Plant Secondary Metabolites: The Weapons for Biotic Stress Management

The biochemical and molecular mechanisms of plants: a review on insect herbivory

Biochemical and molecular mechanisms have been essential mechanisms to reduce various insect attacks on plants. The biochemical methods are wide involving direct and indirect defenses. The defensive chemical substances are secreted effectively to the wound caused by the herbivores (insects and phytopathogens) on plants. Plants responded by producing VOCs which draw the natural enemies of the insects and phytopathogens. The progress observed in the cognition of the stimulus in plants and their potential to control the responses is characterized by the modification observed in molecular mechanisms which shifts our attention to the development of the endogenous resistance methods of preserving crops. The main objective of implementing a biotechnological mechanism in crop production is to employ durable and multimechanistic alternatives to insect pests via the stimulus the plant produces upon encountering the insect attack.

Interactions between β-lactoglobulin and polyphenols: Mechanisms, properties, characterization, and applications

β-lactoglobulins (βLGs) have a wide range of applications in food because of their ability to emulsify, foam, and gel. This makes them good functional additives. However, their performance depends on temperature, pH, and mineral levels, so their functional qualities are limited in particular applications. How polyphenols (PPs) interact with βLG is crucial for the functional characteristics and quality of dietary compounds. In most food systems, a spontaneous interaction between proteins and PPs results in a "protein-PP conjugate," which is known to affect the sensory, functional, and nutraceutical qualities of food products. The βLG-PP conjugates can be used to enhance the quality of food. This article emphasizes analytical techniques for describing the characteristics of βLG-PP complexes/conjugates. It also goes over the functions of βLG-PP conjugates, including their solubility, thermal stability, emulsifying, and antioxidant qualities. The majority of βLG-PPs interactions is due to non-covalent (H-bonding, electrostatic interactions) or covalent bonds that are mostly caused by βLG or PP oxidation through enzymatic or non-enzymatic mechanisms. Furthermore, the conformation or type of proteins and PPs, as well as environmental factors like pH and temperature, have a significant impact on proteins-PPs interactions. Higher thermal stability, antioxidant activities, and superior emulsifying capabilities of the βLG-PP conjugates make them useful as innovative additives to enhance the quality and functions of food products.

A design of Tetrastigma hemsleyanum's flavonoid loaded polyvinylpyrrolidone nanoparticles for improving its bioavailability and biological activities

Flavonoids in plant extracts exhibit significant biological activities but are limited by their low bioavailability. This research aimed to improve the functional properties by synthesizing polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) nanoparticles using flavonoids derived from T. hemsleyanum. 208 flavonoids were identified using ultrahigh-performance-mass/mass spectrometry and used for nanoparticle preparation. The nanoparticles exhibited 24 % and 55 % higher equilibrium dissolution rates in simulated intestinal and gastric fluids than free flavonoids. With spherical morphologies, 100 nm size and - 26.7 mV zeta potential, these nanoparticles showed remarkable improvements in biological activities, including 1.5-fold enhancement in antioxidant capacity, HeLa cell inhibition, and antimicrobial efficacy, and a 5-fold increase in anti-inflammatory effects compared to unencapsulated flavonoids. This research has established a methodological system that could effectively enhance the utilization rate of flavonoids in plant extracts, offering promising potential for application in functional foods.

Effects of Air Temperature on Transient Expression of Influenza Hemagglutinin in Nicotiana benthamiana: Analysis of Transgene Transcription and Plant Stress Responses

Postinfiltration air temperature is known to affect the accumulation of recombinant protein in Agrobacterium-mediated transient expression in Nicotiana benthamiana plants, including the number of days needed to reach maximum content and the rate of reduction thereafter. This study aimed to clarify whether the transcript levels of the transgenes and those of plant stress response markers (i.e., hypersensitive response and endoplasmic reticulum [ER] stress) could be primary determinants of the accumulation of recombinant influenza hemagglutinin (HA) at 21 or 26°C. We found no correlation between the transgene expression levels (HA, RdRP, and MP) and the number of days needed to reach the maximum HA protein content at both temperatures. Regardless of the accumulation compartment, HA protein content peaked earlier at 26°C than at 21°C. The rapid reduction of HA content after reaching the maximum, observed only in the ER at 26°C, correlated with severe necrosis and high transcript levels of two representative ER stress markers, bZIP60 and BiP. This correlation suggests that high postinfiltration air temperature affects HA accumulation primarily through ER stress, a key factor in the rapid reduction of HA content after the peak.

Synergistic interaction of sodium nitroprusside and Serratia marcescens in mitigation of nematode stress in tomato

Plant growth and development are negatively impacted by root-knot nematodes (RKNs), which in turn affects plant production. Chemical nematicides are one of the effective strategies for managing RKNs. But, high concentration of these chemicals is toxic to plants, environment and humans. Therefore, an in-vivo study was conducted to unravel the synergistic interplay sodium nitroprusside (SNP: nitric oxide donor) and, Serratia marcescens in M. incognita-stressed tomato plants. Results revealed that treatment with SNP and bacterial culture cells reduced gall formation and improved morphology. It also reduced nematode-induced oxidative stress in M. incognita-infested tomato plants as compared to untreated plants. Increased photosynthetic parameters including photosynthetic pigments and gas-exchange parameters was also observed in treated plants. Additionally, treated plants exhibited increased antioxidant defense system in terms of upregulated activities of enzymatic antioxidants (Ascorbate peroxidase, guaiacol peroxidase, polyphenol oxidase, catalase, glutathione-S-transferase and superoxide dismutase). Content of non-enzymatic antioxidants (Glutathione, ascorbic acid and tocopherol) was also enhanced in treated plants as compared to untreated nematode-infected plants. Further, treatment with SNP and S. marcescens increased secondary metabolites (total phenol, flavonoid and anthocyanin) and proline content. Reduction in nematode-induced nuclear and membrane damage was also observed in SNP and bacterial culture cells treated tomato plants. The integrative application of SNP and S. marcescens exhibited synergism and overpowered their individual application in reducing the negative effects of nematode stress. The findings of the current investigation suggest the integrative use of SNP and bacteria is more beneficial in alleviating nematode stress in plants.

Plant Secondary Metabolites-Central Regulators Against Abiotic and Biotic Stresses

As global climates shift, plants are increasingly exposed to biotic and abiotic stresses that adversely affect their growth and development, ultimately reducing agricultural productivity. To counter these stresses, plants produce secondary metabolites (SMs), which are critical biochemical and essential compounds that serve as primary defense mechanisms. These diverse compounds, such as alkaloids, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, and nitrogen/sulfur-containing compounds, act as natural protectants against herbivores, pathogens, and oxidative stress. Despite the well-documented protective roles of SMs, the precise mechanisms by which environmental factors modulate their accumulation under different stress conditions are not fully understood. This review provides comprehensive insights into the recent advances in understanding the functions of SMs in plant defense against abiotic and biotic stresses, emphasizing their regulatory networks and biosynthetic pathways. Furthermore, we explored the unique contributions of individual SM classes to stress responses while integrating the findings across the entire spectrum of SM diversity, providing a comprehensive understanding of their roles in plant resilience under multiple stress conditions. Finally, we highlight the emerging strategies for harnessing SMs to improve crop resilience through genetic engineering and present novel solutions to enhance agricultural sustainability in a changing climate.

Plant glycosides and glycosidases: classification, sources, and therapeutic insights in current medicine

Plant glycosides have a broad spectrum of pharmaceutical activities primarily due to the glycosidic residues present in their structure. Especially, the therapeutic glycosides can be classified into many compounds based on the sugar moiety, chains/ saccharide units, glycosidic linkages, and aglycones. Among many classes, the widely used pharmacological classification is based on the aglycones linked to the glycoside molecule. Based on these non-sugar moiety (aglycones), plant glycosides are further classified into twelve different types of glycosides along with the recent discovery of novel (cannabinoid) glycosides. They are called alcoholic, anthraquinone, coumarin, chromone, cyanogenic, flavonoid, phenolic, cardiac, saponin, thio, steviol, iridoid, and cannabinoid glycosides. Each of the plant glycosides has been discussed in this paper with, origin, structure, and abundant presence in a specific family of plants. Besides, the therapeutic roles of these plant glycosides are further described in detail to validate their efficacies in the human health care system. On the other hand, glycosides are inactive until enzymatic hydrolysis releases their active aglycone, enabling targeted drug delivery. This process enhances aglycone solubility and stability, improving bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy. They target specific receptors or enzymes, minimizing off-target effects and enhancing pharmacological outcomes. Derived from plants, glycosides offer diverse chemical structures for drug development. They are integral to traditional medicine and modern pharmaceuticals, utilized in therapies ranging from cardiology to antimicrobial treatments.

Edible insects as functional foods: bioactive compounds, health benefits, safety concerns, allergenicity, and regulatory considerations

The growing demand for sustainable and nutrient-rich food sources has positioned edible insects as a viable alternative to traditional animal-based proteins. This review explores the bioactive properties and food safety considerations of edible insects, emphasizing their potential health benefits and the challenges associated with their widespread consumption. Research has identified bioactive compounds in insects with antioxidant, antimicrobial, immunomodulatory, cardioprotective, and digestive health-promoting properties, highlighting their potential as functional foods for preventing or managing chronic diseases such as cardiovascular conditions and inflammatory disorders. Additionally, this review examines findings related to contaminants in edible insects, including heavy metals, microbial pathogens, and allergens, which could pose health risks. Certain insect species have shown accumulation of heavy metals, such as cadmium and lead, depending on their diet and environment. Moreover, microbial contamination, including bacteria, fungi, and parasites, can occur if farming and processing conditions are not properly controlled. Furthermore, insect proteins exhibit cross-reactivity with allergens found in crustaceans and dust mites, raising concerns for individuals with food allergies. For edible insects to be successfully integrated into global food systems, further technological advancements, regulatory oversight, and consumer acceptance strategies must be implemented. Addressing these challenges will enable edible insects to become a key component of sustainable food systems, contributing to global nutrition, environmental sustainability, and human health.

A comparative genomic analysis at the chromosomal-level reveals evolutionary patterns of aphid chromosomes

Genomic rearrangements are primary drivers of evolution, promoting biodiversity. Aphids, an agricultural pest with high species diversity, exhibit rapid chromosomal evolution and diverse karyotypes. These variations have been attributed to their unique holocentric chromosomes and parthenogenesis, though this hypothesis has faced scrutiny. In this study, we generated a chromosomal-level reference genome assembly of the celery aphid (Semiaphis heraclei) and conducted comparative genomic analysis, revealing varying chromosomal evolution rates among aphid lineages, positively correlating with species diversity. Aphid X chromosomes have undergone frequent intra-chromosomal recombination, while autosomes show accelerated inter-chromosomal recombination. Moreover, considering both inter- and intra-chromosomal rearrangements, the increased autosomal rearrangement rates may be common across the Aphidomorpha. We identified that the expansion of DNA transposable elements and short interspersed nuclear elements (SINEs), coupled with gene loss and duplication associated with karyotypic instability (such as RIF1, BRD8, DMC1, and TERT), may play crucial roles in aphid chromosomal evolution. Additionally, our analysis revealed that the mutation and expansion of detoxification gene families in S. heraclei may be a key factor in adapting to host plant chemical defenses. Our results provide new insights into chromosomal evolutionary patterns and detoxification gene families evolution in aphids, aiding the understanding of species diversity and adaptive evolution.

Transcriptomic Analysis of Broussonetia papyrifera Fruit Under Manganese Stress and Mining of Flavonoid Synthesis Genes

Broussonetia papyrifera is a deciduous tree with significant economic and medicinal value. It demonstrates notable physiological adaptability to mining areas with severe manganese contamination and is a pioneering species in the field of ecological restoration. Flavonoids are vital secondary metabolites that improve plant resilience to environmental stresses. In the study presented herein, immature and mature fruits of B. papyrifera grown in normal and high manganese environments were used as the test materials. B. papyrifera fruit was subjected to transcriptome sequencing via high-throughput sequencing technology to analyze its flavonoid metabolic pathways and related genes. Transcriptome sequencing identified a total of 46,072 unigenes, with an average length of 1248 bp and a percentage of Q30 bases ranging from 92.45 to 93.17%. Furthermore, 31,792 unigenes (69% of the total) were annotated using eight databases, including the GO and KEGG. Analysis of KEGG metabolic pathways and flavonoid content trends in B. papyrifera fruits revealed four unigenes with strong links to the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway under manganese stress: flavone 3-hydroxylase, flavonoids 3',5'-O-methyltransferase, chalcone synthase, and flavonol synthase. These unigenes may play important roles in regulating flavonoid synthesis in B. papyrifera fruits under manganese stress. This study lays the groundwork for functional gene research in B. papyrifera.

Multi-Omics and Physiological Analysis Reveal Crosstalk Between Aphid Resistance and Nitrogen Fertilization in Wheat

The availability of nitrogen (N) can dramatically influence crops resistance to herbivorous insects. However, the interaction between N fertilization and crop resistance to insects is not well understood. In this study, the effects of N fertilization on the grain aphid (Sitobion miscanthi) were investigated using three wheat (Triticum aestivum) cultivars with different aphid resistances. We measured aphid life cycle parameters, fecundity, survival rate, weight and feeding behavior, in conjunction with wheat metabolomics, transcriptomics and alien introgression analysis. Our results demonstrated that higher N application benefits aphid feeding across all three wheat cultivars. We also reveal that the highly resistant cultivar (ZM9) can only exert its resistance-advantage under low N fertilization, losing its advantage compared to moderately resistant cultivar YN19 and susceptible cultivar YN23 under higher N fertilization. The effects of N fertilization on wheat-aphid interactions were due to changes in the regulation of carbon and nitrogen metabolism. Integration of multi-omics highlighted specific aphid-induced differentially expressed genes (DEGs, e.g., TUB6, Tubulin 6; ENODL20, Early nodulin-like protein 20; ACT7 Actin 7; Prx47, Peroxidase 47) and significantly different metabolites (SDMs, e.g., crotonoside, guanine, 2'-O-methyladenosine, ferulic acid) in ZM9. Additionally, we report the unique SDMs-DEGs interactions, associated with introgression during wheat domestication, may help infer aphid resistance. In summary, this study provides new insights into the relationships between N fertilization practices, defense responses and integrated pest management for sustainable wheat production.

Computational identification of novel natural inhibitors against triple mutant DNA gyrase A in fluoroquinolone-resistant Salmonella Typhimurium

The rising resistance to fluoroquinolones in Salmonella Typhimurium poses a significant global health challenge. This computational research addresses the pressing need for new therapeutic drugs by utilizing various computational tools to identify potential natural compounds that can inhibit the triple mutant DNA gyrase subunit A enzyme, which is crucial in fluoroquinolone resistance. Initially, the three-dimensional structure of the wild-type DNA gyrase A protein was modeled using homology modeling, and followed by in silico mutagenesis to create the clinically relevant triple mutant (SER83PHE, ASP87GLY, ALA119SER) DNA gyrase A protein structure. The structural stability and integrity of the modeled protein were ensured through rigorous validation. Subsequently, a high-throughput virtual screening of a curated library of natural compounds was conducted to identify potential inhibitors against wild-type and triple-mutant proteins. The selected potent lead molecules comprehensively evaluated their physicochemical properties, ADME/T properties, and binding affinities via ADME/T assessment and molecular docking studies. The safest and most promising ligands were chosen for dynamics studies to analyze their dynamic behavior and protein stability before and after the binding of ligands. Our results showed that the natural compounds from the ChemDiv database, CID: 0407-0108, N039-0003, 1080-0568, and 0099-0261 have binding energies ranging from -4.32 to -5.69 kcal/mol and exhibit excellent physio-chemical properties, affinities, and are stable in their dynamic environments over 100 ns for both wild-type and triple mutant DNA gyrase A complexes. These compounds provide a promising alternative treatment for fluoroquinolone-resistant Salmonella Typhimurium infections.

Plant secondary metabolites against biotic stresses for sustainable crop protection

Sustainable agriculture practices are indispensable for achieving a hunger-free world, especially as the global population continues to expand. Biotic stresses, such as pathogens, insects, and pests, severely threaten global food security and crop productivity. Traditional chemical pesticides, while effective, can lead to environmental degradation and increase pest resistance over time. Plant-derived natural products such as secondary metabolites like alkaloids, terpenoids, phenolics, and phytoalexins offer promising alternatives due to their ability to enhance plant immunity and inhibit pest activity. Recent advances in molecular biology and biotechnology have improved our understanding of how these natural compounds function at the cellular level, activating specific plant defense through complex biochemical pathways regulated by various transcription factors (TFs) such as MYB, WRKY, bHLH, bZIP, NAC, and AP2/ERF. Advancements in multi-omics approaches, including genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics, have significantly improved the understanding of the regulatory networks that govern PSM synthesis. These integrative approaches have led to the discovery of novel insights into plant responses to biotic stresses, identifying key regulatory genes and pathways involved in plant defense. Advanced technologies like CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene editing allow precise manipulation of PSM pathways, further enhancing plant resistance. Understanding the complex interaction between PSMs, TFs, and biotic stress responses not only advances our knowledge of plant biology but also provides feasible strategies for developing crops with improved resistance to pests and diseases, contributing to sustainable agriculture and food security. This review emphasizes the crucial role of PSMs, their biosynthetic pathways, the regulatory influence of TFs, and their potential applications in enhancing plant defense and sustainability. It also highlights the astounding potential of multi-omics approaches to discover gene functions and the metabolic engineering of genes associated with secondary metabolite biosynthesis. Taken together, this review provides new insights into research opportunities for enhancing biotic stress tolerance in crops through utilizing plant secondary metabolites.

Endophytic entomopathogenic fungi enhance plant immune responses against tomato leafminer

Plants employ various defense mechanisms to protect themselves from invaders such as microorganisms and herbivores. By recognizing these threats, plants can trigger a cascade of responses throughout their tissues, effectively priming their defenses and enhancing their resistance to future attacks. In this study, we examined the indirect effects of the entomopathogenic fungi Beauveria bassiana strain GHA and Metarhizium anisopliae strain F01 on tomato growth, expression of selected plant genes, production of secondary metabolites, and preference and performance of the tomato leafminer (Tuta absoluta). Both B. bassiana and M. anisopliae colonized tomato endophytically. Plants treated with B. bassiana had greater biomass than the untreated control and M. anisopliae treated plants. Oviposition was lower on plants treated with B. bassiana and M. anisopliae than on untreated controls in both choice and no-choice studies, and both endophytic EPF also affected the development of leafminer larvae. Gene expression analysis of tomato leaves inoculated with endophytic EPF provided evidence of triggering plant immune response genes, and of priming genes for herbivore attack, making plants more resistant to herbivory. These findings provide important insights into the mechanisms by which B. bassiana and M. anisopliae promote tomato plant growth and rapidly respond to T. absoluta infestation by priming the immune system. This knowledge could improve the development of entomopathogenic fungi for use in plant-protection strategies.

Phytochemical responses of camelina to brassinolide and boron foliar spray under irrigation regimes

The high level of boron in dryland and semi-arid soils is an important issue that strongly affects growing and developing crops, especially under drought stress. Meanwhile, brassinosteroid (BR) as a noval stress hormone can improve resistance to abiotic stress in plants. To explore the appropriate foliar application of boron (0.5 and 1 %) and 24-Epi-brassinolide (0.5 and 1 μM) and their combinations on camelina (Camelina sativa L.) under irrigation regimes a field experiment was conducted during 2018-2020 years. Irrigation regime consisted of well irrigation from emergence until the end of the growing season (WI0), withholding irrigation from flowering to siligue formation (WI1), and withholding irrigation from siligue formation to harvest (WI2)]. Our finding revealed that boron had a destructive effect on phytochemical parameters of camelina while application of brassinolide mitigated the boron impacts and improved the parameters. Results showed the highest increase in chlorophyll a (26.8 and 23.8 %) at B0.5 + BR0.5 treatments under WI1 and WI2 conditions, respectively. Application of BR (0.5 and 1 μM) and low level of B (B0.5 %) combination alleviated drought stress by improving osmolyte accumulation (proline) (5-9% increase), antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutase (SOD) (5.35-5.72 % increase), catalase (CAT) capacity (4.10 % increase) and secondary metabolites (total phenol and flavonoid) (6.78-10.26 % and 4.60-5.27 % increase). Further, malondealdehide (MDA) decreased (8.73 %) at BR and B combination and increased with a high level of B (B1%) application under-withholding irrigation. All of these results confirmed that BR and B synergistically (mainly B0.5 + BR0.5 and B0.5 + BR1) regulate the phytochemical properties response in the camelina plant to drought stress.

Jasmonic Acid (JA) Signaling Pathway in Rice Defense Against Chilo suppressalis Infestation

Jasmonic acid (JA) signaling plays a crucial role in rice defense against the striped stem borer, Chilo suppressalis, a notorious pest causing significant yield losses. This review explores the current understanding of JA-mediated defense mechanisms in rice, focusing on the molecular basis, regulatory elements, and practical implications for pest management. JA biosynthesis and signaling pathways are induced upon C. suppressalis infestation, leading to the activation of various defense responses. These include upregulation of JA-responsive genes involved in the production of proteinase inhibitors, volatile organic compounds, and other defensive compounds. The review also discusses the crosstalk between JA and other hormonal pathways, such as salicylic acid and ethylene, in fine-tuning defense responses. Structural modifications in rice plants, such as cell wall reinforcement and accumulation of secondary metabolites, have been highlighted as key components of JA-mediated defense against C. suppressalis. Furthermore, the practical applications of this knowledge in breeding insect-resistant rice varieties and developing sustainable pest management strategies were explored. Future research directions are proposed to further elucidate the complexities of JA signaling in rice-insect interactions and harness this knowledge to enhance crop protection.

Preliminary phytochemical screening and antioxidant activity of Annona deceptrix (Westra) H. Rainer an endemic and endangered species of Ecuador

Annona deceptrix (Westra) H. Rainer belongs to the Annonaceae family which is known to have bioactivities such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer, anti-inflamatory, pesticide, among others. A. deceptrix ethanolic seed and leaf extracts obtained by three extraction methods (Soxhlet, ultrasound, and maceration) were tested for phytochemical and antioxidant activities. Phytochemical screening of plant extracts revealed the presence of catechins, triterpenes, tannins, alkaloids, flavonoids, amino acids, cardiac glycosides, anthocyanidins, reducing sugars, and saponins. Quantitative determination of total phenolic, flavonoid contents, and antioxidant activities of extracts was carried out using colorimetric methods. The highest total phenolic content was 58.14 and 54.08 mg GAE/g DW for Soxhlet extracts from leaves and seeds, respectively. The highest total flavonoid content was 5.03 and 4.42 mg QE/ g DW for macerated and ultrasound-assisted extracts from leaves, respectively. Antioxidant activity by the DPPH method was 196.07 and 146.53 μmol TE/g DW for Soxhlet extracts from seeds and leaves, respectively, and by the ABTS method was 582.68 and 580.40 μmol TE/g DW for Soxhlet and macerated extracts from leaves, respectively. Further research is needed to optimize the use of such bioactive compounds produced by Annona deceptrix and apply their biological activities in the pharmaceutical, food, cosmetic, or agrochemical industries.

Comparative metabolites analysis of resistant, susceptible and wild rice species in response to bacterial blight disease

Globally, rice bacterial blight disease causes significant yield losses. Metabolomics is a vital tool for understanding this disease by analyzing metabolite levels and pathways involved in resistance and susceptibility. It enables the development of disease-resistant rice varieties and sustainable disease management strategies. This study has focused on the metabolic response to bacterial blight disease in three rice varieties: the near isogenic rice line IRBB27, wild rice (Oryza minuta-CG154:IRGC No. 93259, accession No. EC861737), and the susceptible control IR24. However, detailed metabolomics studies in wild rice remain largely unexplored. So, metabolic analysis with untargeted liquid chromatography mass spectrometry analysis (LC-MS/MS) was performed at various time points, including pre infection and post infection at 12 h and 24 h with Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo). In this study, a total of 6067 metabolites were identified. Pre-infection stage of the susceptible, resistant, and wild rice had 675, 660, and 702 identified metabolites, respectively, but these numbers were altered at post-infection stages. Various defense-related metabolites, including amino acids, flavonoids, alkaloids, terpenoids, nucleotide derivatives, organic acids, inorganic compounds, fatty acid and lipid derivatives have been identified. PCA and PLS-DA plots revealed differences in the metabolome among susceptible, resistant, and wild genotypes, suggesting distinct metabolic profiles for each. In this study, we found 149 metabolites were upregulated and 162 downregulated in the wild type (CG154) compared to the susceptible cultivar (IR24). Similarly, 85 metabolites were upregulated and 92 downregulated in the resistant near isogenic line (IRBB27) compared to IR24, while 156 were upregulated and 149 downregulated in CG154 compared to IRBB27. Key metabolites, including flavonoids, terpenoids, and phenolic compounds, showed significantly higher levels (P ≤ 0.01) in resistant varieties. These identified defense metabolites could serve as potential biomarkers for bacterial blight resistance in rice. The findings from this study have important implications for the development of new rice cultivars with tolerance to bacterial blight disease.

Evaluation of the Potency of Repurposed Antiretrovirals in HBV Therapy: A Narrative Investigation of the Traditional Medicine Alternatives

Hepatitis B is one of the killer communicable diseases, with a global estimation of 1.1 million deaths resulting from liver diseases annually. The search for HBV therapeutics has resulted in repurposing the existing antiretrovirals (ARVs) for HBV treatment, considering their shared common replication mechanisms. This review is aimed at evaluating the potencies of some of the repurposed ARVs used for HBV treatment, analyzing the common mechanisms of viral replications in HBV and HIV, and investigating the potentials of traditional medicines as an alternative treatment for HBV patients. The topical keywords drug repurposing, drug repositioning, antiretrovirals, hepatitis B treatment, HBV, natural products, traditional medicines, title, and abstract were searched in PubMed, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. The advanced search included the five years, 2019-2024. The search result was filtered from 377 to 110 relevant articles. The evaluation reveals that CD4+ T cells are targeted by HIV, while HBV targets the liver with its associated diseases (cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC)). Furthermore, treatments with the available repurposed ARVs only prevent or slow down the progression to cirrhosis, reduce the HCC incidence, and can improve the quality of life and increase life expectancy; however, they are not curative for HBV. Traditional medicines/natural product extracts or their phytochemicals exert anti-HBV effects through different mechanisms. Traditional medicines exert improved therapeutic effects when combined properly. The investigation further reveals that consideration of an in silico approach in HBV therapeutics might not only streamline drug development but also contribute to a deeper understanding of viral pathogenesis. Therefore, we recommend the integration of computational drug design methods with traditional medicine and natural product screening for discovering new bioactive HBV drug candidates.

The Enhancement of Biomass Accumulation, Caffeoylquinic Acid Derivative Production, and Antioxidant Activity of Rhaponticum carthamoides Transformed Roots Cultured in a Nutrient Sprinkle Bioreactor

Rhaponticum carthamoides (Willd.) Iljin. is an endemic plant species found in Siberia, Mongolia, and Kazakhstan. Its roots and rhizomes are used to treat physical fatigue and weakness following illness. The present study examines the scaling up of caffeoylquinic acid (CQA) derivative and flavonoid production in R. carthamoides transformed roots. The transformed roots were grown in shaken Erlenmeyer flasks of varying volumes (0.5-2 L), a temporary immersion system (TIS) (Rita® and PlantForm bioreactors), and a nutrient sprinkle bioreactor (NSB) in Woody Plant medium for 35 days. The highest dry biomass production was achieved in the 0.5 L and 1 L flasks and in the NSB bioreactor, yielding 22.2 to 20.4 g/L-approximately 14 to 23 times the weight of the inoculum. The accumulation of individual specialized metabolites varied depending on the culture system used. The peak amount of CQAs (544.5 mg/L), in terms of the increase in dry weight and metabolite levels, was obtained in the NSB bioreactor. The primary CQAs were chlorogenic acid (5-CQA) and a tri-CQA 1. The highest concentration of 5-CQA (7.38 mg/g DW) was found in the roots cultivated in the NSB bioreactor. In contrast, the tri-CQA 1 dominated in the roots from 2 L shaken Erlenmeyer flasks (8.44 mg/g DW). Our findings demonstrate that transformed roots growing in an NSB bioreactor are an effective system for increasing CQA production, potentially serving as an alternative source. This biotechnological approach could help reduce the overexploitation of field-grown R. carthamoides, a currently threatened species.

Plant Defense Responses to Insect Herbivores Through Molecular Signaling, Secondary Metabolites, and Associated Epigenetic Regulation

Over millions of years of interactions, plants have developed complex defense mechanisms to counteract diverse insect herbivory strategies. These defenses encompass morphological, biochemical, and molecular adaptations that mitigate the impacts of herbivore attacks. Physical barriers, such as spines, trichomes, and cuticle layers, deter herbivores, while biochemical defenses include the production of secondary metabolites and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The initial step in the plant's defense involves sensing mechanical damage and chemical cues, including herbivore oral secretions and herbivore-induced VOCs. This triggers changes in plasma membrane potential driven by ion fluxes across plant cell membranes, activating complex signal transduction pathways. Key hormonal mediators, such as jasmonic acid, salicylic acid, and ethylene, orchestrate downstream defense responses, including VOC release and secondary metabolites biosynthesis. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of plant responses to herbivory, emphasizing early and late defense mechanisms, encompassing physical barriers, signal transduction cascades, secondary metabolites synthesis, phytohormone signaling, and epigenetic regulation.

Cluster analysis of fingerroot cultivated in different regions across Thailand and implementation of Quality by Design approach for R&D of fingerroot extract tablet

Fingerroot has been used as food, traditional medicine, and a dietary supplement. This study aimed to cluster fingerroot cultivated in different regions across Thailand, based on their flavonoids. Subsequently, the extract of fingerroot was formulated into tablet form using a Quality by Design (QbD) approach. Initially, 32 fingerroot samples were included in this study. They were analyzed using a validated high-performance liquid chromatographic method. The results indicated that the rhizomes of fingerroot had higher flavonoid content (pinocembrin, pinostrobin, and panduratin A) compared to the roots. Cluster analysis revealed that fingerroot from Surat Thani, Nong Bua Lamphu, Kalasin, and Sisaket Provinces formed a high flavonoid content group. Ethanolic extract of defatted fingerroot from Sisaket Province was then used to prepare tablets. Following the QbD approach, the quality target product profile, critical quality attributes, initial risk assessment, and formulation design were investigated. A Box-Behnken design was applied to optimize the tablet formulation. Design spaces were constructed, and the optimal formulation was verified. The optimal formulation comprised 3 % hydroxypropyl methylcellulose F4M without spray-dried lactose, compressed using 1,000 psi force. The tablets had an individual weight of 600 mg, a thickness of 4.22 mm, a diameter of 12.6 mm, a hardness of 6.33 kP, a disintegration time of 2.02 min, and a friability of 0.05 %. Each tablet contained 120 mg of fingerroot extract, consisting of 9.77 mg pinocembrin, 23.00 mg pinostrobin, and 11.27 mg panduratin A. Dissolution tests demonstrated that the three flavonoids could dissolve in a 0.5 % sodium lauryl sulfate solution at levels of 99.34 %, 103.81 %, and 61.44 % within 2 h, which was superior to a commercial product. In summary, this study provides a guide for selecting fingerroot cultivated in Thailand with high flavonoid content. Furthermore, the QbD approach was successfully implemented in the development of a fingerroot extract tablet with desired properties.

Nanosilicon application changes the morphological attributes and essential oil compositions of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) under water deficit stress

Various practical strategies have been employed to mitigate the detrimental effects of water deficit stress on plants such as application of nano-stimulants. Nanosilicon plays a crucial role in alleviating the deleterious impacts of both abiotic and biotic stresses in plants by modulating various phyto-morphological and physiological processes. This study aimed to examine the combined effects of drought stress and nanosilicon application on the morphological traits and essential oil content and compositions of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.), in which four-week-old seedlings were subjected to irrigation treatments at four levels, including 100% (control), 80% (mild stress), 60% (moderate stress) and 40% (severe stress) field capacity and nanosilicon at three concentrations (0, 0.5 and 1.5 mM) in a completely randomized factorial design experiment with three replications for 40 days. The results showed that the maximum plant height (109.07 cm), number of nodes (33.3), and number of flowering branches (29.4) were recorded under the treatment of 1.5 mM nanosilicon and 100% FC. The lowest fresh and dry weights of aerial parts were associated to the severe drought stress (40% FC) without nanosilicon application. The mild water stress (80% FC) combined with foliar application of 1.5 mM nanosilicon led to highest EO content (0.17%) compared with the other treatments. However, the highest content of cannabidiol in the essential oil was achieved in the severe water stress (40% FC) and treatment of 0.5 mM nanosilicon. The results showed that the application of nanosilicon improved the morphological characteristics and also changed the content and compositions of the hemp plants under drought stress conditions.

Utility Assessment of Isolated Starch and Extract from Thai Yam (Dioscorea hispida Dennst.) for Cosmetic via In Vitro and In Vivo Studies

In Thailand, wild yam, or Dioscorea hispida Dennst., is a starchy crop that is usually underutilized in industry. The purpose of this study was to isolate the starch and extract the phytochemical from D. hispida and use them in cosmetics. Starch was used instead of talcum, which can cause pulmonary talcosis in dusting powder formulas (DP 1-5). GC-MS was used to identify the bioactive components present in the ethanolic extract of D. hispida. The main compounds were identified as 9,12-octadecadienoic acid (Z,Z)- (6.51%), stigmasta-5,22-dien-3-ol, (3.beta.,22E)- (6.41%), linoleic acid ethyl ester (5.72%), (Z,Z)-9,12-octadeca-dienoic acid, 2,3-dihydroxy-propyl (3.89%), and campesterol (3.40%). Then, the extract was used as an ingredient in facial sleeping mask gel formulas (SM 1-SM 5). Stability tests, physical characteristics, enzyme inhibitions, and sensitization dermal toxicity tests were used to evaluate the DP and SM formulations. The results showed that the fresh tubers of D. hispida showed a 12.5% w/w starch content. The findings demonstrated that starch powder had a restricted size distribution, ranging from 2 to 4 μm, and a smooth surface that was polygonal. Following stability testing, the color, odor, size, and flowability of all DP formulations did not significantly differ. The SEM investigation revealed that DP particles were homogenous. For the sensitization dermal toxicity test, DP denoted no erythema or skin irritation in the guinea pigs. After stability testing, the colors of the SM formulas were deeper, and their viscosity slightly increased. The pH did not significantly change. After the stability test, SM formulas that contained Glycyrrhiza glabra and D. hispida extracts exhibited stable tyrosinase and elastase inhibitory activities, respectively. In the sensitization dermal toxicity test, guinea pigs showed skin irritation at level 2 (not severe) from SM, indicating that redness developed. All of these findings indicate that D. hispida is a plant that has potential for use in the cosmetics industry. Furthermore, D. hispida starch can be made into a beauty dusting powder, and more research should be conducted to develop an effective remedy for patients or those with skin problems.

The role of processing on phenolic bioaccessibility and antioxidant capacity of apple derivatives

Fruit derivatives are commonly obtained by applying processing operations deemed responsible for the loss of phenol compounds, but very little information is available on the fate of phenols upon digestion of these products. The present study evaluated the effect of thermal and mechanical treatments, commonly applied to turn apple pulp into puree and homogenate, on phenolic bioaccessibility and antioxidant activity. Despite a 20 % decrease in polyphenols due to processing, their bioaccessibility was higher in apple derivatives (>20 %) compared to pulp (∼2 %). Polyphenol oxidase (PPO), inactivated by thermal treatments in apple derivatives but not in the pulp, was hypothesized to be responsible for this difference. Results acquired on an unprocessed PPO-free apple model, only featuring quercetin-3-glucoside and pectin, actually exhibited similar bioaccessibility as processed derivatives. The radical scavenging capacity was unaffected by the structural integrity of apples, indicating independence from the plant tissue's hierarchical arrangement. After digestion, radical scavenging capacity decreased in the real apple matrices, correlating with phenolic content, while it was retained in the apple model, further suggesting the pivotal food matrix role in modulating polyphenols bioaccessibility and subsequent biological activity. Translating these results to an industrial scale, processing conditions can be optimized not only to guarantee that the quality requirements are met, but also to achieve desired nutritional benefits.

Comparative Analysis of Phenolic Profiles and Antioxidant Activity in the Leaves of Invasive Amelanchier × spicata (Lam.) K. Koch in Lithuania

The environmental impact of invasive species necessitates creating a strategy for managing their spread by utilising them as a source of potentially high-value raw materials. Amelanchier × spicata (Lam.) K. Koch (dwarf serviceberry) is a shrub species in the Rosaceae Juss. family. The evaluation of different populations of plants that accumulate great amounts of biologically active compounds is requisite for the quality determination of plant materials and medicinal and nutritional products. The assessment of natural resources from a phytogeographic point of view is relevant. Phytochemical analysis of A. spicata leaf samples was carried out using spectrophotometric methods, HPLC-PDA, and HPLC-MS techniques, while antioxidant activity was determined using ABTS, FRAP, and CUPRAC assays. A significant diversification of phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity was determined in the A. spicata leaf samples collected in different habitats. Due to their characteristic chemical heterogeneity, natural habitats lead to the diversity of indicators characterising the quality of plant raw materials. Chlorogenic acid and neochlorogenic acid, as well as quercitrin, rutin, and hyperoside, were found to be predominant among the phenolic compounds. Thus, these compounds can be considered phytochemical markers, characteristic of the A. spicata leaf material from northern Europe.

Assessment of Different Conventional and Biofortified Wheat Genotypes Based on Biology and Damage Pattern of Rhyzopertha dominica and Trogoderma granarium

The lesser grain borer, Rhyzopertha dominica (F.) (Coleoptera: Bostrichidae) and khapra beetle, Trogoderma granarium E. (Coleoptera: Dermestidae) are primary stored-grain insect pests. Differences in certain biological and physical parameters of both pest species and wheat genotypes were investigated under laboratory conditions. Zinc (Zn)-biofortified (Zincol-2016 and Akbar-2019) and conventional (Arooj-2022, Nawab-2021, Dilkash-2021, Bhakkar Star-2019) wheat genotypes were used in this study. Zn-biofortified genotypes outperformed the conventional ones, with significant differences observed in fecundity, percent adult emergence, total developmental duration, percent grain damage, and weight loss of both insect species. The results further revealed that the fecundity of R. dominica and T. granarium were lowest on Akbar-2019 in both the free-choice test (42.50 and 33.17) and no-choice test (35.50 and 32.50), respectively. Similarly, percent adult emergence of both insect species was also lowest on Akbar-2019 in both the free-choice test (69.78 and 70.28%) and no-choice test (67.38 and 70.71%). The total developmental period also showed significant variation among the tested genotypes. The longest developmental period was recorded in Akbar-2019, i.e., 44.33 and 58.83 days, for R. dominica and T. granarium, respectively. Similarly, percent grain damage (13.23 and 10.33%) and weight loss (3.62 and 2.12%) were found to be minimum in Akbar-2019 for both pest species, respectively. Additionally, a positive correlation was observed between grain moisture content and damage parameters, suggesting that the higher moisture content may aggravate the percent grain damage and weight loss. These findings indicate that the nutritional qualities of Zn-biofortified wheat genotypes negatively affected the development of both insect species; thus, it can be an efficacious approach not only for ensuring food security but also for protecting grains against storage pests.

Unveiling the nanoworld of antimicrobial resistance: integrating nature and nanotechnology

A significant global health crisis is predicted to emerge due to antimicrobial resistance by 2050, with an estimated 10 million deaths annually. Increasing antibiotic resistance necessitates continuous therapeutic innovation as conventional antibiotic treatments become increasingly ineffective. The naturally occurring antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral compounds offer a viable alternative to synthetic antibiotics. This review presents bacterial resistance mechanisms, nanocarriers for drug delivery, and plant-based compounds for nanoformulations, particularly nanoantibiotics (nAbts). Green synthesis of nanoparticles has emerged as a revolutionary approach, as it enhances the effectiveness, specificity, and transport of encapsulated antimicrobials. In addition to minimizing systemic side effects, these nanocarriers can maximize therapeutic impact by delivering the antimicrobials directly to the infection site. Furthermore, combining two or more antibiotics within these nanoparticles often exhibits synergistic effects, enhancing the effectiveness against drug-resistant bacteria. Antimicrobial agents are routinely obtained from secondary metabolites of plants, including essential oils, phenols, polyphenols, alkaloids, and others. Integrating plant-based antibacterial agents and conventional antibiotics, assisted by suitable nanocarriers for codelivery, is a potential solution for addressing bacterial resistance. In addition to increasing their effectiveness and boosting the immune system, this synergistic approach provides a safer and more effective method of tackling future bacterial infections.

Metabonomics and physiology revealed the critical function of 5-Phosphoribosylamine and antioxidant enzymes in enhancing aged oat seed germination

Effective Microorganism (EM) is widely employed as a growth promoter in agricultural practices. The aging of oat seeds not only directly impairs agricultural production but also exerts adverse effects on biodiversity. The mechanism through which EM influence the germination of aging seeds remains unclear. In this experiment, the EM bacterial solution underwent pretreatment, which included the original-solution treatment (OrT), supernatant treatment (SuT), and sterile treatment (StT). Aging of oat seeds was induced using the pretreated EM bacterial solution. In this study, the EM bacterial solution facilitated the enhancement of the germination rate, germination index, and vitality index of aged seeds, with SuT demonstrating the most pronounced effects. Specifically, SuT resulted in a significant increase in APX and POD activities, while significantly reducing the malondialdehyde content. In addition, metabolic profiling highlighted the significance of 5-phosphoribosylamine in the purine metabolic pathway. Particularly in the SuT, the upregulation of 5-phosphoribosylamine facilitated the synthesis of (R)-Allantoin, consequently augmenting antioxidant enzyme activity.

Resveratrol polysaccharide is less cytotoxicity and inhibits UVA-, UVB-, and tertiary-butyl hydroperoxide-induced injury in human keratinocytes

Natural stilbene compounds, such as resveratrol and pterostilbene, have been focused on owing to their diverse biological activities associated with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-aging properties. However, their low water solubility limits their advanced applications. In this study, we investigated the protective effects of selected stilbene compounds (resveratrol, oxyresveratrol, gnetol, piceatannol, and pterostilbene) and their water-soluble derivatives (piceid, resveratrol polysaccharide, pterostilbene trisaccharide, and pterostilbene polysaccharide) against UVA-, UVB irradiation, tertiary-butyl hydroperoxide (t-BuOOH)- and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)-induced injury in human epidermal cells. Our results revealed the significantly greater cytoprotective effects of resveratrol polysaccharide against UVA-, UVB-, and t-BuOOH-induced injury compared to that recorded for other stilbenes. This effect was associated with the suppression of stress-induced intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and lipid peroxidation; resveratrol polysaccharides were more effective than other antioxidants. However, the tested compounds could not inhibit H2O2-induced cell injury. Our results indicate that most stilbene derivatives can inhibit UV- and lipid hydroperoxide-induced cellular injury; moreover, resveratrol polysaccharide exhibits excellent protective effects through the suppression of ROS generation and lipid peroxidation. Overall, the poly-glycosylation of resveratrol enhances its effectiveness against UVA or UVB irradiation- and lipid peroxidation-induced injuries in human keratinocytes. Therefore, the resveratrol polysaccharide is proposed to be a novel effective cytoprotective candidate to be used as a cosmetic ingredient for protecting skin from stress-related damage.

Lower vicine content reduces the reproductive yield performance in faba bean (Vicia faba L.)

Faba bean is a nutritionally and medicinally rich popular legume crop. However, vicine-convicine remain as potential threats for "favism" in human beings. In this study, 189 diverse faba bean accessions have been evaluated for yield component traits and vicine content in seeds followed by a correlation study. Combined genetic variability analysis shows that traits like days to pod initiation (DPI), pod length (PL), test weight (TW) and grain yield have minimally been influenced by the environment. PCA revealed that TW, PL and PW were the primary indicators for deciding yield performance. LC-MS/MS confirms that vicine concentration varied in between 3.489 and 10.025 g/kg and a significant positive correlation (0.40***) was observed between vicine conc. and grain yield of faba bean. Thus, present study demonstrated that the faba bean genotypes containing lower vicine were mostly poor yielding, which might be regulated by vicine in faba bean. Therefore, complete elimination of vicine or development of near-zero vicine faba bean could drastically reduce the yield potential of the crop, hence one has to be very cautious and follow efficient selection strategies while optimizing lower concentration of vicine for development of low vicine varieties. This study shows that faba bean genotypes containing 4.0-5.5 g/kg vicine were fairly productive and also have considerably lower vicine.

Building the physiological barrier: Suberin plasticity in response to environmental stimuli

In response to environmental changes, plant roots undergo two major differentiations: the formation of the Casparian strip and the suberin lamella, both of them are widely recognized as an apoplastic diffusion barrier for nutrient and water exchange between the soil and the root vascular bundle. Suberin is a complex biopolyester composed of glycerol esters and phenolic compounds deposited in the cell walls of specific tissues such as endodermis, exodermis, periderm, seed coat and other marginal tissues. Recently, significant progress has been made due to the development of biochemical and genetic techniques. In this review, we not only summarize the aspect of suberin biosynthesis, transport and polymerization, but also elucidate the molecular mechanisms regarding its regulatory network, as well as its adaptive role in abiotic or biotic stress. This will provide important theoretical references for improving crop growth by modifying their adaptive root suberin structure when exposed to environmental changes.

Novel application of cyclo(-Phe-Pro) in mitigating aluminum toxicity through oxidative stress alleviation in wheat roots

Microbial secondary metabolites are crucial in plant-microorganism interactions, regulating plant growth and stress responses. In this study, we found that cyclo(-Phe-Pro), a proline-based cyclic dipeptide secreted by many microorganisms, alleviated aluminum toxicity in wheat roots by increasing root growth, decreasing callose deposition, and decreasing Al accumulation. Cyclo(-Phe-Pro) also significantly reduced Al-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) with H2O2, O2•-, and •OH levels decreasing by 19.1%, 42.8%, and 17.9% in root tips, thus protecting the plasma membrane from oxidative damage. Although Al stress increased the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POD), and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) in wheat roots, cyclo(-Phe-Pro) application reduced these enzyme activities. However, compared to the Al treatment, cyclo(-Phe-Pro) application increased DPPH and FRAP activities by 16.8% and 14.9%, indicating increased non-enzymatic antioxidant capacity in wheat roots. We observed that Al caused the oxidation of ascorbate (AsA) and glutathione (GSH) to dehydroascorbate (DHA) and glutathione disulfide (GSSG), respectively. Under Al stress, cyclo(-Phe-Pro) treatment maintained reduced AsA and GSH levels, as well as high AsA/DHA and GSH/GSSG redox pair ratios in wheat roots. High AsA/DHA and GSH/GSSG ratios can reduce Al toxicity by neutralizing free radicals and restoring redox homeostasis via antioxidant properties. These results suggest that cyclo(-Phe-Pro) maintains ASA- and GSH-dependent redox homeostasis to alleviate oxidative and Al stress in wheat roots. Findings of this study establishes a theoretical foundation for using microbial metabolites to mitigate Al toxicity in acidic soils, highlighting their potential in sustainable agriculture.

In silico profiling, docking analysis, and protein interactions of secondary metabolites in Musa spp. Against the SGE1 protein of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense

Banana Fusarium Wilt (BFW), caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense (Foc), threatens banana crops globally, with the pathogen's virulence partially regulated by the Sge1 transcription factor, which enhances disease severity. Certain Musa species display resistance to Foc, suggesting inherent genetic traits that confer immunity against Sge1Foc. This study utilized bioinformatics tools to investigate the mechanisms underlying this resistance in Musa accuminata subsp. aalaccensis. Through in silico analyses, we explored interactions between Musa spp. and Foc, focusing on the Sge1 protein. Tools such as Anti-SMASH, AutoDockVina 4.0, STRING, and Phoenix facilitated the profiling of secondary metabolites in Musa spp. and the identification of biosynthetic gene clusters involved in defense. Our results indicate that secondary metabolites, including saccharides, terpenes, and polyketides, are crucial to the plant's immune response. Molecular docking studies of selected Musa metabolites, such as 3-Phenylphenol, Catechin, and Epicatechin, revealed 3-Phenylphenol as having the highest binding affinity to the Sge1Foc protein (-6.7 kcal/mol).Further analysis of gene clusters associated with secondary metabolite biosynthesis in Musa spp. identified key domains like Chalcone synthase, Phenylalanine ammonia-lyase, Aminotran 1-2, and CoA-ligase, which are integral to phenylpropanoid production-a critical pathway for secondary metabolites. The study highlights that the phenylpropanoid pathway and secondary metabolite biosynthesis are vital for Musa spp. resistance to Foc. Flavonoids and lignin may inhibit Sge1 protein formation, potentially disrupting Foc's cellular processes. These findings emphasize the role of phenylpropanoid pathways and secondary metabolites in combating BFW and suggest that targeting these pathways could offer innovative strategies for enhancing resistance and controlling BFW in banana crops. This research lays the groundwork for developing sustainable methods to protect banana cultivation and ensure food security.

Root inoculation with soil-borne microorganisms alters gut bacterial communities and performance of the leaf-chewer Spodoptera exigua

Soil-borne microorganisms can impact leaf-chewing insect fitness by modifying plant nutrition and defence. Whether the altered insect performance is linked to changes in microbial partners of caterpillars remains unclear. We investigated the effects of root inoculation with soil bacteria or fungi on the gut bacterial community and biomass of the folivore Spodoptera exigua. We also explored the potential correlation between both parameters. We performed herbivory bioassay using leaves of tomato plants (Solanum lycopersicum), measured caterpillar weight gain and characterized the gut bacterial communities via 16S rRNA gene metabarcoding. All soil microbes modified the gut bacterial communities, but the extent of these changes depended on the inoculated species. Rhizophagus irregularis and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens had opposite effects on S. exigua weight. While plant inoculation with the fungus influenced gut bacterial diversity, B. amyloliquefaciens also affected the community composition. A reduced abundance of two S. exigua enterococcal symbionts correlated with decreased insect biomass. Our results show that soil microorganisms can induce plant-mediated changes in the gut bacterial community of foliar-feeding caterpillars. We propose that the impact of these alterations on insect performance might rely on specific adaptations within the gut bacteria, rather than solely on the occurrence of changes.

Proteomics: An Essential Tool to Study Plant-Specialized Metabolism

Plants are a valuable source of specialized metabolites that provide a plethora of therapeutic applications. They are natural defenses that plants use to adapt and respond to their changing environment. Decoding their biosynthetic pathways and understanding how specialized plant metabolites (SPMs) respond to biotic or abiotic stress will provide vital knowledge for plant biology research and its application for the future sustainable production of many SPMs of interest. Here, we focus on the proteomic approaches and strategies that help with the study of plant-specialized metabolism, including the: (i) discovery of key enzymes and the clarification of their biosynthetic pathways; (ii) study of the interconnection of both primary (providers of carbon and energy for SPM production) and specialized (secondary) metabolism; (iii) study of plant responses to biotic and abiotic stress; (iv) study of the regulatory mechanisms that direct their biosynthetic pathways. Proteomics, as exemplified in this review by the many studies performed to date, is a powerful tool that forms part of omics-driven research. The proteomes analysis provides an additional unique level of information, which is absent from any other omics studies. Thus, an integrative analysis, considered versus a single omics analysis, moves us more closely toward a closer interpretation of real cellular processes. Finally, this work highlights advanced proteomic technologies with immediate applications in the field.

Transcriptomic analysis reveals differential transcriptional regulation underlying Citrus Bacterial Canker (CBC) tolerance in Citrus sinensis

The sustainable development of the citrus industry is greatly affected by citrus canker, an important bacterial disease. To explore the transcriptional regulatory mechanism of citrus resistance to canker disease, this study used the susceptible Citrus sinensis cv. 'Newhall' and its citrus canker-resistant bud mutation variety 'Longhuitian' (LHT) as materials. Through analysing the variances in leaf phenotypes between Newhall and LHT, as well as the variations in their transcriptional expression under Xanthomonas citri subsp. citri (Xcc) inoculation, our study concluded that LHT displays markedly greater resistance to Xcc compared to Newhall. Additionally, the spongy parenchyma of LHT leaves is significantly thicker than that of Newhall, and the stomatal number is significantly higher in LHT leaves, while the length and width of individual stomata in LHT leaves are significantly smaller than those in Newhall. RNA-seq analysis indicates that the differentially expressed genes between LHT and Newhall are involved in biotic stress-related biological processes, secondary metabolite biosynthesis, as well as phytohormone signalling pathways. Furthermore, significant differences were observed in reactive oxygen metabolism and phenylalanine metabolism pathways. The findings of our study provide data support for a deeper understanding of the citrus-Xcc interactions and offer valuable clues for unravelling citrus resistance to citrus canker.

Contact-mediated algicidal mechanism of Vibrio coralliirubri ACE001 against the harmful alga Karenia mikimotoi

Karenia mikimotoi is a harmful algal bloom (HAB) species that poses a significant threat to marine ecosystems due to its hemolytic toxins. This study isolated Vibrio coralliirubri (ACE001), which demonstrated contact-dependent algicidal effects against K. mikimotoi. Chemotaxis assays revealed ACE001's strong attraction to K. mikimotoi cell membranes, indicating the importance of chemotaxis. ACE001 caused a significant decrease in Chlorophyll a and an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS), indicating oxidative stress. Scanning electron microscopy showed ACE001 adheres to and penetrates K. mikimotoi, leading to cell rupture. Dual RNA-seq revealed suppression of the type VI secretion system (T6SS) and the upregulation of the Sec secretion system, particularly the yidC and secY genes. Mutant strains lacking these genes exhibited reduced algicidal activity. This study provides the evidence of a Vibrio species with algicidal activity against K. mikimotoi, offering insights into its algicidal mechanisms.

Toxicity of coumarins in plant defense against pathogens

Coumarins are a specific type of secondary metabolite that can be found in many plants. These compounds are predominantly produced through the phenylpropanoid pathway. Coumarins have been proven to possess a range of biological activities, including antimicrobial properties and antioxidant functions that aid in plant disease resistance response. The antimicrobial effect of coumarins is achieved through various mechanisms. They disrupt the cell membranes of pathogens, inhibit enzymatic activity, and hinder nucleic acid synthesis. Additionally, coumarins stimulate plant defense responses by triggering the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and activating the expression of immunity-related genes and signaling pathways such as the salicylic acid-dependent pathway. Due to their crucial role in defense mechanisms, coumarins can be effectively used in sustainable agriculture practices that emphasize environmentally friendly integrated pest management strategies. By providing a comprehensive overview of the biosynthetic pathways, mode of action, and application of coumarins in plant defense, this review aims to highlight the potential importance of coumarins in developing safe and sustainable crop protection strategies.

Impact of processing on polyphenols content in food: A nutritional and statistical analysis of Brazilian menus

Fresh and minimally processed foods are recognized as important natural sources of phenolic compounds, while industrial processing tends to reduce their concentrations. This in silico study investigated the effect of food processing on the presence of phenolic compounds in Brazilian menus, using linear regression models. The research examined menus from 319 schools in 75 counties in the state of Sergipe, Brazil, analyzing the caloric content, nutrients and polyphenols. These variables were grouped based on similarity and subjected to cluster analysis using Euclidean distance and Ward's method. The foods were classified by the degree of processing, based on NOVA classification, with modifications. The polyphenol content in menus was estimated using the Phenol Explorer database. Cluster analysis revealed three distinct groupings and the results indicated that cluster 2 offered the highest macro and micronutrient values. Linear regression highlighted that the presence of regional foods and culinary ingredients significantly influenced the concentration of flavonoids and phenolic acid in the school menus analyzed. Fresh and minimally processed foods were positively associated with flavonoids without hydrolysis and phenolic acid with hydrolysis. Ultra-processed foods, on the other hand, showed negative associations with flavonoids with hydrolysis. These results provide important insights into the formulation of school menus, with implications for nutrition and public health.

Exploring the role of levan in plant immunity to pathogens: A review

This review article delves into the intricate relationship between levan, a versatile polysaccharide, and its role in enhancing plant resistance against pathogens. By exploring the potential applications of levan in agriculture and biotechnology, such as crop protection, stress tolerance enhancement, and biotechnological innovations, significant advancements in sustainable agriculture are uncovered. Despite challenges in optimizing application methods and addressing regulatory hurdles, understanding the mechanisms of levan-mediated plant immunity offers promising avenues for future research. This review underscores the implications of utilizing levan to develop eco-friendly solutions, reduce reliance on chemical pesticides, and promote sustainable agricultural practices. Ultimately, by unraveling the pivotal role of levan in plant-pathogen interactions, this review sets the stage for transformative innovations in agriculture and highlights the path towards a more resilient and sustainable agricultural future.

Water-soluble phenolics from Phoenix dactylifera fruits as potential reno-protective agent against cisplatin-induced toxicity: pre- and post-treatment strategies

Nephrotoxicity is the major side effect of cisplatin, an effective platinum-based chemotherapeutic drug that is applicable in the treatment of several solid-tissue cancers. Studies have indicated that certain water-soluble phenolics offer renal protection. Thus, this study investigates the role of pre and post-treatment of rats with water-soluble phenolics from Phoenix dactylifera (PdP) against nephrotoxicity induced by cisplatin. Rats were either orally pretreated or post-treated with 200 mg/kg body weight of PdP before or after exposure to a single therapeutic dose of cisplatin (5 mg/kg body weight) for 7 successive days intraperitoneally. The protective effects of PdP against Cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity was based on the evaluation of various biochemical and redox biomarkers, together with histopathological examination of kidney tissues. The composition, structural features, and antioxidative influence of PdP were determined based on chromatographic, spectroscopic, and in vitro antioxidative models. Cisplatin single exposure led to a substantial increase in the tested renal function biomarkers (uric acid, creatinine, and urea levels), associated with an increase in malondialdehyde indicating lipid peroxidation and a significant decline (p < 0.05) in reduced glutathione (GSH) levels in the renal tissue when compared with the control group. A marked decline exists in the kidney antioxidant enzymes (catalase, SOD, and GPx). Nevertheless, treatment with PdP significantly suppressed the heightened renal function markers, lipid peroxidation, and oxidative stress. Spectroscopic analysis revealed significant medicinal phenolics, and in vitro tests demonstrated antioxidative properties. Taken together, results from this study indicate that pre- and/or post-treatment strategies of PdP could serve therapeutic purposes in cisplatin-induced renal damage.

Evaluation on the Efficacy of Farrerol in Inhibiting Shoot Blight of Larch (Neofusicoccum laricinum)

Neofusicoccum laricinum is the causal agent of larch shoot blight, a fungal disease affecting several species of larch. It causes severe damage, including stunting and mortality. This study aims to address the severe impact of larch shoot blight by evaluating the effect of farrerol on the inhibition of Neofusicoccum laricinum in Larix olgensis. We used LC-MS/MS and weighted gene co-expression network analysis to investigate farrerol's effects on Neofusicoccum laricinum and identify associated genes in resistant and susceptible larch. Our study identified significant differences in metabolite profiles between resistant and susceptible cultivars, with higher concentrations of farrerol showing complete inhibition of N. laricinum. Additionally, specific genes associated with farrerol content were up-regulated in resistant larch. Farrerol at higher concentrations completely inhibited N. laricinum, showing a strong correlation with increased disease resistance. This research suggests that farrerol enhances disease resistance in larch and provides a foundation for developing disease-resistant larch varieties based on antifungal metabolite traits.

Plant secondary metabolites-mediated plant defense against bacteria and fungi pathogens

Plant diseases caused by pathogenic bacteria and fungi are major threats to both wild plants and crops. To counteract these threats, plants have evolved various defense mechanisms, including the production of plant secondary metabolites (PSMs). These compounds, such as terpenoids, phenolics, alkaloids, and glucosinolates, offer a versatile, efficient, and cost-effective means of pathogen resistance. The traditional pathogen management methods relying on synthetic microbicides are often environment unfriendly. In contrast, PSMs provide promising alternative way due to their high efficiency and environmental benefits. This article reviews the categories, biosynthetic pathways, mechanisms of actions, and the commercialization of the PSMs to enhance our understanding of their pathogen resistance capabilities. The goal is to develop sustainable disease management strategies using PSM-based bactericides and fungicides.

Biochemical Defence of Plants against Parasitic Nematodes

Plant parasitic nematodes (PPNs), such as Meloidogyne spp., Heterodera spp. and Pratylenchus spp., are obligate parasites on a wide range of crops, causing significant agricultural production losses worldwide. These PPNs mainly feed on and within roots, impairing both the below-ground and the above-ground parts, resulting in reduced plant performance. Plants have developed a multi-component defence mechanism against diverse pathogens, including PPNs. Several natural molecules, ranging from cell wall components to secondary metabolites, have been found to protect plants from PPN attack by conferring nematode-specific resistance. Recent advances in omics analytical tools have encouraged researchers to shed light on nematode detection and the biochemical defence mechanisms of plants during nematode infection. Here, we discuss the recent progress on revealing the nematode-associated molecular patterns (NAMPs) and their receptors in plants. The biochemical defence responses of plants, comprising cell wall reinforcement; reactive oxygen species burst; receptor-like cytoplasmic kinases; mitogen-activated protein kinases; antioxidant activities; phytohormone biosynthesis and signalling; transcription factor activation; and the production of anti-PPN phytochemicals are also described. Finally, we also examine the role of epigenetics in regulating the transcriptional response to nematode attack. Understanding the plant defence mechanism against PPN attack is of paramount importance in developing new, effective and sustainable control strategies.

Synergistic Phytochemical and Pharmacological Actions of Hair RiseTM Microemulsion: A Novel Herbal Formulation for Androgenetic Alopecia and Hair Growth Stimulation

Androgenetic alopecia (AGA) is a genetic condition characterized by an excessive response to androgens, leading to hairline regression in men and hair thinning at the vertex in women, which can negatively impact self-esteem. Conventional synthetic treatments for AGA are often limited by their side effects. In contrast, Thai medicinal plants offer a promising alternative with fewer adverse effects. This study investigates the synergistic phytochemical and pharmacological effects of a novel Hair RiseTM microemulsion, formulated with bioactive extracts from rice bran (Oryza sativa), shallot bulb (Allium ascalonicum), licorice root (Glycyrrhiza glabra), and corn kernels (Zea mays), for the treatment of hair loss. The microemulsion, in concentrations of 50%, 75%, and 100% (v/v), significantly enhanced the proliferation of human hair follicle dermal papilla cells (HFDPCs) compared to minoxidil. Additionally, it upregulated critical hair growth signaling pathways, including Wnt/β-catenin (CTNNB1), Sonic Hedgehog (SHH, SMO, GLI1), and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), surpassing standard controls such as minoxidil and purmorphamine. The microemulsion also demonstrated potent anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties by reducing nitric oxide production and oxidative stress, factors that contribute to inflammation and follicular damage in AGA. Furthermore, Hair RiseTM inhibited 5α-reductase (types 1-3), a key enzyme involved in androgen metabolism, in both human prostate cancer cells (DU-145) and HFDPCs. These findings suggest that Hair RiseTM microemulsion presents a promising natural therapy for promoting hair growth and reducing hair loss via multiple synergistic mechanisms, offering a potent, plant-based alternative to synthetic treatments.

Fine-tuning plant valuable secondary metabolite biosynthesis via small RNA manipulation: strategies and potential

Plants produce secondary metabolites that serve various functions, including defense against biotic and abiotic stimuli. Many of these secondary metabolites possess valuable applications in diverse fields, including medicine, cosmetic, agriculture, and food and beverage industries, exhibiting their importance in both plant biology and various human needs. Small RNAs (sRNA), such as microRNA (miRNA) and small interfering RNA (siRNA), have been shown to play significant roles in regulating the metabolic pathways post-transcriptionally by targeting specific key genes and transcription factors, thus offering a promising tool for enhancing plant secondary metabolite biosynthesis. In this review, we summarize current approaches for manipulating sRNAs to regulate secondary metabolite biosynthesis in plants. We provide an overview of the latest research strategies for sRNA manipulation across diverse plant species, including the identification of potential sRNAs involved in secondary metabolite biosynthesis in non-model plants. We also highlight the potential future research directions, focusing on the manipulation of sRNAs to produce high-value compounds with applications in pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals, agriculture, cosmetics, and other industries. By exploring these advanced techniques, we aim to unlock new potentials for biotechnological applications, contributing to the production of high-value plant-derived products.

Overview on tyrosinases: Genetics, molecular biology, phylogenetic relationship

Tyrosinases (TYRs) are enzymes found in various organisms that are crucial for melanin biosynthesis, coloration, and UV protection. They play vital roles in insect cuticle sclerotization, mollusk shell formation, fungal and bacterial pigmentation, biofilm formation, and virulence. Structurally, TYRs feature copper-binding sites that are essential for catalytic activity, facilitating substrate oxidation via interactions with conserved histidine residues. TYRs exhibit diversity across animals, plants, fungi, mollusks, and bacteria, reflecting their roles and function. Eukaryotic TYRs undergo post-translational modifications, such as glycosylation, which affect protein folding and activity. Bacterial TYRs are categorized into five types based on their structural variation, domain organization and enzymatic properties, showing versatility across bacterial species. Moreover, bacterial TYRs, akin to fungal TYRs, have been implicated in the synthesis of secondary metabolites with antimicrobial properties. TYRs share significant sequence homology with hemocyanins, oxygen-carrier proteins in mollusks and arthropods, highlighting their evolutionary relationships. The evolution of TYRs underscores the dynamic nature of these enzymes and reflects adaptive strategies across diverse taxa.

Regulatory trends in engineering bioactive-phytocompounds

The secondary plant metabolites are of enormous importance because of their extensive medicinal, nutraceutical, and industrial applications. In plants, these secondary metabolites are often found in extremely small amounts, therefore, following the discovery of any prospective metabolite, the main constraining element is the ability to generate enough material for use in both industrial and therapeutic settings. In order to satisfy the rising demand for value-added metabolites, researchers prefer to use different molecular approaches for scalable and sustainable production of these phytocompounds. Here, we discuss the emerging regulatory trends in engineering these bioactive-phytocompounds and provide recommendation on successful employment of these state-of-the-art technologies for translation of these academic researches into novel process and products.

Biogenic Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles as a Promising Antibacterial Agent: Synthesis and Characterization

Nanotechnology has gained popularity in recent years due to its wide-ranging applications within the scientific community. The three main methods for synthesizing nanoparticles are physical, chemical, and biological. However, the adverse effects associated with physical and chemical methods have led to a growing interest in biological methods. Interestingly, green synthesis using plants has gained prominence in developing new treatments for bacterial infections. Zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) produced using environmentally friendly methods are more biocompatible and have potential applications as antibacterial agents in the biomedical field. As a result, this review discusses the green synthesis of ZnO NPs, factors influencing optimal synthesis, characterization techniques, and the antibacterial activity of some plant-mediated ZnO NPs. It also provides a comprehensive and analytical exploration of ZnO NP biosynthesis, the role of phytochemical compounds as reducing and stabilizing agents, the mechanism of action of their antibacterial properties and further highlights the challenges and prospects in this innovative research area.