the overweight category. This article examines the pathophysiologic relationship between obesity and IBD concerning the role of visceral adipose tissue, microbiota shifts, dietary patterns, and hunger hormone changes. Additionally, increasing evidence is demonstrating the negative impact that obesity is having on disease course and quality of life in patients with IBD. Obesity has been demonstrated to be associated with an attenuated response to immunomodulators and biological agents, as well as higher rates of peri-operative surgical complications. A better understanding of the relationship between obesity and IBD can be applied to clinical decision-making in personalizing treatment plans, promoting weight loss in patients with obesity, and identifying areas of future research.

Association between the skeletal muscle-to-visceral fat ratio and kidney stones: a cross-sectional study

Objective

Prior research has suggested links between skeletal muscle mass and visceral fat volume with kidney stone formation. However, the link between the skeletal muscle-to-visceral fat ratio (SVR) and kidney stone risk remains to be clarified. This study aims to explore the relationship between SVR and the risk of kidney stones, analyzing data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES).

Methods

The research encompassed 8,522 individuals from NHANES surveys from 2011 to 2018. Kidney stones were diagnosed through a standardized questionnaire, and SVR was calculated using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). Participants were grouped into quartiles based on their SVR. All data underwent weighting according to official guidelines. Logistic regression models assessed the correlation between SVR and kidney stone incidence, and subgroup analysis was employed to investigate its stability.

Results

Among the participants, 675 individuals, representing 8.73%, received a diagnosis of kidney stones, with an average age of 39.29 years (±0.28). Findings indicate that lower SVR correlates with increased kidney stone risk. Within the comprehensively adjusted multivariate model, compared to the lowest SVR quartile, the second, third, and fourth quartiles demonstrated significantly reduced risks, with ORs of 0.63 (95% CI = 0.47-0.84), 0.57 (95% CI = 0.42-0.79), and 0.39 (95% CI = 0.25-0.61), respectively. Restricted cubic spline (RCS) regression models demonstrated a non-linear relationship between SVR and kidney stone risk. The subgroup analysis demonstrated no significant differences in weighted associations across subgroups (interaction p-value > 0.05), except for BMI, which had a significant interaction (interaction p-value < 0.05).

Conclusion

The findings underscore that lower SVR correlates with increased kidney stone risk, a relationship that remains consistent across most demographics.

Obesity, White Adipose Tissue, and Adipokines Signaling in Male Reproduction

Currently, obesity is a global pandemic characterized by systemic metabolic complications that negatively impact several organs, including white adipose tissue (WAT) and the tissues of the male reproductive system. Since the discovery of leptin in 1994, WAT has been recognized as a dynamic endocrine organ for secreting a series of molecules with hormonal functions, collectively called adipokines. The link between obesity, WAT, adipokines, and the male reproductive system is direct and little explored. With changes in nutritional status, WAT undergoes morphofunctional changes, and the secretion of adipokines is altered, negatively impacting reproductive mechanisms, including steroidogenesis and spermatogenesis. In this review, we address in an updated way the structural and functional characteristics of WAT as well as the link between obesity and changes in the signaling pathways of the adipokines leptin, adiponectin, resistin, visfatin, apelin, chemerin, omentin-1, vaspin, and asprosin in male reproduction. Understanding the relationship between obesity, these adipokines, and reproductive dysfunction can contribute to new strategies for the treatment of subfertility and male infertility.

Study on the common mechanisms of gastroesophageal reflux disease and interstitial lung disease

OBJECTIVE

Interstitial lung disease (ILD) and gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) have complex interactions and can exacerbate severity of each other. This study aimed to screen shared genes between ILD and GERD and explore their common mechanisms and clinical value.

METHODS

We obtained microarray datasets of ILD and GERD from public databases. Shared genes were screened by differential expression analysis and Venn analysis. Hub genes were screened from shared genes using the protein-protein interaction (PPI) network analysis. The ssGSEA algorithm was utilized to estimate immune infiltration level of ILD and GERD, and correlation of hub genes with immune cell infiltration was studied. Finally, potential drugs that may act on hub genes were screened using DSigDB.

RESULTS

52 shared genes were obtained through Venn analysis. PPI network analysis identified 10 hub genes (BMP4, NT5E, PPARG, EPCAM, DPP4, KLF2, MMP1, AGR2, ADAMTS1, GATA6) that may have diagnostic performance (p < 0.05). The results of immune infiltration showed that hub genes were highly linked to multiple immune cell infiltrations (p < 0.05). In addition, we identified 5 potential drugs. Notably, thioridazine may target 5 hub genes (MMP1, AGR2, KLF2, ADAMTS1, and PPARG) simultaneously (p < 0.05) and had the potential to be a novel therapeutic drug.

CONCLUSION

In summary, we have screened out the hub genes with diagnostic value in ILD and GERD, and also revealed the close relationship between the hub genes and the disease immune microenvironment, providing new research directions for the common mechanism and interaction of the two diseases.

Associations between exposure to air pollutants and in vitro fertilization outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis

We have undertaken a systematic review and meta-analysis to investigate the association between maternal exposure to air pollutants and outcomes of in vitro fertilization (IVF). Studies were identified through a comprehensive online search. After standardizing all air pollution concentrations to 10 μg/m3, we analyzed the levels of six air pollutants (PM2.5, PM10, O3, NO2, CO, and SO2) by applying a random effects model. A total of five articles met inclusion criteria upon final reviewing. Exposure to PM10, NO2, and CO was linked to the risk of ectopic pregnancy, while exposure to O3 was found to have a reverse association with biochemical pregnancy. Additionally, our analysis indicated a negative association between exposure to PM10, NO2, CO, and SO2 and live birth rates, as well as between NO2 exposure and intrauterine pregnancy. Our study emphasized the relationship between exposure to ambient air pollution and negative effects on pregnancy outcomes for women undergoing IVF.

Quercetin in Shengxian Decoction exhibits anti-ferroptosis protective roles in a myocardial infarction model via targeting DPP4/ HMOX1, based on network pharmacology and molecular docking

Background

Myocardial infarction (MI) is characterized by high morbidity. In this study, we aimed to elucidate potential targets of Shengxian Decoction (SXD) against MI.

Methods

Pairing of SXD active ingredients and MI targets was conducted using the Chinese Medicine System Pharmacological Database, Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO), and STRING databases. The effects of SXD on MI were validated in vitro. Molecular docking was verified using cellular thermal shift assay (CETSA).

Results

A total of 40 active ingredients and 28 MI-related targets were obtained. Cross-analysis on 28 targets and cell death-related genes identified two crucial ferroptosis-related targets, namely, dipeptidyl peptidase 4 (DPP4) and heme oxygenase 1 (HMOX1). In cobalt chloride (CoCl2)-induced hypoxic H9c2 cells, SXD could remarkably improve cell viability and inhibit cell death. Meanwhile, SXD treatment significantly affected the ferroptosis-related markers in hypoxic H9c2 cells. Molecular docking and CETSA results showed that quercetin had good binding activity with DPP4 and HMOX1.

Conclusion

Important active ingredient quercetin in SXD could exert anti-ferroptosis protective roles on MI through targeting ferroptosis-related genes (DPP4/HMOX1), thereby contributing to the protective role of SXD on MI.

Molecular mechanisms of pyroptosis in non-alcoholic steatohepatitis and feasible diagnosis and treatment strategies

Pyroptosis is a distinct form of cell death that plays a critical role in intensifying inflammatory responses. It primarily occurs via the classical pathway, non-classical pathway, caspase-3/6/7/8/9-mediated pathways, and granzyme-mediated pathways. Key effector proteins involved in the pyroptosis process include gasdermin family proteins and pannexin-1 protein. Pyroptosis is intricately linked to the onset and progression of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). During the development of NASH, factors such as pyroptosis, innate immunity, lipotoxicity, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and gut microbiota imbalance interact and interweave, collectively driving disease progression. This review analyzes the molecular mechanisms of pyroptosis and its role in the pathogenesis of NASH. Furthermore, it explores potential diagnostic and therapeutic strategies targeting pyroptosis, offering new avenues for improving the diagnosis and treatment of NASH.

Understanding the Role of Adipokines in Cardiometabolic Dysfunction: A Review of Current Knowledge

Cardiometabolic risk and associated dysfunctions contribute largely to the recent rise in mortality globally. Advancements in multi-omics in recent years promise a better understanding of potential biomarkers that enable an early diagnosis of cardiometabolic dysfunction. However, the molecular mechanisms driving the onset and progression of cardiometabolic disorders remain poorly understood. Adipokines are adipocyte-specific cytokines that are central to deleterious cardiometabolic alterations. They exhibit both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory effects, complicating their association with cardiometabolic disturbances. Thus, understanding the cardiometabolic association of adipokines from a molecular and signaling perspective assumes great importance. This review presents a comprehensive outline of the most prominent adipokines exhibiting pro-inflammatory and/or anti-inflammatory functions in cardiometabolic dysfunction. The review also presents an insight into the pathophysiological implications of such adipokines in different cardiometabolic dysfunction conditions, the status of adipokine druggability, and future studies that can be undertaken to address the existing scientific gap. A clear understanding of the functional and mechanistic role of adipokines can potentially improve our understanding of cardiovascular disease pathophysiology and enhance our current therapeutic regimen in the years to come.

Joint association of triglyceride glucose index (TyG) and body roundness index (BRI) with stroke incidence: a national cohort study

BACKGROUND

Insulin resistance (IR), as quantified by the triglyceride glucose (TyG) index, and visceral obesity, as assessed by the body roundness index (BRI), have been identified as pivotal risk factors for stroke. However, the combined impact of these two indicators on stroke risk has not been thoroughly investigated. This study aims to investigate both the separate and combined associations, as well as potential interactions, between the TyG index and/or BRI with respect to stroke incidence.

METHODS

This cohort study encompassed 6621 respondents who were free of stroke at baseline from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS). Participants were categorized based on the median values of the TyG index or/and BRI. Cox proportional hazards regression models were employed to examine the associations between the TyG index alone, BRI alone, and their combined effects on stroke incidence. Both additive and multiplicative interaction effects were further estimated.

RESULTS

Among 6621 participants aged 45 years or older, the mean (SD) age was 58.06 (8.57) years, with 2951 (44.6%) being male. During a follow-up period of up to 9 years, 743 individuals experienced stroke events. Compared to participants with low TyG index and low BRI, the adjusted hazard ratios (HRs) were as follows: 1.36 (95% confidence interval [CI] 1.05-1.75) for high TyG index alone, 1.61 (95% CI 1.27-2.05) for high BRI alone, and 1.78 (95% CI 1.40-2.26) for high TyG index and high BRI. Neither additive nor multiplicative interactions between BRI and TyG for incident stroke were statistically significant. The combination of TyG and BRI enhanced the predictive capability for stroke compared to either biomarker alone.

CONCLUSION

We discovered that both the TyG index and BRI are strongly associated with stroke incidence. The joint assessment of TyG and BRI enhances the predictive capability for stroke, underscoring the critical role of IR and visceral adiposity in the identification and screening of stroke risk.

Association Between Visceral Adipose Tissue and Chronic Respiratory Diseases: A Two-Sample Multivariable Mendelian Randomization Study in European Population

Background

The relationship between obesity and some respiratory diseases has been well documented. However there have been few studies on the association between visceral adipose tissue (VAT) and chronic respiratory diseases (CRDs), it remains unclear whether VAT is causally associated with CRDs.

Methods

We used two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) to illuminate the effects of VAT on four CRDs: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), allergic asthma, interstitial lung disease (ILD), and sarcoidosis. Inverse variance weighted (IVW) served as the primary assessment method. MR Egger, weighted median, Simple mode and Weighted mode were the supplementary methods for MR analysis. We used multivariate MR analysis to adjust for the effect of body mass index (BMI) on outcomes, Egger intercept, MR-pleiotropy residual sum and outlier, and leave-one-out analysis to confirm the MR results' consistency.

Results

Genetically-predicted VAT was associated with an increased risk of COPD (OR = 1.56; 95% CI: 1.34-1.82; P = 1.16×10-8), allergic asthma (OR = 1.44; 95% CI: 1.20-1.73; P = 8.63×10-5), and ILD (OR = 1.15; 95% CI: 1.04-1.26; P = 4.62×10-3). However, there was limited evidence to support an association between VAT and sarcoidosis. In multivariate MR analysis, VAT's associations with COPD, allergic asthma, and ILD persisted after adjusting for BMI.

Conclusion

This study provides evidence for a potential causal relationship between VAT and COPD, allergic asthma, and ILD; these relationships were independent of the effect of BMI.

Consensus on the key characteristics of metabolism disruptors

Metabolism-disrupting agents (MDAs) are chemical, infectious or physical agents that increase the risk of metabolic disorders. Examples include pharmaceuticals, such as antidepressants, and environmental agents, such as bisphenol A. Various types of studies can provide evidence to identify MDAs, yet a systematic method is needed to integrate these data to help to identify such hazards. Inspired by work to improve hazard identification of carcinogens using key characteristics (KCs), we developed 12 KCs of MDAs based on our knowledge of processes underlying metabolic diseases and the effects of their causal agents: (1) alters function of the endocrine pancreas; (2) impairs function of adipose tissue; (3) alters nervous system control of metabolic function; (4) promotes insulin resistance; (5) disrupts metabolic signalling pathways; (6) alters development and fate of metabolic cell types; (7) alters energy homeostasis; (8) causes inappropriate nutrient handling and partitioning; (9) promotes chronic inflammation and immune dysregulation in metabolic tissues; (10) disrupts gastrointestinal tract function; (11) induces cellular stress pathways; and (12) disrupts circadian rhythms. In this Consensus Statement, we present the logic that revealed the KCs of MDAs and highlight evidence that supports the identification of KCs. We use chemical, infectious and physical agents as examples to illustrate how the KCs can be used to organize and use mechanistic data to help to identify MDAs.

The relationship between VAI, LAP, and depression and the mediation role of sleep duration-evidence from NHANES 2005-2020

BACKGROUND

The relationship between obesity and mental health has attracted attention. However, large sample studies on the relationship between visceral fat obesity and depression are lacking. This study aimed to explore the relationship between visceral fat obesity and depression by using visceral adiposity index (VAI) and lipid accumulation product (LAP). Additionally, it sought to explore the potential mediating role of sleep duration in these associations.

METHODS

The data used in the current cross-sectional investigation are from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) spanning from 2005 to 2020, including 19,659 participants. Depression was measured using the nine-item Patient Health Questionnaire. Weighted multivariable regression analysis was used to evaluate the correlation of VAI and LAP with depression. The potential non-linear relationship was determined using smooth curve fitting and threshold effect analysis. Additionally, mediation analysis was performed to investigate the potential mediating role of sleep duration. The stability of the relationship was assessed through sensitivity analysis.

RESULTS

VAI and LAP were closely related to depression. In the fully adjusted model, VAI and LAP in the highest quartile increased the association of depression by 52% (OR = 1.52, 95% CI 1.20-1.92, P < 0.001) and 51% (OR = 1.51, 95% CI 1.19-1.91, P < 0.001), respectively, compared with the lowest quartile. Specific saturation effects for VAI, LAP, and depression were identified by smoothed curve fitting, with inflection points of 3.81 and 98.55, respectively. Additionally, mediation analysis revealed that 5.1% and 2.8% of the associations between VAI and LAP with depression were mediated through sleep duration. The results of the sensitivity analysis showed interactions between hypertension and cardiovascular disease in the associations of VAI, and depression (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

VAI and LAP are associated with depression in US adults. The associations between VAI and LAP with depression are non-linear, which may be mediated through sleep duration. The study highlights the potential of VAI and LAP as valuable tools for the prevention and management of depression.

Omentin-1 modulates interleukin expression and macrophage polarization: Implications for rheumatoid arthritis therapy

BACKGROUND

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic inflammatory and autoimmune disorder in which monocytes/macrophage infiltrate synovial membrane, differentiating into the pro- and anti-inflammatory M1 and M2 macrophage phenotypes. Omentin-1 is one of the adipokines that has anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects; nevertheless, investigators have yet to elucidate the function of omentin-1 in RA development. It is still unclear how omentin-1 affects human autoimmune disease and what its beneficial role is. Thus, we show that omentin-1 exhibits a therapeutic effect on RA.

METHODS

Utilizing patient or animal tissue, MH7A cell-line, ELISA, and qPCR, we examined the expression of omentin-1 and inflammatory cytokines in the GEO databases. Omentin-1's effects on macrophage polarization were investigated using Immunofluorescence staining (IF) and qPCR. Additionally, the method by which omentin-1 regulates interleukins was discovered by IF labeling for STAT6 translocation, siRNA transfection, IPA software using several and pharmacological inhibitors. Omentin-1's effects were examined in an in vivo investigation using the type II collagen-induced arthritis model, micro-CT, and histological evaluation.

RESULTS

Results from the GSE97779 dataset and patients' tissues discovered that the level of omentin-1 and M2 macrophage markers are downregulated in human RA tissue samples compared to healthy tissue and negatively correlated with the expression of pro-inflammatory interleukins (ILs) and M1 macrophage. Stimulation of RA synovial fibroblasts with omentin-1 augmented IL-4 synthesis and subsequently enhanced anti-inflammatory ability as well as M2 polarization. The STAT6 transactivation through AMPK, PI3K, ERK, and JAK cascades regulates omentin-1-induced promotion of IL-4. Importantly, intra-articular injection of omentin-1 blocked collagen-induced arthritis-augmented pro-inflammatory response, cartilage degradation, and bone loss through upregulating IL-4 and M2 macrophages in vivo.

CONCLUSION

Our findings support a potential therapy goal for RA and a tenable mechanism to explain the relationship between omentin-1.

Fishing for Solutions: How Pre-Conceptional Fish Oil Supplementation in Obese Fathers Reduces Risk of Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease in Offspring Mice

Metabolic dysfunction associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD) is a chronic condition with hepatic fat accumulation. The intergenerational effect of obesity has predominantly focused on mothers, with limited studies on paternal obesity. Nutritional intervention with fish oil (FO) has beneficial effects in reducing markers of obesity. We hypothesized that supplementing obese fathers with FO before conception could enhance the metabolic health of their offspring liver. Male mice were assigned to low-fat (LF), high fat (HF), or HF supplemented with FO for 10 weeks. Subsequently, these males were mated with females on a chow diet. Offspring were sacrificed at 8 weeks, and liver tissues were analyzed for gene expression and histology. Offspring body weight was not significantly impacted by paternal diet. However, male offspring of HF fathers had higher levels of markers of inflammation and fatty acid synthesis compared to offspring of LF fed fathers. Paternal FO supplementation significantly reduced fatty acid synthesis and glucose metabolism, while increasing fatty acid oxidation in male offspring, with a less pronounced effect in female offspring. These findings suggest that FO supplementation in obese fathers prior to conception attenuates the development of MAFLD in male offspring. This data underscores the significance of paternal nutritional intervention in promoting offspring health.

Adiponectin pathway activation dampens inflammation and enhances alveolar macrophage fungal killing via LC3-associated phagocytosis

Although innate immunity is critical for antifungal host defense against the human opportunistic fungal pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus, potentially damaging inflammation must be controlled. Adiponectin (APN) is an adipokine produced mainly in adipose tissue that exerts anti-inflammatory effects in adipose-distal tissues such as the lung. We observed increased mortality and increased fungal burden and inflammation in neutropenic mice with invasive aspergillosis (IA) that lack APN or the APN receptors AdipoR1 or AdipoR2. Alveolar macrophages (AMs), early immune sentinels that detect and respond to lung infection, express both receptors, and APN-deficient AMs exhibited an inflammatory phenotype that was associated with decreased fungal killing. Pharmacological stimulation of AMs with AdipoR agonist AdipoRon rescued deficient killing in APN-/- AMs and was dependent on the presence of either receptor. Finally, APN-enhanced fungal killing was associated with increased activation of the non-canonical LC3 pathway of autophagy. Thus, our study identifies a novel role for APN in LC3-mediated killing of A.fumigatus.

A Novel Insight into the Role of Obesity-Related Adipokines in Ovarian Cancer-State-of-the-Art Review and Future Perspectives

Ovarian cancer (OC) is one of the most fatal gynecological neoplasms. Meta-analyses have shown that the relationship between body mass index (BMI) and ovarian cancer incidence was detected in some types of ovarian cancer. Chronic inflammation and excessive accumulation of free fatty acids are key adipose tissue-derived factors initiating cancer development. Cancer cells transform adipose-derived stem cells into cancer-associated adipocytes, which produce adipokines and interleukins. It was revealed that adipokines exert a pleiotropic role in ovarian cancer pathogenesis. Chemerin presents both pro-cancer and anti-cancer action in ovarian cancer development. Chemerin induces angiogenesis and increases programmed death ligand-1 (PD-L1) expression, leading to enhanced proliferation and migration of OC cells. Apelin impacts cancer cell migration and acts as a mitogenic factor. Moreover, apelin exerts influence on lipid uptake into cancer cells and accelerates fatty acid oxidation, which provides energy for cancer cells. Visfatin induces matrix metallopeptidase 2 (MMP2) expression involved in extracellular matrix degradation and suppresses claudin 3 and 4 expression. Visfatin also induces a shift to anaerobic glucose metabolism and influences poly-ADP ribose polymerase (PARP). Resistin induces MMP2 and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression and contributes to cisplatin-resistance development. A substantial body of evidence indicates that antagonists of adipokines mitigate OC progression, and adipokines are gaining gradual recognition as a potential therapeutic aim in ovarian cancer targeted therapy.

Leptin, NK cells, and the weight of immunity: Insights into obesity

Obesity is a chronic inflammatory disease that affects more than 1 billion people worldwide and is associated with various metabolic and physiological dysfunctions, directly impacting the dynamics of the immune response, partly due to elevated leptin levels. Leptin is an important peptide hormone that regulates neuroendocrine function and energy homeostasis, with its blood levels reflecting energy reserves, fat mass, or energy deprivation. This hormone also plays a fundamental role in regulating immune function, including the activity of NK cells, which are essential components in antiviral and antitumor activity. In obese individuals, leptin resistance is commonly established, however, NK cells and other immune components remain responsive to this hormone. So far, leptin has demonstrated paradoxical activities of these cells, often associated with a dysfunctional profile when associated with obesity. The excessive fat is usually related to metabolic remodeling in NK cells, resulting in compromised antitumor responses due to reduced cytotoxic capacity and decreased expression of cytokines important for these defense mechanisms, such as IFN-γ. Therefore, this review approaches a better understanding of the immunoendocrine interactions between leptin and NK cells in the context of obesity.

Dose-Dependent Effects of Short-Chain Fatty Acids on 3T3-L1 Adipocyte Adipokine Secretion and Metabolic Function

BACKGROUND

Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) produced from microbial fermentation of non-digestible carbohydrates and protein have been shown to modulate adipocyte adipokine secretion and metabolic function, which has implications for mitigating dysfunction in obese adipose tissue; however, the individual effects of different SCFAs and the optimal concentration required is unknown. The purpose of this study was to dose-dependently determine the effects of individual SCFAs on adipocyte adipokine secretion and metabolic function.

METHODS

We recapitulated the obese adipocyte inflammatory conditions using mature 3T3-L1 adipocytes and a physiological concentration of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) ± individual SCFAs, namely acetate, propionate, and butyrate, in a dose-dependent manner (0.25 mM, 0.5 mM, and 1 mM) for 24 h.

RESULTS

SCFAs dose-dependently affected inflammatory adipokine secretion, wherein at 1 mM, all three SCFAs reduced the secretion of leptin, IL-6 and IL-1β, but only propionate and butyrate reduced MCP-1/CCL2 and MIP-1α/CCL3 compared to control (p < 0.05). Interestingly, 1 mM acetate increased RANTES/CCL5 secretion versus control, whereas propionate and butyrate decreased RANTES/CCL5 secretion, and only 1 mM propionate reduced MCP-3/CCL7 secretion (p < 0.05). At the lower 0.5 mM concentration, both propionate and butyrate reduced IL-6 and IL-1β secretion compared to control (p < 0.05), and there was no difference in adipokine secretion between groups at the 0.25 mM SCFA concentration (p > 0.05). Intracellular protein expression in the ratio of phosphorylated-to-total STAT3 was reduced by all SCFAs at 1 mM and by propionate and butyrate at 0.5 mM versus control (p < 0.05). The ratio fo phosphorylated-to-total NFκB p65 expression was reduced by propionate and butyrate at 1 mM and by butyrate alone at 0.5 mM compared to control (p < 0.05). Basal (no insulin stimulation) and insulin-stimulated glucose uptake did not differ between control and any 1 mM SCFA treatment conditions (p > 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Individual SCFAs exert different dose-dependent effects on LPS-stimulated adipocyte function.

Omentin-1, a Protective Adipokine for Irritable Bowel Syndrome

Introduction

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is characterized by patients' high level of suffering. There is increasing evidence for involvement of the immune system in this disease. Adipokines have been reported to be critical immunoregulators in many clinical conditions, including gastrointestinal (GI) inflammatory diseases. Our study aimed to investigate associations of omentin-1 (a newly discovered adipokine) with IBS.

Methods

In the current study, serum levels of omentin-1 were measured in 209 patients with IBS (including three subtypes) and 188 healthy controls by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The somatic symptoms of IBS were determined by the 5-item IBS symptoms severity score (IBS-SSS), quality of life (QOL) by 34-item IBS-QOL questionnaire, and psychological disorders by Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS), Visceral Sensitivity Index (VSI). Therapeutic effect of omentin-1 for IBS was investigated in a 2,4,6-trinitrobenzenesulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced IBS mouse model.

Results

We found that serum levels of omentin-1 were significantly decreased in patients with the diarrhea-predominant IBS (IBS-D) subtype (not the constipation or alternating subtype) compared to those in healthy subjects. Patients with lower serum omentin-1 levels suffered from higher severity of somatic symptoms (abdominal pain and distention, flatulence, rumbling), lower QOL, and worse psychological status. In a one-year follow-up, serum omentin-1 levels showed potential to reflect the disease progression. Additionally, lower omentin-1 levels were found to be accompanied with higher levels of serum pro-inflammatory cytokine concentrations in patients with IBS-D. Supplement of omentin-1 was protective against visceral hypersensitivity and mucosal inflammation in an IBS mouse model.

Discussion

Our findings highlight the potential value of serum omentin-1 levels as an innovative biomarker in IBS, emphasizing its significance in improving clinical treatment and management of the disease.

A1AT dysregulation of metabolically stressed hepatocytes by Kupffer cells drives MASH and fibrosis

Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis (MASH) is associated with the activation of Kupffer cells (KCs) and hepatic stellate cells, at which point a metabolically stressed hepatocyte becomes integral to the progression of the disease. We observed a significant reduction in the level of alpha-1-antitrypsin (A1AT), a hepatocyte-derived secreted factor, in both patients with MASH and mice fed a fast-food diet (FFD). KC-mediated hepatic inflammation, most notably IL-1β, led to the transcriptional inhibition of A1AT by HNF4α. In quintuple Serpina1a-e knockout mice, ablation of A1AT worsened MASH through increased activity of proteinase 3 (PR3), a proinflammatory protease produced by F4/80hi/CD11blow/TIM4-/CCR2+ monocyte-derived KCs (MoKCs). Conversely, A1AT restoration or PR3 inhibition mitigated MASH progression. A PR3-bound cytokine array identified IL-32 as a key factor associated with MASH. Combining IL-32 with SERPINA1, the gene encoding A1AT, synergistically predicted patients at risk of MASH through univariate logistic regression analysis. Furthermore, in vivo overexpression of IL-32γ alleviated MASH induced by FFD. However, additional knockout of A1AT increased PR3 activity, consequently abolishing the anti-MASH effects of IL-32γ. Blocking PR3-mediated IL-32γ cleavage via the V104A mutation sustained its protective actions, while the PR3-cleaved C-terminal fragment activated KCs. Additionally, after cleavage, the antifibrogenic effect of IL-32γ is lost, resulting in a failure to prevent the activation of hepatic stellate cells. This study highlights the critical role of hepatocyte-derived A1AT in the PR3/IL-32γ axis during MASH development. Strategies to correct A1AT dysregulation, such as A1AT supplementation or PR3 inhibition with sivelestat, may offer protection against the development and progression of MASH and fibrosis. Elevated hepatic IL-1β levels in MASH lead to the downregulation of A1AT via the transcription factor HNF4α, resulting in increased recruitment of proinflammatory MoKCs and heightened PR3 activity. PR3 cleaves IL-32γ, transforming it from an anti-inflammatory and antifibrogenic cytokine into a potent activator of KCs and failing to prevent HSC activation. This cascade amplifies liver inflammation and fibrosis, suggesting that targeting the A1AT/PR3/IL-32γ axis could be a strategy for treating MASH.

Obesity-related indices are associated with self-reported infertility in women: findings from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

OBJECTIVE

Obesity can contribute to infertility, but the exact relationship between infertility risk and obesity-related measurements like waist-to-height ratio (WHtR), body roundness index (BRI), conicity index (CoI), and A body shape index (ABSI) in women is uncertain. We investigated the association between these indices and female infertility.

METHODS

In this cross-sectional study, we used National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey data (2013-2018). We used weighted multivariable logistic regression analysis, receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves, and subgroup analysis, as well as propensity score matching.

RESULTS

Among 3373 participants, 344 (10.2%) reported infertility. A significant link between higher infertility risk and increased WHtR, BRI, CoI, ABSI, and body mass index (BMI) was found. Multivariable logistic regression analysis showed WHtR (odds ratio [OR] = 1.27, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.14-1.42), BRI (OR = 1.09, 95% CI: 1.05-1.14), CoI (OR = 1.36, 95% CI: 1.18-1.56), ABSI (OR = 1.22, 95% CI: 1.12-1.33), and BMI (OR = 1.03, 95% CI: 1.02-1.05) were significantly associated with female infertility. CoI had the best diagnostic performance (area under the ROC curve 0.628, 95% CI: 0.597-0.658).

CONCLUSIONS

Obesity-related indices were positively linked to infertility risk among women in the United States. These indices serve as valuable tools for assessing female infertility risk.

Systematic Mendelian Randomization Exploring Druggable Genes for Hemorrhagic Strokes

Patients with hemorrhagic stroke have high rates of morbidity and mortality, and drugs for prevention are very limited. Mendelian randomization (MR) analysis can increase the success rate of drug development by providing genetic evidence. Previous MR analyses only analyzed the role of individual drug target genes in hemorrhagic stroke; therefore, we used MR analysis to systematically explore the druggable genes for hemorrhagic stroke. We sequentially performed summary-data-based MR analysis and two-sample MR analysis to assess the associations of all genes within the database with intracranial aneurysm, intracerebral hemorrhage, and their subtypes. Validated genes were further analyzed by colocalization. Only genes that were positive in all three analyses and were druggable were considered desirable genes. We also explored the mediators of genes affecting hemorrhagic stroke incidence. Finally, the associations of druggable genes with other cardiovascular diseases were analyzed to assess potential side effects. We identified 56 genes that significantly affected hemorrhagic stroke incidence. Moreover, TNFSF12, SLC22A4, SPARC, KL, RELT, and ADORA3 were found to be druggable. The inhibition of TNFSF12, SLC22A4, and SPARC can reduce the risk of intracranial aneurysm, subarachnoid hemorrhage, and intracerebral hemorrhage. Gene-induced hypertension may be a potential mechanism by which these genes cause hemorrhagic stroke. We also found that blocking these genes may cause side effects, such as ischemic stroke and its subtypes. Our study revealed that six druggable genes were associated with hemorrhagic stroke, and the inhibition of TNFSF12, SLC22A4, and SPARC had preventive effects against hemorrhagic strokes.

Plasma proteomic biomarkers as mediators or moderators for the association between poor cardiovascular health and white matter microstructural integrity: The UK Biobank study

INTRODUCTION

The plasma proteome's mediating or moderating roles in the association between poor cardiovascular health (CVH) and brain white matter (WM) microstructural integrity are largely unknown.

METHODS

Data from 3953 UK Biobank participants were used (40-70 years, 2006-2010), with a neuroimaging visit between 2014 and 2021. Poor CVH was determined using Life's Essential 8 (LE8) and reversing standardized z-scores (LE8z _rev). The plasma proteome was examined as a potential mediator or moderator of LE8z _rev's effects on quantitative diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (dMRI) metrics.

RESULTS

LE8z_rev was significantly associated with deteriorated WM microstructural integrity, as reflected by lower tract-averaged fractional anisotropy (dMRI-FAmean), (β ± standared error (SE): -0.00152 ± 0.0003, p < 0.001) and higher tract-averaged orientation dispersion (dMRI-ODmean), (β ± SE:+0.00081 ± 0.00017, p < 0.001). Ten strongly mediating plasma proteins of 1463 were identified, with leptin as the principal driver.

DISCUSSION

Poor CVH is linked to poor WM microstructural integrity measures (lower FAmean and higher ODmean), mostly mediated through leptin.

HIGHLIGHTS

Up to 3953 UK Biobank participants were selected for this study. Poor cardiovascular health (CVH) was determined using Life's Essential 8. The plasma proteome was examined as a potential mediator or moderator of poor CVH's effect on dMRI metrics. Ten plasma proteins were identified with strong mediating effects, with leptin being the principal driver.

New insights into the structure domain and function of NLR family CARD domain containing 5

NOD-like receptor family CARD domain-containing 5 (NLRC5) is a major transcriptional coactivator of MHC class I genes. NLRC5 is the largest member of the NLR family and contains three domains: an untypical caspase recruitment domain (uCARD), a central nucleotide-binding and oligomerization domain (NOD or NACHT), and a leucine-rich repeat (LRR) domain. The functional variability of NLRC5 has been attributed to its different domain interactions with specific ligands in different cell types. In this review, we address the molecular mechanisms and their implications in multiple microenvironments based on the different functional domains of NLRC5.

Adipose tissue macrophages-derived exosomal MiR-500a-5p under high glucose promotes adipocytes inflammation by suppressing Nrf2 expression

BACKGROUND

Type 2 diabetes (T2DM) is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by insulin resistance and chronic inflammation. Adipose tissue macrophages (ATMs), central players in mediating pro-inflammatory responses within adipose tissue, have been shown to influence insulin sensitivity through exosome secretion. While the role of macrophages-derived exosomal miRNA has been studied in various diseases, their pathogenic roles in T2DM, particularly ATMs-derived exosomal miRNA in adipose tissue inflammation, remain underexplored.

OBJECTIVES

This study focuses specifically on T2DM, investigating the role of ATM-derived exosomal miRNAs in adipose tissue inflammation, a critical factor in the pathogenesis of T2DM.

METHODS

ATM were isolated from visceral adipose tissues in patients with or without diabetes. Differentially expressed miRNAs in ATM-derived exosomes were predicted by high-throughput RNA sequencing. The RAW264.7 macrophages and 3T3-L1 preadipocytes was selected as a model system. Quantitative RT-PCR was used to assess miR-500a-5p expression. The direct binding of miR-500a-5p to Nrf2 mRNA 3' UTR was verified by dual luciferase assay.

RESULTS

MiR-500a-5p was also enriched in the exosomes of high-glucose-treated macrophages. Furthermore, these exosomes induced high expression of miR-500a-5p and activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome in adipocytes when co-cultured with them. Additionally, the reduction of miR-500a-5p expression in macrophages by using a miR-500a-5p inhibitor ameliorated the pro-inflammatory properties of the exosomes, and co-culturing these exosomes with adipocytes resulted in decreased expression of NLRP3 inflammasome-associated proteins in adipocytes. In contrast, induction of miR-500a-5p expression led to the opposite results. Moreover, the dual-luciferase assay confirmed that miR-500a-5p directly targeted the 3' UTR of Nrf2 mRNA. Unlike miR-500a-5p, Nrf2 exhibited an anti-inflammatory response.

CONCLUSION

The results indicate that ATM-derived exosomal miR-500a-5p promotes NLRP3 inflammasome activation and adipose tissue inflammation through down-regulation of Nrf2 in adipocytes.

Deciphering endocrine function of adipose tissue and its significant influences in obesity-related diseases caused by its dysfunction

Current research has found that adipose tissue is not only involved in energy metabolism, but also a highly active endocrine organ that secretes various adipokines, including adiponectin, leptin, resistin and apelin, which are involved in the regulation of physiology and pathology of tissues and organs throughout the body. With the yearly increasing incidence, obesity has become a risk factor for a variety of pathological changes, including inflammation and metabolic syndrome in various system (endocrine, circulatory, locomotor and central nervous system). Thus these symptoms lead to multi-organ dysfunctions, including the heart, liver, kidneys, brain and joints. An in-depth summary of the roles of adipokines in the regulation of other tissues and organs can help to provide more effective therapeutic strategies for obesity-related diseases and explore potential therapeutic targets. Therefore, this review has retrospected the endocrine function of adipose tissue under obesity and the role of dysregulated adipokine secretion in related diseases and the underlying mechanisms, in order to provide a theoretical basis for targeting adipokine-mediated systemic dysregulation.

ZAG promotes colorectal cancer cell proliferation and epithelial-mesenchymal transition by promoting lipid synthesis

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a common malignant tumor characterized by a high degree of invasiveness, and since zinc-α2 glycoprotein (ZAG) has been implicated in the progression of several malignancies, this study was designed to investigate the role of ZAG in CRC. Its expression was assessed using the GEPIA database, and short hairpin RNA (shRNA) interference was conducted to create ZAG knockdown in CRC cell lines. We also conducted lipid synthesis, cell proliferation, apoptosis, and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) experiments to elucidate the effects of ZAG expression on CRC, as well as explored the potential underlying mechanistic pathways. Our findings reveal that ZAG is overexpressed in CRC. In vitro, ZAG knockdown resulted in the suppression of lipid production, cell division, and EMT while concurrently promoting apoptosis. The phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (AKT)/mechanistic target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway was found to mediate the effects of ZAG on CRC cells. In conclusion, the downregulation of ZAG can inhibit CRC cell survival, EMT, and lipid production via the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathway.

Maternal organokines throughout pregnancy as predictors of neonatal anthropometric characteristics and adiposity

Aims

To evaluate the relation between maternal concentrations of progranulin (PGRN), adipocyte fatty acid-binding protein (AFABP), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) throughout pregnancy with neonatal weight and length at birth and at one month of age, as well as with the percentage of fat mass at one month of age. Besides, we evaluated the association between maternal organokine concentrations with pregestational nutritional status and gestational weight gain (GWG).

Methods

Longitudinal study of 100 healthy pregnant women and their neonates. Conventional biochemical tests were performed and maternal organokine concentrations were measured by ELISA. Neonatal percent fat mass was determined using the PEA POD system, and weight and length were measured using a soft tape measure and a baby scale. Multiple linear regression models were made to predict neonatal anthropometric measurements and adiposity.

Results

In all women, PGRN concentrations significantly increased as pregnancy progressed, while AFABP concentrations increased until the third trimester and the highest BDNF concentrations were observed in the second trimester of pregnancy. In contrast, FGF21 concentrations did not change during pregnancy. Only maternal obesity was associated with some differences in AFABP and FGF21 concentrations. Gestational age at birth, maternal age and third-trimester PGRN concentrations predicted weight (gestational age at birth: β=0.11; maternal age: β=-0.033; PGRN: β=0.003, p<0.001) and, together with first-trimester BDNF concentrations, length (gestational age at birth: β=0.76; maternal age: β=-0.21; PGRN: β=0.24; BDNF: β=0.06, p<0.001) at birth. Maternal age and third-trimester BDNF concentrations predicted one-month-old neonate length (maternal age: β=-1.03; BDNF: β=0.45, p<0.001). Pregestational body mass index (pBMI), GWG, second-trimester FGF21 concentrations, and third-trimester AFABP concentrations predicted neonatal fat mass percentage (pBMI: β=-0.58; GWG: β=-0.32; FGF21: β=-0.004; AFABP: β=-1.27, p<0.001) at one month of age.

Conclusion

Maternal PGRN, AFABP, and BDNF concentrations, but not FGF21, vary throughout pregnancy. These organokines and maternal characteristics can be useful in the prediction of neonatal weight, length, and percentage fat mass.

Metabolic dysfunction-associated fatty liver disease and osteoporosis: the mechanisms and roles of adiposity

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) has recently been renamed metabolic dysfunction-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD) by international consensus. Both MAFLD and osteoporosis are highly prevalent metabolic diseases. Recent evidence indicates that NAFLD increases the risk of low bone mineral density and osteoporosis, likely mediated by obesity. NAFLD has a close association with obesity and other metabolic disorders. Although obesity was previously thought to protect against bone loss, it now heightens osteoporotic fracture risk. This overview summarizes current clinical correlations between obesity, NAFLD, and osteoporosis, with a focus on recent insights into potential mechanisms interconnecting these three conditions. This study reviewed the scientific literature on the relationship between obesity, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, and osteoporosis as well as the scientific literature that reveals the underlying pathophysiologic mechanisms between the three. Emerging evidence suggests obesity plays a key role in mediating the relationship between NAFLD and osteoporosis. Accumulating laboratory evidence supports plausible pathophysiological links between obesity, NAFLD, and osteoporosis, including inflammatory pathways, insulin resistance, gut microbiota dysbiosis, bone marrow adiposity, and alterations in insulin-like growth factor-1 signaling. Adiposity has important associations with NAFLD and osteoporosis, the underlying pathophysiologic mechanisms between the three may provide new therapeutic targets for this complex patient population.

Putative mechanism of a multivitamin treatment against insulin resistance

Insulin resistance is caused by the abnormal secretion of proinflammatory cytokines in adipose tissue, which is induced by an increase in lipid accumulation in adipocytes, hepatocytes, and myocytes. The inflammatory pathway involves multiple targets such as nuclear factor kappa B, inhibitor of nuclear factor κ-B kinase, and mitogen-activated protein kinase. Vitamins are micronutrients with anti-inflammatory activities that have unclear mechanisms. The present study aimed to describe the putative mechanisms of vitamins involved in the inflammatory pathway of insulin resistance. The strategy to achieve this goal was to integrate data mining and analysis, target prediction, and molecular docking simulation calculations to support our hypotheses. Our results suggest that the multitarget activity of vitamins A, B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B7, B12, C, D3, and E inhibits nuclear factor kappa B and mitogen-activated protein kinase, in addition to vitamins A and B12 against inhibitor of nuclear factor κ-B kinase. The findings of this study highlight the pharmacological potential of using an anti-inflammatory and multitarget treatment based on vitamins and open new perspectives to evaluate the inhibitory activity of vitamins against nuclear factor kappa B, mitogen-activated protein kinase, and inhibitor of nuclear factor κ-B kinase in an insulin-resistant context.

CCN5/WISP2 serum levels in patients with coronary artery disease and type 2 diabetes and its correlation with inflammation and insulin resistance; a machine learning approach

Introduction

Studies have shown various effects of CCN5/WISP2 on metabolic pathways, yet no prior investigation has established a link between its serum levels and CAD and/or T2DM. Therefore, this study seeks to explore the relation between CCN5 and the risk factor of CAD and/or diabetes, in comparison to individuals with good health, marking a pioneering endeavor in this field.

Methods

This case-control study investigates serum levels of CCN5, TNF-α, IL-6, adiponectin, and fasting insulin in a population of 160 individuals recruited into four equal groups (T2DM, CAD, CAD-T2DM, and healthy controls). Statistical tests comprise Chi-square tests, ANOVA, Spearman correlation, and logistic regression. ROC curves were used to represent the diagnostic potential of CCN5. Disease states are predicted by machine learning algorithms: Decision Tree, Gradient Boosted Trees, Random Forest, Naïve Bayes, and KNN. These models' performance was evaluated by various metrics, all of which were ensured to be robust by applying 10-fold cross-validation. Analyses were done in SPSS and GraphPad Prism and RapidMiner software.

Results

The CAD, T2DM, and CAD-T2DM groups had significantly higher CCN5 concentrations compared to the healthy control group (CAD: 336.87 ± 107.36 ng/mL, T2DM: 367.46 ± 102.15 ng/mL, CAD-T2DM: 404.68 ± 108.15 ng/mL, control: 205.62 ± 63.34 ng/mL; P < 0.001). A positive and significant correlation was observed between CCN5 and cytokines (IL-6 and TNF-α) in all patient groups (P < 0.05). Multinomial logistic regression analysis indicated a significant association between CCN5 and T2DM-CAD, T2DM, and CAD conditions (P < 0.001) even after adjusting for gender, BMI, and age (P < 0.001). Regarding the machine learning models, the Naïve Bayes model showed the best performance for classifying cases of T2DM, achieving an AUC value of 0.938±0.066. For predicting CAD, the Random Forest classifier achieved the highest AUC value of 0.994±0.020. In the case of CAD-T2DM prediction, the Naïve Bayes model demonstrated the highest AUC of 0.981±0.059, along with an Accuracy of 97.50 % ± 7.91 % and an F-measure of 96.67 % ± 10.54 %.

Conclusion

Our study has revealed, for the first time, a positive connection between CCN5 serum levels and the risk of developing T2DM and CAD. Nonetheless, more research is needed to ascertain whether CCN5 can serve as a predictive marker.

Irisin and neuroinflammation: Challenges and opportunities

Irisin is a myokine that is cleaved from 5-domain type III fibronectin (FNDC5), and is known for its metabolic functions as it stimulates browning of white adipose tissue; similarly, effects on the central nervous system have been described, specifically in neurodevelopmental and neuroprotection processes. The purpose of this review is to describe recent information on the effects of irisin on neuroinflammation to contribute to the knowledge about the mechanisms by which irisin and exercise could generate benefits for some neurological diseases. The review conducted found several studies describing the effect of irisin on pathways such as STAT3, p38, cAMP/PKA/CREB, as well as effects on GFAP protein expression or apoptosis processes in both in vitro and in vivo models; likewise, these pathways are associated with better BDNF expression. Despite increasing information on this topic, it is still necessary to clarify the mechanisms by which irisin has effects on neuroinflammation and this could represent an opportunity to generate more treatments for diseases such as Alzheimer's, Parkinson's or Diabetes Mellitus.

Circulating RBP4 and FABP4 concentrations in patients with chronic schizophrenia are associated with increased epicardial adipose tissue volume and metabolic syndrome

Schizophrenia has been linked to an elevated cardiovascular risk profile and premature onset of cardiovascular disease. Quantifying epicardial adipose tissue (EAT) volume provides insight into its correlation with coronary artery disease (CAD) severity and associated risk factors. Previous research indicates higher pericardial adipose tissue in individuals with schizophrenia compared to non-schizophrenic counterparts. RBP4, FABP3, and FABP4 have been implicated in CAD pathogenesis. In this study, we examined the potential increase in EAT volume in individuals with chronic schizophrenia and aimed to elucidate the relationship between circulating levels of RBP4, FABP3, and FABP4 with EAT volume and coronary artery calcium score within this cohort. We recruited 186 consecutive patients with chronic schizophrenia and utilized enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay to assess plasma concentrations of RBP4, FABP3, and FABP4. Cardiac multislice computed tomography measured EAT volume and coronary artery calcium scores. Significantly higher EAT volume in patients with chronic schizophrenia compared to controls. RBP4 associated positively with metabolic factors and EAT volumes, while FABP3 associated positively with creatinine and coronary atherosclerosis markers. FABP4 showed positive associations with metabolic factors, hypertension, and EAT volumes, but negative associations with HDL-C and eGFR. Logistic regression identified RBP4 and FABP4 as independent factors associated with increased EAT volumes, even after adjusting for known biomarkers. Both RBP4 and FABP4 were significantly associated with metabolic syndrome components and EAT volume. This study elucidates the association between chronic schizophrenia and augmented EAT volume, suggesting plausible correlations with CAD-related health complications through RBP4 and FABP4 pathways.

A Prospective Study on Lifestyle Factors, Body Mass Index Changes, and Lipitension Risk in Japanese Young and Middle-Aged Women

Background: This study investigates how lifestyle factors and westernization contribute to obesity and examines the influence of body mass index (BMI) changes and lifestyle factors on "lipitension," a significant risk factor for heart disease and metabolic syndrome. Methods: This prospective study focused on women aged 20-64 without pre-existing hypertension and dyslipidemia who underwent regular medical checkups between April 2016 and March 2022. Anthropometric measurements and blood pressure, along with low-density lipoprotein, high-density lipoprotein, and triglycerides levels, were assessed. Results: Over an average 46.5-month follow-up, 11.5% of initially healthy young and middle-aged women developed lipitension. Categorizing participants based on BMI changes revealed stable (63.8%), decreased (12.5%), and increased (23.8%) groups within this 11.5%. Increased BMI is linked with a heightened hazard risk for lipitension. Women with increased BMI who refrained from snacking (aHR [95% confidence interval (CI)] = 2.750 [1.433-5.279]), avoided late-night eating (aHR [95% CI] = 1.346 [1.032-1.754]), and engaged in alcohol consumption (aHR [95% CI] = 2.037 [1.138-3.646]) showed an elevated risk. Conversely, within the decreased BMI group, behaviors like skipping breakfast (aHR [95% CI] = 0.190 [0.047-0.764]), eating quickly (aHR [95% CI] = 0.457 [0.215-0.972]), and not eating late (aHR [95% CI] = 0.665 [0.467-0.948]) were associated to a reduced lipitension. Subgroup analysis for women with BMI <23 revealed specific behaviors influencing lipitension risk in both BMI-increased and BMI-stable groups. Conclusion: Customized interventions, including for women with BMI <23, enhance heart health, mitigating global lifestyle diseases and obesity.

Low Serum Fibroblast Growth Factor 21 Level and Its Altered Regulation by Thyroid Hormones in Patients with Hashimoto's Thyroiditis on Levothyroxine Substitution

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES

Fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) is a hormonal regulator of lipid and glucose metabolism exerting protection against atherosclerosis by multiple actions on the blood vessels, liver, and adipose tissues. We aimed to investigate serum FGF21 level and its relation to thyroid hormones and metabolic parameters among patients with Hashimoto's thyroiditis (HT).

METHODS

Eighty patients with HT on levothyroxine treatment and eighty-two age- and BMI-matched adults without thyroid disease serving as controls were enrolled. Serum FGF21 concentrations were determined with an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.

RESULTS

Median serum FGF21 level was significantly lower in HT patients compared with controls (74.2 (33.4-148.3) pg/mL vs. 131.9 (44.8-236.3) pg/mL; p = 0.03). We found a positive correlation between FGF21 and age, triglyceride, total cholesterol, and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in both groups, while thyroid stimulating hormone and C-reactive protein showed a positive correlation, and thyroxine had an inverse correlation with FGF21 only in control subjects. According to multiple regression analyses, thyroid status is the main predictor of FGF21 in healthy controls, while it is not a significant predictor of FGF21 among HT patients on levothyroxine supplementation therapy.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate that the physiological role of thyroid function in the regulation of FGF21 synthesis is impaired in HT patients, which may contribute to the metabolic alterations characteristic of HT patients.

A cocktail of histidine, carnosine, cysteine and serine reduces adiposity and improves metabolic health and adipose tissue immunometabolic function in ovariectomized rats

Many women have sought alternative therapies to address menopause. Recently, a multi-ingredient supplement (MIS) containing L-histidine, L-carnosine, L-serine, and L-cysteine has been shown to be effective at ameliorating hepatic steatosis (HS) in ovariectomized (OVX) rats, a postmenopausal oestrogen deficiency model. Considering that HS frequently accompanies obesity, which often occurs during menopause, we aimed to investigate the effects of this MIS for 8 weeks in OVX rats. Twenty OVX rats were orally supplemented with either MIS (OVX-MIS) or vehicle (OVX). Ten OVX rats received vehicle orally along with subcutaneous injections of 17β-oestradiol (OVX-E2), whereas 10 rats underwent a sham operation and received oral and injected vehicles (control group). MIS consumption partly counteracted the fat mass accretion observed in OVX animals, leading to decreased total fat mass, adiposity index and retroperitoneal white adipose tissue (RWAT) adipocyte hypertrophy. OVX-MIS rats also displayed increased lean mass and lean/fat ratio, suggesting a healthier body composition, similar to the results reported for OVX-E2 animals. MIS consumption decreased the circulating levels of the proinflammatory marker CRP, the total cholesterol-to-HDL-cholesterol ratio and the leptin-to-adiponectin ratio, a biomarker of diabetes risk and metabolic syndrome. RWAT transcriptomics indicated that MIS favourably regulated genes involved in adipocyte structure and morphology, cell fate determination and differentiation, glucose/insulin homeostasis, inflammation, response to stress and oxidative phosphorylation, which may be mechanisms underlying the beneficial effects described for OVX-MIS rats. Our results pave the way for using this MIS formulation to improve the body composition and immunometabolic health of menopausal women.

Pharmacology of P2X Receptors and Their Possible Therapeutic Potential in Obesity and Diabetes

The role of P2X ionotropic receptors in the behavior of purinergic signaling on pathophysiological processes has been widely studied. In recent years, the important participation of P2X receptors in physiological and pathological processes, such as energy metabolism, characteristic inflammatory responses of the immune system, and nociceptive activity in response to pain stimuli, has been noted. Here, we explore the molecular characteristics of the P2X receptors and the use of the different agonist and antagonist agents recently described, focusing on their potential as new therapeutic targets in the treatment of diseases with emphasis on obesity, diabetes, and some of the complications derived from these pathologies.

Advances in the Insulin-Heart Axis: Current Therapies and Future Directions

The insulin-heart axis plays a pivotal role in the pathophysiology of cardiovascular disease (CVD) in insulin-resistant states, including type 2 diabetes mellitus. Insulin resistance disrupts glucose and lipid metabolism, leading to systemic inflammation, oxidative stress, and atherogenesis, which contribute to heart failure (HF) and other CVDs. This review was conducted by systematically searching PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases for peer-reviewed studies published in the past decade, focusing on therapeutic interventions targeting the insulin-heart axis. Studies were selected based on their relevance to insulin resistance, cardiovascular outcomes, and the efficacy of pharmacologic treatments. Key findings from the review highlight the efficacy of lifestyle modifications, such as dietary changes and physical activity, which remain the cornerstone of managing insulin resistance and improving cardiovascular outcomes. Moreover, pharmacologic interventions, such as metformin, sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors, glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists, and dipeptidyl peptidase-4 inhibitors, have shown efficacy in reducing cardiovascular risk by addressing metabolic dysfunction, reducing inflammation, and improving endothelial function. Furthermore, emerging treatments, such as angiotensin receptor-neprilysin inhibitors, and mechanical interventions like ventricular assist devices offer new avenues for managing HF in insulin-resistant patients. The potential of these therapies to improve left ventricular ejection fraction and reverse pathological cardiac remodeling highlights the importance of early intervention. However, challenges remain in optimizing treatment regimens and understanding the long-term cardiovascular effects of these agents. Future research should focus on personalized approaches that integrate lifestyle and pharmacologic therapies to effectively target the insulin-heart axis and mitigate the burden of cardiovascular complications in insulin-resistant populations.

Chemerin in the Spotlight: Revealing Its Multifaceted Role in Acute Myocardial Infarction

Chemerin, an adipokine known for its role in adipogenesis and inflammation, has emerged as a significant biomarker in cardiovascular diseases, including acute myocardial infarction (AMI). Recent studies have highlighted chemerin's involvement in the pathophysiological processes of coronary artery disease (CAD), where it modulates inflammatory responses, endothelial function, and vascular remodelling. Elevated levels of chemerin have been associated with adverse cardiovascular outcomes, including increased myocardial injury, left ventricular dysfunction, and heightened inflammatory states post-AMI. This manuscript aims to provide a comprehensive review of the current understanding of chemerin's role in AMI, detailing its molecular mechanisms, clinical implications, and potential as a biomarker for diagnosis and prognosis. Additionally, we explore the therapeutic prospects of targeting chemerin pathways to mitigate myocardial damage and improve clinical outcomes in AMI patients. By synthesizing the latest research findings, this review seeks to elucidate the multifaceted role of chemerin in AMI and its promise as a target for innovative therapeutic strategies.

Subacute cadmium exposure changes different metabolic functions, leading to type 1 and 2 diabetes mellitus features in female rats

Cadmium (Cd) is a heavy metal that acts as endocrine disrupting chemical (EDC). Few studies have investigated the effects of Cd exposure on metabolic dysfunctions, such as type 1 and 2 diabetes mellitus (T1DM and T2DM). Thus, we assessed whether subacute Cd exposure at occupational levels causes abnormalities in white adipose tissue (WAT), liver, pancreas, and skeletal muscle. We administered cadmium chloride (CdCl2) (100 ppm in drinking water for 30 days) to female rats and evaluated Cd levels in serum and metabolic organs, morphophysiology, inflammation, oxidative stress, fibrosis, and gene expression. High Cd levels were found in serum, WAT, liver, pancreas, and skeletal muscle. Cd-exposed rats showed low adiposity, dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, systemic inflammation, and oxidative stress compared to controls. Cd exposure reduced adipocyte size, hyperleptinemia, increased cholesterol levels, inflammation, apoptosis and fibrosis in WAT. Cd-exposed rats had increased liver cholesterol levels, insulin receptor beta (IRβ) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator-1alpha (PGC1α) expression, karyomegaly, inflammation, and fibrosis. Cd exposure reduced insulin levels and pancreatic islet size and increased inflammation and fibrosis. Cd exposure reduced skeletal muscle fiber diameter and increased IR expression and inflammation. Finally, strong positive correlations were observed between serum, tissue Cd levels, abnormal morphology, tissue inflammation and fibrosis. Thus, these data suggest that subacute Cd exposure impairs WAT, liver, pancreas and skeletal muscle function, leading to T1DM and T2DM features and other complications in female rats.

Roles of natural products on myokine expression and secretion in skeletal muscle atrophy

Skeletal muscles serve both in movement and as endocrine organs. Myokines secreted by skeletal muscles activate biological functions within muscles and throughout the body via autocrine, paracrine, and/or endocrine pathways. Skeletal muscle atrophy can influence myokine expression and secretion, while myokines can impact the structure and function of skeletal muscles. Regulating the expression and secretion of myokines through the pharmacological approach is a strategy for alleviating skeletal muscle atrophy. Natural products possess complex structures and chemical properties. Previous studies have demonstrated that various natural products exert beneficial effects on skeletal muscle atrophy. This article reviewed the regulatory effects of natural products on myokines and summarized the research progress on skeletal muscle atrophy associated with myokine regulation. The focus is on how small-molecule natural products affect the regulation of interleukin 6 (IL-6), irisin, myostatin, IGF-1, and FGF-21 expression. We contend that the development of small-molecule natural products targeting the regulation of myokines holds promise in combating skeletal muscle atrophy.

Prognostic significance of serum secreted frizzled-related protein 5 in patients with acute aortic dissection

Background

Secreted frizzled-related protein 5 (SFRP5) is a novel adipokine that has been found to be closely associated with metabolic and cardiovascular diseases. We investigated serum SFRP5 levels during the acute phase and their predictive value for the prognosis of acute aortic dissection (AAD).

Methods

In total, 152 AAD patients and 164 controls were enrolled in this study. Serum SFRP5 levels were measured using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). AAD patients were divided into high-SFRP5 and low-SFRP5 groups based on the optimal cutoff value and followed up for prognosis. The primary endpoint was all-cause mortality, and the secondary endpoint focused on AAD-related events (including AAD-related mortality and unplanned reoperations).

Results

Serum SFRP5 levels were significantly higher in AAD patients than in non-AAD controls, regardless of whether they had Stanford type A or B AD. Multivariate logistic regression analysis revealed an independent association between SFRP5 and the presence of AAD (adjusted OR 1.267, 95 % CI 1.152-1.394; p < 0.001). The receiver operating characteristic curve demonstrated that the optimal cutoff value for SFRP5 to predict the presence of AAD was 10.26 ng/mL (AUC 0.7241, sensitivity 49.34 %, specificity 87.20 %). Notably, serum SFRP5 levels of patients in the death group were significantly higher than those in the survival group. Compared with patients in the low-SFRP5 group, those in the high-SFRP5 group exhibited a significantly increased risk of all-cause mortality (HR 9.540, 95 % CI 2.803-32.473; p < 0.001) and AAD-related events (HR 6.915, 95 % CI 2.361-20.254; p < 0.001) during the follow-up period.

Conclusion

Serum SFRP5 levels were significantly elevated in the acute phase of AAD, and high serum SFRP5 levels were independently associated with poor AAD prognosis. These results suggest that serum SFRP5 level during the acute phase may be an effective biomarker and therapeutic target for the prognosis of AAD.

The Impact of the Endocrine and Immunological Function of Adipose Tissue on Reproduction in Women with Obesity

Obesity, which leads to metabolic dysregulation and body function impairment, emerges as one of the pressing health challenges worldwide. Excessive body fat deposits comprise a dynamic and biologically active organ possessing its own endocrine function. One of the mechanisms underlying the pathophysiology of obesity is low-grade systemic inflammation mediated by pro-inflammatory factors such as free fatty acids, lipopolysaccharides, adipokines (including leptin, resistin and visfatin) and cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, Il-6), which are secreted by adipose tissue. Together with obesity-induced insulin resistance and hyperandrogenism, the exacerbated immune response has a negative impact on the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis at all levels and directly affects reproduction. In women, it results in disrupted ovarian function, irregular menstrual cycles and anovulation, contributing to infertility. This review focuses on the abnormal intracellular communication, altered gene expression and signaling pathways activated in obesity, underscoring its multifactorial character and consequences at a molecular level. Extensive presentation of the complex interplay between adipokines, cytokines, immune cells and neurons may serve as a foundation for future studies in search of potential sites for more targeted treatment of reproductive disorders related to obesity.

Adiponectin pathway activation dampens inflammation and enhances alveolar macrophage fungal killing via LC3-associated phagocytosis

Although innate immunity is critical for antifungal host defense against the human opportunistic fungal pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus, potentially damaging inflammation must be controlled. Adiponectin (APN) is an adipokine produced mainly in adipose tissue that exerts anti-inflammatory effects in adipose-distal tissues such as the lung. We observed 100% mortality and increased fungal burden and inflammation in neutropenic mice with invasive aspergillosis (IA) that lack APN or the APN receptors AdipoR1 or AdipoR2. Alveolar macrophages (AMs), early immune sentinels that detect and respond to lung infection, express both receptors, and APN-/- AMs exhibited an inflammatory/M1 phenotype that was associated with decreased fungal killing. Pharmacological stimulation of AMs with AdipoR agonist AdipoRon partially rescued deficient killing in APN-/- AMs that was dependent on both receptors. Finally, APN-enhanced fungal killing was associated with increased activation of the non-canonical LC3 pathway of autophagy. Thus, our study identifies a novel role for APN in LC3-mediated killing of A. fumigatus.

Buddleoside-rich Chrysanthemum indicum L. extract modulates macrophage-mediated inflammation to prevent metabolic syndrome induced by unhealthy diet

BACKGROUND

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a precursor to the development of many diseases (atherosclerosis, diabetes, etc.). It is marked by disruptions in glucose and lipid metabolism, along with hypertension. Numerous types of risk factors contribute to the development of the MetS, inflammation and insulin resistance are present throughout the metabolic abnormalities. Chrysanthemum indicum L. is a traditional Chinese plant used for both tea and medicine, known for its high content of total flavonoids, which are important secondary metabolites. Our research led to the extraction of a Buddleoside-Rich Chrysanthemum indicum L. extract (BUDE) which has demonstrated anti-inflammatory properties. Nonetheless, the specific role and mechanism of BUDE in preventing MetS remain unclear.

METHODS

The study initially evaluated the role of BUDE in preventing MetS. Subsequently, it investigated the anti-inflammatory properties of BUDE in the liver and pancreas in response to unhealthy diets. It then examined the level of insulin resistance and pancreatic β-cell function induced by inflammation. Additionally, an lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced macrophage inflammation model was used to further investigate the ameliorative effects of BUDE in inflammation.

RESULTS

BUDE has hypotensive, hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects. It can also resolve the imbalance between macrophage subpopulations, impede the triggering of the NF-κB signaling pathway, reduce the secretion of inflammatory mediators, ameliorate insulin resistance, and safeguard organs such as the liver and pancreas from inflammatory damage. These effects collectively contribute to preventing the development of MetS.

DISCUSSION

BUDE has the ability to modulate macrophage-mediated inflammation, leading to improved insulin resistance. Additionally, it delivers antihypertensive, hypoglycemic, and hypolipidemic effects, offering a potential for preventing MetS.

GDF15 regulated by HDAC2 exerts suppressive effects on oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation-induced neuronal cell pyroptosis via the NLRP3 inflammasome

Background

Pyroptosis, inflammation-related programed cell death mediated by NLRP3 inflammasome, is involved in the pathogenesis of cerebral hypoxic-ischemic injury. Our study aims to explore the biological role of growth differentiation factor (GDF)15 in oxygen-glucose deprivation/reoxygenation (OGD/R)-induced neuronal pyroptosis.

Methods

HT22 neurons were subjected to OGD/R to simulate cerebral hypoxic-ischemic injury. Cells were transfected with plasmids to overexpress GDF15, or lentiviral-based shRNAs constructs to silence GDF15. ELISA assay was used to detect GDF15, IL-1β, IL-18, and neuron specific enolase (NSE) levels. Cell pyroptosis was measured by flow cytometery. Chromatin immunoprecipitation assay was used to detect interaction of H3K27ac with GDF15 promoter. GDF15, NLRP3, Caspase-1 p20 and GSDMD-N expressions were measured by Western blotting.

Results

Patients with malignant middle cerebral artery infarction showed decreased GDF15, but increased IL-1β, IL-18, and NSE levels in serum compared to healthy controls. OGD/R treatment caused significant increases in the levels of IL-1β, IL-18 and NSE, percentages of pyroptotic cells, and expressions of NLRP3, Caspase-1 p20, and GSDMD in HT22 cells, which were markedly reversed by GDF15 overexpression. However, GDF15 knockdown resulted in neuronal injury similar to those observed in OGD/R treatment. The GDF15 knockdown-induced effects were counteracted by treatment with NLRP3 inhibitor. OGD/R decreased the enrichment of H3K27ac in the promoter of GDF15 to down-regulate GDF15, but was compromised by co-treatment with HDAC2 inhibitor.

Conclusion

Our data demonstrates that GDF15 attenuates OGD/R-induced pyroptosis through NLRP3 inflammasome. HDAC2 is involved in mediating OGD-induced GDF15 down-regulation via H3K27ac modification. GDF15 overexpression and HDAC2 inhibition hold potential as useful therapeutic strategies for neuroprotection.