Comparison of health conditions treated with traditional and biomedical health care in a Quechua community in rural Bolivia

Ethnobotanical study of traditional medicinal plants in Kebridehar and Shekosh districts, Korahi zone, Somali Region, Ethiopia

This study was conducted in Kebridehar and Shekosh districts, Ethiopia, to investigate an ethnobotanical study on traditional medicinal plants. Systematic random sampling techniques were used for data collection. Preference ranking, paired comparison, informant consensus factor, direct matrix ranking, and jaccard comparison were used for data analysis. A total of 44 medicinal plant species from 34 genera and 23 families have been documented as being used to treat 38 human, 5 livestock, and 1 both human and livestock ailment. The shrub category was the dominant growth form in the study area. The study showed that the most frequently used plant parts for the preparation of traditional medicine were roots (45.45 %), followed by leaves, glue, and liquid (11.36 % each). The most common route of administration was oral (30.77 %), followed by dermal (20.51 %). Jaccard's Coefficient of Similarity for Kebridehar and Shekosh for the reported traditional medicinal plants were 0.21, indicating some trend towards using common plants. Methanol extracts were more effective than ethanol extracts. The results of this study provide an insight into the anti-bacterial properties of the extracts of Aloe megalacantha, Ephorbiarobecchi, and Oppiliacampestris. This in vitro study demonstrated that these three folklore medicinal plants have good potential. In conclusion, the main threat to medicinal plants in the study area was drought. Therefore, it is recommended that the cultivation of medicinal plants be encouraged in home gardens.

An Ethnobotanical Survey of Indigenous Knowledge on Medicinal Plants Used by Communities to Treat Various Diseases around Ensaro District, North Shewa Zone of Amhara Regional State, Ethiopia

The study was conducted to investigate and document medicinal plants and associated knowledge on the utilization, management, preparation, and way of administration of the medicinal plant resources in Ensaro district, north Shewa zone, Ethiopia. A total of 100 informants were sampled from four study sites, and questionnaire surveys, semistructured interviews, ranking, and transect walk techniques were employed for data collection in midland, lowland, and highland agroecology and natural forests, riverine forests, and farmlands. Vast sources of the traditional healing knowledge of plant species conveyed from one generation to the next by word of mouth were from a family. A total of 101 medicinal plant species were identified from the study site, which belong to 95 genera and 49 families. These medicinal plants are used to treat about 35 types of human ailments. Families Fabaceae and Poaceae were represented by the highest number of medicinal plant species, followed by the Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, and Euphorbiaceae species. Out of the total medicinal plants' species, 46.53% were herbs and 33.66% were shrubs. Most of them have medicinal properties in their leaf, root, seed, bark, stem, latex, sap seed, and fruits. Medicine from these plant parts is prepared in fresh, dried, and both fresh and dried states. The highest informant consensus was documented for the plant Ocimum lamiifolium used by 75% of informants for its medicinal value in treating fibril illness. Cucumis ficifolius and Eucalyptus globules are used by 41% and 39% of informants ranking second and third, respectively, for their medicinal value. This study revealed that indigenous knowledge of traditional medicine is still popular among local communities in the study area. The conservation strategy practiced by local people is not enough to tackle the erosion of plant species from their habitats. Thus, the conservation of these plants and the associated knowledge base is very essential.

Plants and mental disorders: the case of Catalan linguistic area

Introduction: Mental disorders are among the leading causes of ill-health and disability worldwide. Despite the disease burden they cause, including significant direct and indirect impacts on individual's health and major social and economic consequences in all countries of the world, it is still one of the most neglected areas of public health. In such a context, the medicinal plants traditionally used to pale these pathologies are presented as a promising tool for future drug development for the management of mental health disorders. The aim of the present study is to analyze the information about plant species used to treat mental disorders in the Catalan linguistic area (CLA) and compare these traditional uses with pharmacological literature in order to evaluate the most quoted taxa and their uses and to provide a basis for further research. Methods: Data have been recovered from the "Etnobotànica dels Països Catalans" webpage (https://etnobotanica.iec.cat/) and the meta-analytic work carried out in the present study covers 27 prospections performed in different territories between 1990 and 2019. Descriptive statistics and quantitative ethnobotany were carried out and some ethnobotanical indices were calculated. Results and Discussion: The number of use reports analysed to treat mental disorders in CLA is 2,544 spread over 183 taxa belonging to 64 families, being the most cited the Malvaceae (29.36% of use reports), Lamiaceae (16.71%), Caprifoliaceae (7.94%), Rutaceae (7.47%) and Papaveraceae (6.01%). The most used taxa to treat or alleviate the mental disorders have been Tilia platyphyllos Scop. (24.53%), Valeriana officinalis L. (7.47%), Salvia officinalis L. (5.07%), Sambucus nigra L. (4.28%), and Ruta chalepensis L. (3.89%). The flowers or inflorescences (47.68%), followed by aerial part (23.49%), have been the most used plant parts, and tisane the most commonly used pharmaceutical form (78.03%). The most reported use is as sedative with 40.92%, followed by anticephalalgic (21. 19%) and tranquilizer (20.01%). The informant consensus factor (FIC) was 0.93, and 3.72% was the ethnobotanicity index (EI) value. The information is coincidental with at least one of the comprehensive pharmacological literature sources checked for 73.68% of ethnobotanical uses.

How to approach a study in ethnopharmacology? Providing an example of the different research stages for newcomers to the field today

Ethnopharmacology seeks to investigate humankind's use of natural materials, such as plants, fungi, microorganisms, animals, and minerals, for medicinal purposes. In this highly interdisciplinary field, which can be described as a bridge between the natural/medical and socio-cultural sciences, pharmacological, anthropological, and socio-cultural research methods are often applied, along with methods from other branches of science. When entering the field of ethnopharmacology as a newcomer, student, or early career researcher today, the tremendous amount of scientific publications, and even classical books from this field and related scientific disciplines, can be overwhelming. Ethnopharmacology has evolved over the past decades, and new key topics, such as the decolonization of the field, issues on intellectual property and benefit-sharing, species conservation, the preservation of traditional knowledge, the protection of indigenous communities, science outreach, and climate change, have become important and urgent aspects of the field that must not be disregarded by today's ethnopharmacologists. One of the questions of newcomers will be, "Where to begin?" This review article offers a brief (and certainly not comprehensive) introduction to the science of ethnopharmacology, highlighting some of its past most notable achievements and future prospects. In addition, this article provides an example for newcomers to the field of how to address different stages that may be involved in conducting ethnopharmacological field and lab studies, including early-stage drug discovery and community work. The example presented summarizes a series of studies conducted in the remote Greater Mpigi region of Uganda, located in East Africa. Stages of ethnopharmacological research described include ethnobotanical surveying and fieldwork, the pharmacological assessment of activity with diverse targets in the laboratory, and the transfer of results back to indigenous communities, that is, non-financial benefit sharing as a potential best practice example. As a result of this research example, a total of six original research articles have been published on the medicinal application and ethnopharmacology of 16 plant species from the Ugandan study site, offering a large quantity of results. These six publications reflect the multifaceted nature of the interdisciplinary science of ethnopharmacology, which may serve as a reference point and inspiration for newcomers to design and conduct their own independent ethnopharmacological research endeavors at other study sites. Major bottlenecks and solutions are provided, and the current social media channels with educational ethnopharmacological content are briefly introduced.

The phytochemical profiling, pharmacological activities, and safety of malva sylvestris: a review

Malva sylvestris is a plant commonly found in Europe, Asia, and Africa. The leaves and flowers of this plant have been used for centuries in traditional medicine to treat various ailments such as cough, cold, diarrhoea, and constipation. Google Scholar, PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science were used to search for relevant material on the phytochemical profiling and pharmacologic activities of Malva sylvestris. The techniques used in phytochemical profiling and the pharmacologic activity of each compound were extracted from the included studies, including in vitro, in vivo, and clinical studies. The phytochemical analysis of Malva sylvestris revealed that the leaves and flowers are the most commonly used parts of the plant and contain various bioactive compounds such as flavonoids, mucilages, terpenoids, phenol derivatives, coumarins, sterols, tannins, saponins, and alkaloids. These phytochemicals are responsible for the many pharmacological activities of Malva sylvestris, such as anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, hepatoprotective, laxative, antiproliferative and antioxidant properties. This review has presented an overview of the antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activities and the cytotoxic effects of Malva sylvestris on different types of cancer cells. It has also summarised the work on developing copper oxide nanoparticles using Malva sylvestris leaf extract and its potential use in food and medicine. This review aims to highlight the traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacological activities, and safety of Malva sylvestris.

Gastrointestinal, metabolic, and nutritional disorders: A plant-based ethnoveterinary meta-analysis in the Catalan linguistic area

Veterinary care is fundamental for animal wellbeing, and so is achieving a comprehensive understanding of traditional ethnoveterinary applications. However, little attention has been paid to it so far in industrialized countries, and in particular in Western Europe. In this context, the present work aims to make a contribution to this issue in the Catalan linguistic area, focusing on the study of plants used, at a popular level, to treat and deal with gastrointestinal, metabolic, and nutritional disorders, which are among the most important issues that affect animals. Data obtained in this study come from the popular knowledge about plants for veterinary purposes from 599 informants, who jointly provided 1,405 reports of use from 148 plant taxa. The most cited species have been Tanacetum parthenium (L.) Sch.Bip. (9.04%), Olea europaea L. subsp. europaea var. europaea (6.26%), and Euphorbia lathyris L. (6.26%). At higher taxonomic levels, the botanical families with more ethnoveterinary applications were Asteraceae (24.48%), Euphorbiaceae (8.33%), and Oleaceae (7.12%). Among the total use reports, 95.02% refer to disorders of the gastrointestinal system, 4.34% to nutritional disorders, and 0.64% to metabolic disorders. Antidiarrheal (18.01%), digestive (16.51%), and laxative (15.80%) have been the most reported veterinary uses. The most used plant parts have been the aerial part (40.50%), the fruit or the infructescence (18.65%), and the flower or inflorescence (16.01%). The main preparation and administration forms reported were tisane (58.69%), followed by direct use (without any specific pharmaceutical form; 21.77%). The global corpus of ethnoveterinary knowledge for the gastrointestinal system disorders in the territory of study is diverse, with some species having a very high cultural value, as indicated by an informant consensus factor very close to 1. Some reported uses were also confirmed after consultation of encyclopedic pharmacological works, although few of these works are specifically devoted to veterinary uses. The results of this study are relevant to preserve the ethnoveterinary knowledge, but also represent an important contribution to be taken into account in research for future development of new plant-based drugs for animals.

Which fish is this? Fishers know more than 100 fish species in megadiverse tropical rivers

Ethnobiological studies on folk, common, or popular names that fishers use to identify fish can help improve fisheries monitoring and collaborations between fishers and researchers. This study investigates fishers’ knowledge (recognition, naming, and habitat use) on 115 and 119 fish species, respectively, in the Negro and Tapajos Rivers, two megadiverse rivers in the Brazilian Amazon, and investigates the relationship between such knowledge and fish importance to fisheries, fish abundance, and fish size. We also compared fishers’ perceptions on fisheries and fish abundance with literature data on fish harvests and fish sampling. We interviewed 16 fishers in 16 communities (one fisher per community, 8 communities along each river). These fishers recognized an average of 91 ± 10.4 species in the Negro River and 115 ± 7.2 species in the Tapajos River, but all fishers recognized 114 species in Negro and all species in Tapajos. The fishers’ knowledge of fish species was positively related to fishers’ perceptions on fish abundance, size, and importance to fisheries in the Negro, but only positively related to fish size in the Tapajos. Our results highlight the usefulness of fishers’ knowledge to providing data on use and cultural relevance of fish species in high diversity aquatic ecosystems.

The Role of Traditional Plant Knowledge in the Fight Against Infectious Diseases: A Meta-Analytic Study in the Catalan Linguistic Area

Infectious diseases represent, as a group, the main cause of mortality in the world. The most important reasons are multidrug-resistant pathogens, the rapid spread of emerging diseases aggravated by globalization, and the extended reach of tropical and vector-borne diseases resulting from continued climate change. Given the increase in these diseases and the limited effectiveness of antibiotics, traditional knowledge can constitute a useful tool to address these new health challenges. The aim of this work is to analyze extensively the available ethnobotanical data linked to infections and infestations in the Catalan linguistic area, with the intention of depicting the panorama of the folk use of herbal products to address the quoted ailments, preserving the popular plant knowledge and management data. The meta-analytic work performed in the present study covers 29 research studies belonging to different regions throughout the Catalan linguistic area. The medicinal ethnoflora to treat infections and infestations in the Catalan linguistic area includes 326 taxa belonging to 78 botanical families of vascular plants. The informant consensus factor (F_IC) was 0.92, and the ethnobotanicity index (EI) was 7.26%. Artemisia absinthium (10.98%; 0.37) and Thymus vulgaris (8.06%; 0.27) are the most quoted taxa and have the highest values of the cultural importance index. The most reported use was antihelminthic (30.15%), followed by internal antiseptic (19.43%) and antipyretic (13.69%). The medicinal importance index shows the relevance of the antihelminthic use (14.23) and also the use against measles (10.19). The information is coincidental with at least one of the comprehensive pharmacological literature sources checked for 47.42% of ethnobotanical uses. These results, centered on the plants used to treat infection and infestation diseases, are the first step toward selecting some of the most interesting species to develop phytochemical and pharmacological studies and suggesting an alternative regarding how to face the health emergency involving the expansion of infectious diseases, based on local and traditional knowledge.

Social determinants in the access to health care for Chagas disease: A qualitative research on family life in the "Valle Alto" of Cochabamba, Bolivia

Introduction

Chagas disease is caused by the Trypanosoma cruzi infection. It is a neglected tropical disease with considerable impact on the physical, psychological, familiar, and social spheres. The Valle Alto of Cochabamba is a hyperendemic region of Bolivia where efforts to control the transmission of the disease have progressed over the years. However, many challenges remain, above all, timely detection and health-care access.

Methods

Following the Science Shop process, this bottom-up research emerged with the participation of the civil society from Valle Alto and representatives of the Association of Corazones Unidos por el Chagas from Cochabamba. The aim of this study is to explore the social determinants in the living realities of those affected by Chagas disease or the silent infection and how families in the Valle Alto of Cochabamba cope with it. An interdisciplinary research team conducted a case study of the life stories of three families using information from in-depth interviews and performed a descriptive qualitative content analysis and triangulation processes.

Findings

Findings provide insights into social circumstances of the research subjects’ lives; particularly, on how exposure to Trypanosoma cruzi infection affects their daily lives in terms of seeking comprehensive health care. Research subjects revealed needs and shared their experiences, thus providing an understanding of the complexity of Chagas disease from the socioeconomic, sociocultural, political, and biomedical perspectives. Results enlighten on three dimensions: structural, psychosocial, and plural health system. The diverse perceptions and attitudes toward Chagas within families, including the denial of its existence, are remarkable as gender and ethnocultural aspects. Findings support recommendations to various stakeholders and translation materials.

Conclusions

Intersectional disease management and community involvement are essential for deciding the most appropriate and effective actions. Education, detection, health care, and social programs engaging family units ought to be the pillars of a promising approach.

Phylobioactive hotspots in plant resources used to treat Chagas disease

Globally, more than six million people are infected with Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative protozoan parasite of the vector-borne Chagas disease (CD). We conducted a cross-sectional ethnopharmacological field study in Bolivia among different ethnic groups where CD is hyperendemic. A total of 775 extracts of botanical drugs used in Bolivia in the context of CD and botanical drugs from unrelated indications from the Mediterranean De Materia Medica compiled by Dioscorides two thousand years ago were profiled in a multidimensional assay uncovering different antichagasic natural product classes. Intriguingly, the phylobioactive anthraquinone hotspot matched the antichagasic activity of Senna chloroclada, the taxon with the strongest ethnomedical consensus for treating CD among the Izoceño-Guaraní. Testing common 9,10-anthracenedione derivatives in T. cruzi cellular infection assays demarcates hydroxyanthraquinone as a potential antichagasic lead scaffold. Our study systematically uncovers in vitro antichagasic phylogenetic hotspots in the plant kingdom as a potential resource for drug discovery based on ethnopharmacological hypotheses.

The Role of Botanical Families in Medicinal Ethnobotany: A Phylogenetic Perspective

Studies suggesting that medicinal plants are not chosen at random are becoming more common. The goal of this work is to shed light on the role of botanical families in ethnobotany, depicting in a molecular phylogenetic frame the relationships between families and medicinal uses of vascular plants in several Catalan-speaking territories. The simple quantitative analyses for ailments categories and the construction of families and disorders matrix were carried out in this study. A Bayesian approach was used to estimate the over- and underused families in the medicinal flora. Phylogenetically informed analyses were carried out to identify lineages in which there is an overrepresentation of families in a given category of use, i.e., hot nodes. The ethnobotanicity index, at a specific level, was calculated and also adapted to the family level. Two diversity indices to measure the richness of reported taxa within each family were calculated. A total of 47,630 use reports were analysed. These uses are grouped in 120 botanical families. The ethnobotanicity index for this area is 14.44% and the ethnobotanicity index at the family level is 68.21%. The most-reported families are Lamiaceae and Asteraceae and the most reported troubles are disorders of the digestive and nutritional system. Based on the meta-analytic results, indicating hot nodes of useful plants at the phylogenetic level, specific ethnopharmacological research may be suggested, including a phytochemical approach of particularly interesting taxa.

A Bibliographic Assessment Using the Degrees of Publication Method: Medicinal Plants from the Rural Greater Mpigi Region (Uganda)

In ethnopharmacological research, many field assessment tools exist. Yet, these miss that critical point of how to really determine which species merit the costly lab studies, e.g., evaluation of traditional use via pharmacological assays and isolation of bioactive secondary metabolites. This gap can be filled with the introduction of a new tool for literature assessment: the Degrees of Publication (DoPs). In this study, its application is illustrated through an extensive bibliographic assessment of 16 medicinal plant species that were recently identified in the Greater Mpigi region of Uganda as being frequently used by local traditional healers in the treatment of medical disorders (namely, Albizia coriaria, Cassine buchananii, Combretum molle, Erythrina abyssinica, Ficus saussureana, Harungana madagascariensis, Leucas calostachys, Microgramma lycopodioides, Morella kandtiana, Plectranthus hadiensis, Securidaca longipedunculata, Sesamum calycinum subsp. angustifolium, Solanum aculeastrum, Toddalia asiatica, Warburgia ugandensis, and Zanthoxylum chalybeum). These species are suspected to be understudied, and a thorough bibliographic assessment has not been previously performed. Thus, the objectives of our study were to undertake a comparative assessment of the degree to which each of these plant species has been studied in the past, including evaluation of the quality of the journals where results were published in. The determination of the DoPs enabled successful assessment of the degrees to which each individual plant species has been studied so far, while also taking into account the methodological “research chain of ethnopharmacology” from ethnobotanical studies (“traditional use”) to pharmacological assays (“bioactivity”) and finally to pharmacognostic research (“structure elucidation”). The significance of a research paper was assessed by determining whether its journal and publishing house were members of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE). In total, 634 peer-reviewed publications were reviewed covering the period of 1960–2019, 53.3% of which were published in journals and by publishing houses affiliated with COPE (338 publications). The literature assessment resulted in the identification of understudied plants among the selected species. The majority of plants reviewed have not been sufficiently studied; six species were classified as being highly understudied and three more as being understudied: C. buchananii, F. saussureana, L. calostachys, M. lycopodioides, M. kandtiana, and S. calycinum subsp. angustifolium and A. coriaria, P. hadiensis, and S. aculeastrum, respectively. The newly introduced DoPs are a useful tool for the selection of traditionally used species for future laboratory studies, especially for pharmacological bioassays, isolation procedures, and drug discovery strategies.

Skincare plants of the Naxi of NW Yunnan, China

The Naxi of Northwest Yunnan, China use medicinal plants to treat skin conditions related to traditional lifestyles in extreme environments. However, modernization endangers both the medicinal plants used to treat skin conditions and traditional knowledge. Therefore, investigation and documentation of the medicinal plants used and associated traditional knowledge is necessary. In this study, we conducted an ethnobotanical survey in 12 Naxi communities in Northwest Yunnan. For this purpose, we used semi-structured surveys to interview 840 informants from Naxi communities. We used informant consensus factor and use frequency as quantitative indices to evaluate the importance of medicinal plant species. A total of 161 medicinal plant species belonging to 69 families were documented. The highest informant consensus factor (ICF) values were recorded for skin nourishing (ICF = 0.849), frostbite and chapped skin (ICF = 0.833). These skin treatments are highly related to the environment and lifestyle of Naxi communities. The main active compounds of plants used to treat skin conditions in Naxi communities are known to have skin-treating properties. This study reveals that the skin conditions treated by the Naxi are associated with traditional medicine culture and social economic development. In addition, this study uses ethnobotanical indices to explain how skin condition treatments are linked to the natural environment of Naxi communities.

Wild Edible Plant Nutritional Contribution and Consumer Perception in Ethiopia

The scarcity, high cost, and unreliable supply of healthy food in developing countries have resulted in the search for cheap and alternative sources of healthy and nutritious food. Wild edible plants (WEPs) are one of the alternative sources of healthy and nutritious food, and they are crucially important in supporting the global food basket in all parts of the world in general and in sub-Saharan Africa in particular. These wild edible plants have played a significant role in supplying food and nutritional requirements and increasing the health status of poor communities in many rural parts of the world. In Ethiopia, rural communities use wild edible plants as a means of survival especially during times of drought and famine and during other forms calamities and crises. Wild edible plants have high nutritional content, including proteins, vitamin B2, and vitamin C, which can be used as alternatives to conventional plant-based human diets. The available literature has revealed that some wild edible plants also have medicinal properties. Even though wild edible plants are important for food security, they are usually overlooked and perceived as food for poor families. This review indicates that fruits are the most commonly used WEPs, both for consumption and medicinal value, and most plant parts are eaten directly in raw forms. This review focuses on the commercial exploitation of wild edible plants as a source of dietary supplements and alternative medicines and as a means to generate income; it also focuses on consumer perception toward wild edible plants in Ethiopia. Despite easy accessibility and availability, the consumption of wild edible plants is challenged by numerous factors. This review suggests that nutrition policies have to promote the utilization of wild edible plants as one pillar of food and nutrition security. Bioactive compound contents and antinutritional factor contents of wild and medicinal plants need further investigation.

Ethnobotanical study of selected medicinal plants traditionally used in the rural Greater Mpigi region of Uganda

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

This study provides the first report on selected traditional medicinal plant use, including parts used and methods of preparation, in the Greater Mpigi region of Uganda. This data supports the conservation of local traditional ecological knowledge and will facilitate future drug discovery research.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Our study aimed to conserve culturally and scientifically-valuable medical knowledge of 16 plant species traditionally used in the Greater Mpigi region in Uganda, namely Albizia coriaria, Cassine buchananii, Combretum molle, Erythrina abyssinica, Ficus saussureana, Harungana madagascariensis, Leucas calostachys, Microgramma lycopodioides, Morella kandtiana, Plectranthus hadiensis, Securidaca longipedunculata, Sesamum calycinum subsp. angustifolium, Solanum aculeastrum, Toddalia asiatica, Warburgia ugandensis and Zanthoxylum chalybeum. An additional objective of the study was an ethnological investigation of the socio-cultural background and medical understanding of diseases treated by traditional healers in the study area.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A pilot survey in the study area revealed that 16 plant species were frequently used in treatment of a variety of medical disorders. In order to obtain more complete information, we conducted a broader ethnobotanical survey using structured interviews with 39 traditional healers from 29 villages, specifically asking about the traditional uses of these 16 medicinal species.

RESULTS

Results of the survey confirmed a high level of traditional use of these species in the Greater Mpigi region. In addition, various other traditional uses and methods of preparation were recorded, most of them for the first time. In total, 75 different medical disorders treated with the plants were documented.

CONCLUSIONS

Conservation of traditional knowledge for future generations is vital, as loss has already been recorded due to multiple causes. The need for novel and more effective drugs derived from natural products is more important than ever, making future studies on herbal remedies both justified and urgently required. The traditional healers surveyed in this project also have expectations of the research - they would like to be updated about any resulting studies into the pharmacological efficacy of medicinal plants so that the research findings can inform their confidence in each herbal remedy.

Filling the gaps: ethnobotanical study of the Garrigues district, an arid zone in Catalonia (NE Iberian Peninsula)

BACKGROUND

This study has focused on the Garrigues district, one of the most arid regions in Catalonia (NE Iberian Peninsula), which, in general terms, has remained unexplored from the ethnobotanical point of view. This area, of 22,243 inhabitants, comprises 33 municipalities distributed across 1123.12 km². The natural vegetation is dominated by holm oak forests and maquis called 'garriga', the latter giving its name to the district. During the last few decades, this landscape has been transformed by agricultural activities, nowadays in recession. The main aim of this work was to collect and analyse the ethnoflora of this area in order to fill a gap in the ethnobotanical knowledge in Catalonia.

METHODS

The followed methodology was based on semi-structured interviews. The obtained data have been qualitatively and quantitatively analysed and compared with other available ones.

RESULTS

Data were gathered from 68 interviews involving 101 informants, whose ages range from 24 to 94, the mean being 73.07. The number of taxa reported in this study was 420, belonging to 99 botanical families. The interviewed informants referred 4715 use reports (UR) of 346 useful taxa, 1741 (36.93) of them corresponding to medicinal uses, 1705 (36.16%) to food uses, and 1269 (26.91%) to other uses. This study has inventoried, apart from individual plant uses, 260 plant mixtures, of which 98 are medicinal and 162 food. In the present study, 849 vernacular names with 116 phonetic variants have been collected, as well, for 410 taxa. The informant consensus factor (F_IC) obtained for our interviewees is 0.93, and the ethnobotanicity index is 23.47% for the studied area. Apart from plants belonging to the typical Catalan, Iberian or European ethnofloras, the present work contributes information on some plants from semiarid or arid regions, such as Artemisia herba-alba and Plantago albicans, much rarer in the ethnobotany of the quoted areas.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study reveal the persistence of ethnobotanical knowledge in the prospected area and the importance of filling the existing gaps in the ethnofloristic sampling of the Catalan territories. The almost complete dataset, now including some arid territories, will allow us to carry out a global analysis and to provide an accurate overview.

Cultural perception of triatomine bugs and Chagas disease in Bolivia: a cross-sectional field study

Background

Chagas disease remains a major public health risk in Bolivia, particularly among rural indigenous communities. Here we studied the cultural perception of the triatomine vectors and Chagas disease among selected rural and urban ethnic groups from different socio-economic and geographical milieus. We focused on the indigenous communities in the Bolivian Chaco where the disease is hyperendemic.

Methods

A cross-sectional study using field observations and structured interviews was carried out among 480 informants in five different regions of Bolivia. Additional semi-structured interviews were conducted. Statistical analyses were performed to determine the correlation of socio-economic variables and indigenous Chagas disease knowledge systems. A total of 170 domestic Triatoma infestans vectors were collected and infection with Trypanosoma cruzi was analyzed by real-time PCR.

Results

Triatomine bugs were associated with Chagas disease in 70.2% (n = 480) of the responses (48.0% Ayoreo, 87.5% Chiquitano, 83.9% Guaraní, 72.2% Quechua, 46.1% La Paz citizens and 67.7% Santa Cruz citizens). Generally, indigenous informants have been educated on the association between triatomine bugs and Chagas disease by institutional anti-Chagas disease campaigns. While communities were largely aware of the vectors as a principal mode of disease transmission, rather unexpectedly, health campaigns had little influence on their prevention practices, apparently due to cultural constraints. Overall, 71.9% of the collected domestic vectors in the Chaco region were infected with T. cruzi, matching the high infection rates in the indigenous communities.

Conclusions

Among the Guaraní, Ayoreo and Quechua communities, the groups living in traditional houses have not integrated the scientific knowledge about Chagas disease transmission into their daily hygiene and continue to cohabit with T. infestans vectors hyperinfected with T. cruzi. An effective translation of Western disease concepts into traditional preventive measures is missing because asymptomatic infections are not generally perceived as threat by the communities. New participatory approaches involving existing ethnomedical knowledge systems could be a successful strategy in the control of T. cruzi infection.

Traditional knowledge in semi-rural close to industrial areas: ethnobotanical studies in western Gironès (Catalonia, Iberian Peninsula)

BACKGROUND

The western Gironès is a district located in NE Catalonia (NE Iberian Peninsula). This area comprising 186.55 km² and 10,659 inhabitants is composed of 5 municipalities encompassing 29 villages, located in the hydrographic basins of the Ter and Llémena rivers.

METHODS

Following the methodology based on the semi-structured interviews, we carried out 40 interviews with 57 informants, 31 were women and the remaining 26 were men, with an average age of 78.6 years.

RESULTS

In the present study, data from 316 taxa (301 angiosperms, 8 gymnosperms, and 7 pteridophytes) belonging to 89 botanical families were collected. The interviewed informants referred 3776 UR of 298 taxa, 1933 (51.19%) of them corresponding to the food category, 949 (25.13%) to the medicinal ones, and 894 (23.68%) to other uses. In addition, 581 vernacular names for 306 species, subspecies, and varieties have also been collected.

CONCLUSIONS

These results reveal the validity of traditional knowledge in the studied area, which can be seriously threatened by the loss of its rural condition and its proximity to industrialized areas.

Comparing Indigenous and public health infant feeding recommendations in Peru: opportunities for optimizing intercultural health policies

BACKGROUND

The problem of childhood undernutrition in low-income countries persists despite long-standing efforts by local governmental and international development agencies. In order to address this problem, the Peruvian Ministry of Health has focused on improving access to primary healthcare and providing maternal and child health monitoring and education. Current maternal-child health policies in Peru introduce recommendations that are in some respect distinct from those of Indigenous highland communities. This paper analyses the similarities and differences between public health and mothers' infant feeding recommendations. Furthermore, it analyses persistence and change in those recommendations among women who were mothers before and after the introduction of current public health policies.

METHODS

Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 18 older mothers, 15 currently breastfeeding mothers, and 15 public health staff in highland rural communities of Peru. During data analysis, thematic codes and text passages were used in an iterative analytic process to document emerging themes.

RESULTS

The results highlight the existence of a traditional corpus of beliefs surrounding infant feeding and care that is consistent with Andean ethnomedical beliefs. This is illustrated by mother's accounts referring to the importance of maintaining a dietary balance of fluids and semi-fluids and of maintaining harmony with the elements in the natural environment. Mothers also incorporate aspects of public health recommendations that they find useful including initiating breastfeeding immediately after birth and exclusive breastfeeding up until 6 months. There are also tensions between the two systems including differences in the conceptualization of breastfeeding and infant food, the imposition of public health care services by coercive means, and negative stereotyping of rural Andean diets and mothers.

CONCLUSIONS

Identifying similarities and differences between distinct systems may provide useful input for effective intercultural health policies. Sources of tension should be carefully assessed with the aim of improving public health policies. Such efforts should apply a process of cultural humility engaging health care professionals in exchange and conversations with patients and communities acknowledging the assumptions and beliefs that are embedded in their own understanding. This process should also recognize and value the knowledge and practices of Andean mothers and their role as primary caretakers.

Vertebrates as a Bactericidal Agent

In Brazil, although a large number of animals are used in traditional medicine (at least 354 species), information about their biological activities is scarce. In this context, the objective of this study was to evaluate the bactericidal potential of zootherapeutic by-products from animals used in Brazilian traditional medicine and discuss the ecological and cultural consequences of such practices. The species analyzed were: Tupinambis merianae (skin), Iguana iguana (skin and body fat), Crotalus durissus (skin and body fat), Boa constrictor (skin), Euphractus sexcinctus (body fat) and Coendou prehensilis (quills). Experiments were performed with standard clinical strains of Escherichia coli (EC-ATCC10536) and Staphylococcus aureus (SA-ATCC 25923). For the microbiological assay, the zootherapeutics were evaluated using serial microdilutions. The results indicate that none of the samples possess inhibitory activity against standard bacterial strains. The in vitro ineffectiveness of the analyzed products demonstrate a necessity for new pharmacological research that encompass a large number of species of medicinal animals as well as highlight the importance of zootherapy in the context of plans for animal conservation.

Traditional uses of medicinal plants used by Indigenous communities for veterinary practices at Bajaur Agency, Pakistan

BACKGROUND

The pastoral lifestyle of Indigenous communities of Bajaur Agency is bringing them close to natural remedies for treating their domestic animals. Several studies have been conducted across the globe describing the importance of traditional knowledge in veterinary care. Therefore, this study was planned with the aim to record knowledge on ethnoveterinary practices from the remote areas and share sit with other communities through published literature.

METHODS

Data was gathered from community members through semi-structured interviews and analyzed through informant consensus factor (Fic) to evaluate the consent of current ethnoveterinary practices among the local people.

RESULTS

In total, 73 medicinal plants were recorded under the ethnoveterinary practices. Most widely used medicinal plants with maximum use reports (URs) were Visnaga daucoides Gaertn., Foeniculum vulgare Mill., Solanum virginianum L., Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal, Glycyrrhiza glabra L., and Curcuma longa L. New medicinal values were found with confidential level of citations for species including Heracleum candicans and Glycerhiza glabra. Family Apiaceae was the utmost family with high number (7 species) of medicinal plants. Maximum number of medicinal plants (32) was used for gastric problems. High Fic was recorded for dermatological (0.97) followed by reproductive (0.93) and gastrointestinal disorders (0.92). The main route of remedies administration was oral.

CONCLUSIONS

Current study revealed that the study area has sufficient knowledge on ethnoveterinary medicinal plants. This knowledge is in the custody of nomadic grazers, herders, and aged community members. Plants with new medicinal uses need to be validated phytochemically and pharmacologically for the development of new alternative drugs for veterinary purposes.

Traditional uses of medicinal plants used by Indigenous communities for veterinary practices at Bajaur Agency, Pakistan

BACKGROUND

The pastoral lifestyle of Indigenous communities of Bajaur Agency is bringing them close to natural remedies for treating their domestic animals. Several studies have been conducted across the globe describing the importance of traditional knowledge in veterinary care. Therefore, this study was planned with the aim to record knowledge on ethnoveterinary practices from the remote areas and share sit with other communities through published literature.

METHODS

Data was gathered from community members through semi-structured interviews and analyzed through informant consensus factor (Fic) to evaluate the consent of current ethnoveterinary practices among the local people.

RESULTS

In total, 73 medicinal plants were recorded under the ethnoveterinary practices. Most widely used medicinal plants with maximum use reports (URs) were Visnaga daucoides Gaertn., Foeniculum vulgare Mill., Solanum virginianum L., Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal, Glycyrrhiza glabra L., and Curcuma longa L. New medicinal values were found with confidential level of citations for species including Heracleum candicans and Glycerhiza glabra. Family Apiaceae was the utmost family with high number (7 species) of medicinal plants. Maximum number of medicinal plants (32) was used for gastric problems. High Fic was recorded for dermatological (0.97) followed by reproductive (0.93) and gastrointestinal disorders (0.92). The main route of remedies administration was oral.

CONCLUSIONS

Current study revealed that the study area has sufficient knowledge on ethnoveterinary medicinal plants. This knowledge is in the custody of nomadic grazers, herders, and aged community members. Plants with new medicinal uses need to be validated phytochemically and pharmacologically for the development of new alternative drugs for veterinary purposes.

Toxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids provide a warning sign to overuse of the ethnomedicine Arnebia benthamii

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

From early times man has used medicinal plants for the treatment of various ailments and basic health care needs. The use of herbal medicines has increased day by day and with this, so do reports of adverse events, poisoning, and suspected toxicity. Similarly, the indigenous communities of Neelum Valley in Azad Kashmir commonly use Arnebia benthamii (Wall. ex G.Don) I.M.Johnst. for medicinal purposes to treat various human aliments. Besides their medicinal uses, it also contains hepatotoxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids (PAs).

AIM OF THE STUDY

This explorative study underscores two major aspects about this herbal medicine. Firstly we aimed to document the traditional therapeutic uses of Arnebia benthamii in Neelum Valley, Azad Kashmir. Secondly, to determine the presence or absence of hepatotoxic pyrrolizidine alkaloids and if they are within the suggested limit for the use of herbs in excess.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Interviews, group discussions, and inquiries were carried out from July to September 2016 with local indigenous and elder people. In the laboratory, the plant was investigated for pyrrolizidine alkaloids by using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).

RESULTS

A total of 30 respondents were interviewed. They explained the preferred preparation, parts used, and treatment indications. Treatment of fever along with kidney and liver problems are the three principle uses. Among the different parts of Arnebia benthamii, 43% respondents preferred aerial parts for the herbal formulation, followed by whole plants, and leaves. Decoction was the major mode of preparation and all herbal preparations were administrated orally. This study reports, for the first time according to our literature review, a study of Arnebia benthamii with regard to PA determination. By using column Zorbax SB-Aq and acetonitrile-water gradient as the mobile phase, HPLC results showed that the aerial parts of the plant were PA positive, and (1) Europine, Heliotrine (2), Lycopsamine (3), and Echimidine (4) were identified.

CONCLUSIONS

This study has revealed two new findings of significance to herbal medicine producers, practitioners, and consumers of Arnebia benthamii First, local knowledge regarding the medicinal uses of Arnebia benthamii were documented in five sites of Neelum Valley, Azad Kashmir. The use of this plant by a large part of the population in the study area shows the importance for their therapeutic benefits. Unfortunately, the second finding of this study shows that Arnebia benthamii contains hepatotoxic PAs. Hence, we advised to the government regulatory authorities and non-governmental organizations that use of this plant as herbal medicine should be excluded before more accurate quality control tests.

From Lemongrass to Ivermectin: Ethnomedical Management of Chagas Disease in Tropical Bolivia

Chagas disease is a neglected tropical disease; the only viable drugs are outdated and produce frequent side effects, and the overwhelming majority of cases are undiagnosed and untreated. Globally, people encounter numerous impediments to accessing biomedical treatment for Chagas disease. However, little is known about how people with Chagas disease manage their health outside the biomedical system. In this article, I discuss knowledge of ethnomedical treatments among marginalized patients in an endemic area of Bolivia. I interviewed 68 patients, 63 (93 percent) of whom had positive diagnoses for Chagas disease. Participants free listed 66 ethnomedical remedies either for Chagas disease (n = 39) or its cardiac symptoms. Participants stressed the accessibility of ethnomedical remedies in contrast to the multiple barriers to accessing biomedical treatment. Far from eroding in the face of globalization and sociopolitical marginalization, ethnomedical knowledge in the study area is dynamic and flexible, communicated through various channels.

Ethnopharmacological survey of medicinal plants practiced by traditional healers and herbalists for treatment of some urological diseases in the West Bank/Palestine

BACKGROUND

Throughout history, every civilization in the world used plants or their derivatives for treatment or prevention of diseases. In Palestine as in many other countries, herbal medicines are broadly used in the treatment of wide range of diseases including urological diseases. The main objective of this research is to study the use of herbal remedies by herbalists and traditional healers for treatment of various urological diseases in the West Bank regions of Palestine and to assess their efficacy and safety through the literature review of the most cited plants.

METHOD

The study included a survey part, plant identification and a review study. The first part was a cross-sectional descriptive study. Face to face questionnaires were distributed to 150 traditional healers and herbalist in all regions of the West Bank of Palestine. The literature review part was to assess the most cited plants for their efficacy and toxicity.

RESULTS

One hundred forty four herbalists and traditional healers accepted to participate in this study which was conducted between March and April, 2016. The results showed that 57 plant species belonging to 30 families were used by herbalists and traditional healers for treatment of various urinary tract diseases in Palestine. Of these, Apiaceae family was the most prevalent. Paronychia argentea, Plantago ovata, Punica granatum, Taraxacum syriacum, Morus alba and Foeniculum vulgare were the most commonly used plant species in the treatment of kidney stones, while Capsella bursa-pastoris, Ammi visnaga and Ammi majus were the most recommended species for treatment of urinary tract infections and Portulaca oleracea used for renal failure. In addition Curcuma longa and Crocus sativus were used for enuresis while Juglans regia, Quercus infectoria, Sambucus ebulus and Zea mays were used for treatment symptoms of benign prostate hyperplasia. Fruits were the most common parts used, and a decoction was the most commonly used method of preparation. Through literature review, it was found that Paronychia argentea has a low hemolytic effect and contains oxalic acid and nitrate. Therefore, it could be harmful to renal failure patients, also Juglans regia, Quercus infectoria and, Sambucus ebulus are harmful plants and cannot be used for treatment of any disease.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data provided that ethnopharmacological flora in the West Bank regions of Palestine can be quite wealthy and diverse in the treatments of urinary tract diseases. Clinical trials and pharmacological tests are required evaluate safety and efficacy of these herbal remedies.

Indigenous Children's Knowledge About Non-timber Forest Products in Suriname

Childhood and adolescence are important life stages for the acquisition of knowledge about non-timber forest products (NTFPs). We show at which stage in life traditional plant knowledge is learned and analyze whether cross-cultural ethnobotanical knowledge transmission takes place. We evaluate whether the degree of forest dependency influences ethnobotanical knowledge by comparing two indigenous communities in Suriname. Traditional knowledge was documented and vouchers collected during forest walks with adult informants. Questionnaires were completed by 74 schoolchildren (age 4 to 14) to capture their knowledge of names and uses of nine important NTFPs. We tested for knowledge differences by ethnicity and NTFP categories. Local names for NTFPs were analyzed to determine cross-cultural transmission of ethnobotanical knowledge. Children from the forest-dependent Trio community (n = 23) possessed similar knowledge of NTFPs as their more urbanized peers from Apoera (n = 51). NTFP uses were acquired at an earlier age than plant names. Food and commercial NTFP uses were better known than medicinal plant uses. Cross-cultural transfer of knowledge occurred between the two communities. NTFP knowledge of children appeared to be influenced more by the time they spent within the forest, either walking to school or walking to agricultural plots, than by the level of forest dependency or acculturation.

Ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants in Burji District, Segan Area Zone of Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region (SNNPR), Ethiopia

BACKGROUND

An ethnobotanical study of wild edible plants was conducted in Burji District, Segan Area Zone of Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region, Ethiopia. The objective of the study was to identify and document wild edible plants and the associated ethnobotanical knowledge of the local people.

METHODS

Relevant ethnobotanical data focused on wild edible plants were collected using guided field walk, semi-structured interview, and direct field observation. Informant consensus method and group discussion were conducted for crosschecking and verification of the information. Both descriptive statistics and quantitative ethnobotanical methods were used for data analysis.

RESULTS

We documented 46 species distributed in 37 genera and 29 families based on local claims of use as food. Local users collect most of these plants from the wild. The common plant families that encompass more number of wild edible plant species were Anacardiaceae (five species) followed by Boraginaceae, Fabaceae and Solanaceae which contributed three species each.

CONCLUSION

The study showed the existence of a number of wild edible plants which mitigate food insecurity situations during problematic times that the people of the area face occasionally. Informants stated that wild growing edible plants are under threat due to increased anthropogenic pressure and disturbed climatic conditions. This calls for urgent and collaborative actions to keep the balance between edible plants availability in the wild and their utilization by the community. Furthermore, the study attempted to prioritize very important wild edible plants as perceived by the local people for possible domestication and/or sustainable utilization.

Patterns in medicinal plant knowledge and use in a Maroon village in Suriname

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Traditional medicine plays an important role in the primary health care practices of Maroons living in the interior of Suriname. Large numbers of medicinal plants are employed to maintain general health and cure illnesses. Little is known, however, on how knowledge of herbal medicine varies within the community and whether plant use remains important when modern health care becomes available.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To document the diversity in medicinal plant knowledge and use in a remote Saramaccan Maroon community and to assess the importance of medicinal plants vis a vis locally available modern healthcare. We hypothesized that ailments which could be treated by the village health center would be less salient in herbal medicine reports.

METHODS

During three months fieldwork in the Saramaccan village of Pikin Slee, ethnobotanical data were collected by means of participant observations, voucher collections and 27 semi-structured interviews and informal discussions with 20 respondents. To test whether knowledge of medicinal plant species was kept within families, we performed a Detrended Correspondence Analysis.

RESULTS

In total, 110 medicinal plant species were recorded, with 302 health use reports and 72 uses, mostly related to general health concerns (42%), diseases of the digestive system (10%), musculoskeletal system and fever (each 7%). Bathing was the most important mode of application. Most health use reports related to cure (58%) and health promotion (39%), while disease prevention played a minor role. Traditional medicine not only treated cultural illnesses, but also health concerns that could be treated with locally available modern medicines. Knowledge of medicinal plant species is not strictly kept within families, but also shared with friends. Certain recipes and applications, however, may be specific family knowledge.

CONCLUSION

Medicinal plants play a very important role in the daily lives of the Pikin Slee villagers. Plant use reflects actual health concerns, but as modern medicines are available for most of these concerns, the use of herbal medicines seems to be a deep rooted cultural preference, especially when concerned with cultural illnesses and health promotion. Locally provided healthcare could be enriched if traditional knowledge, illness concepts, and medicinal plant uses could fit into a larger, community-oriented framework.

Ethnoichthyology of the indigenous Truká people, Northeast Brazil

BACKGROUND

Historically, fishing is an important activity for riverine communities established along the São Francisco River, including indigenous communities. In the present study, we researched fishing activities in two villages of the Truká ethnic group, both located in the State of Pernambuco along the sub-middle section of the São Francisco River, Northeast Brazil. We recorded the richness and uses of the fished species and the ecological knowledge on these species, the fishing techniques employed and the perception of the indigenous people regarding current environmental impacts on the São Francisco River that influence local fishing.

METHOD

The information was obtained through interviews with 33 Truká fishers (27 men and six women), including 17 interviewees from Central Village (Cabrobó) and 16 from Tapera Village (Orocó).

RESULTS

Using five fishing techniques, the interviewees caught 25 fish species, including 21 native and four exotic species. All species are used as food, and two species are used in traditional Truká medicine. The interviewees revealed that fishing currently has less importance in their subsistence. They indicated that this situation is occurring because of several factors, such as the introduction of exotic species, pollution and urbanization, that have impacted the São Francisco River, resulting in a decline of fishing resources. Nevertheless, we found that the indigenous people who are still fishing have a broad knowledge of the habitat and ecology of the target fishing.

CONCLUSION

Although fishing is declining in importance among the Truká, we found that the individuals who are still practicing this activity have a broad knowledge about the habitat and ecology of the target species and apply that knowledge to fishing methods. Knowledge about the ecology of the species and the environmental impacts that have affected them can support basic research on local fish populations and research investigating the environmental impacts, resource management and sustainable exploitation of fisheries resources.

Controlled but not cured: Structural processes and explanatory models of Chagas disease in tropical Bolivia

Dressler (2001:456) characterizes medical anthropology as divided between two poles: the constructivist, which focuses on the "meaning and significance that events have for people," and the structuralist, which emphasizes socioeconomic processes and relationships. This study synthesizes structuralist and constructivist perspectives by investigating how structural processes impact explanatory models of Chagas disease in a highly endemic area. The research took place from March-June 2013 through the Centro Medico Humberto Parra, a non-profit clinic servicing low income populations in Palacios, Bolivia and surrounding communities. Semistructured interviews (n = 68) and consensus analysis questionnaires (n = 48) were administered to people dealing with Chagas disease. In the interview narratives, respondents link Chagas disease with experiences of marginalization and rural poverty, and describe multilayered impediments to accessing treatment. They often view the disease as incurable, but this reflects inconsistent messages from the biomedical system. The consensus analysis results show strong agreement on knowledge of the vector, ethnomedical treatment, and structural factors related to Chagas disease. In interpreting Chagas disease, respondents account for the structural factors which place them at risk and impede access to care.

Chemical identification and evaluation of the antimicrobial activity of fixed oil extracted from Rhinella jimi

CONTEXT

The toad Rhinella jimi (Stevaux, 2002) (Bufonidae) is used in traditional medicine to treat a number of illnesses (inflammation, infections, and wounds) in humans as well as animals.

OBJECTIVES

The present work examined the antimicrobial actions of the extracted oils from the body fat of R. jimi (ORJ) against fungi and standard and multi-resistant lines of bacteria, as well as their effects when combined with aminoglycosides.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The toads were collected in the municipality of Exu in Pernambuco State, Brazil, and their body fat oils extracted in a Soxhlet apparatus using hexane. A gas chromatograph coupled to a mass spectrometer was used to identify the fatty acids, based on their methyl esters. The antimicrobial activities of the oil were analyzed against standard and multi-resistant lines of Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, as well as against fungal lines of Candida albicans and Candida krusei using the broth micro-dilution method.

RESULTS

The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of ORJ were 512 µg/mL for Candida krusei and ≥1024 µg/mL for the other microorganisms. When associated with amikacin, ORJ demonstrated an increase in its ability to inhibit E. coli growth (from 156.25 to 39.06 µg/mL), indicating synergistic interaction. In the same way, when allied with amikacin, gentamicin, and neomycin, the ORJ reduced the MICs meaningly, against P. aeruginosa.

CONCLUSIONS

These data will enable searches to be made to obtain new products in combination with antibiotics, enhancing the efficacy of these drugs against drug-resistant microorganisms.

In vitro antioxidant and antitumor activities of six selected plants used in the Traditional Arabic Palestinian herbal medicine

CONTEXT

Despite several pharmacological applications of the medicinal plants in the Traditional Arabic Palestinian Herbal Medicine in Palestine (TAPHM), studies on their antioxidant properties are still scarce.

OBJECTIVE

This work evaluates the antioxidant and antitumor activities of the ethanol extracts from different parts of six plants: [Arum palaestinum Boiss (Araceae), Urtica pilulifera L. (Urticaceae), Coridothymus capitatus (L.) Reichb (Lamiaceae), Majorana syriaca (L.) Rafin. (Lamiaceae), Teucrium creticum L. (Lamiaceae), and Teucrium capitatum L. (Lamiaceae)] used in the TAPHM.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The antioxidant activity was evaluated for the ethanol extracts by DPPH and β-carotene-linoleic acid assays together with total contents of phenols and flavonoids. For the anti-carcinogenic evaluation, the extracts were tested for the ability to inhibit the proliferation of breast cancer cells (MCF-7) using the MTT reduction assay.

RESULTS

Among the extracts, the U. pilulifera had the highest amount of total phenolics, possessing the second highest total flavonoids. It also showed a maximum cytotoxic activity (IC50 = 63 µg/ml), followed by C. capitatus, and A. palaestinum. Otherwise, the extract of T. creticum was demonstrated to be an efficient scavenger of O2 (IC50 = 83 µg/ml), followed by M. syriaca, C. capitatus, T. capitatum, A. palaestinum, and U. pilulifera.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The results suggest that the investigated plants have shown varied antioxidant capacities which were strongly correlated with their contents of phenolics. Accordingly, this study proposes that the therapeutic benefit of these plants can be, at least in part, attributed to its potential inhibition of oxidative processes.

Medicinal plants used for menstrual disorders in Latin America, the Caribbean, sub-Saharan Africa, South and Southeast Asia and their uterine properties: a review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Menstrual disorders are generally not perceived as major health concerns by global health organizations, despite being disruptive to women׳s daily activities, particularly when access to sanitary facilities or analgesics is limited. Improving menstrual health requires access to safe and effective medication, but many women in Latin America, Africa or Asia prefer traditional medicine above modern remedies (such as contraceptives), as they can cause physical symptoms associated with fertility loss. Many medicinal plants are used for menstrual disorders, but few have been examined for their pharmacological activities related to traditional uses. Plants that have a smooth muscle-relaxant effect could ease menstrual cramps, but there are indications that dysmenorrhea in low-income countries is commonly treated with emmenagogues. This review aims to assess the most salient plants used to treat menstrual morbidity in Latin America and the Caribbean, sub-Saharan Africa, South and Southeast Asia, their uterine properties and adverse effects. To test whether plants used for painful menstruation could have uterine contracting properties, we recorded whether these species were also used to ease birth, induce menstruation, abortion or expel the afterbirth, as these suggest spasmogenic activities.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We reviewed the literature documenting traditional plant use in the study area for dysmenorrhea, regulating or inducing menstruation, uterine cleansing, uterine fibroids, expelling the placenta and lochia and for easing childbirth. Thirty genera (59 species) used in at least two continents or frequently throughout one continent, where shortlisted from the 90 most salient plant species emerging from our literature review. Using Medline, we searched for pharmacological properties and/or mechanisms of action relevant to their traditional uses of the shortlisted species. We searched VigiBase™, the WHO global individual case safety report database, on reported adverse drug reactions associated with these species.

RESULTS

More than 2000 plant species are used for menstrual disorders in the study area. The most salient uses are to treat painful menstruation, induce or regulate menses, and induce abortion. Around half (29) of the 59 most salient species have been tested for their pharmacological effects, of which 48% act as uterine spasmolytics and 31% as uterine spasmogenics. Several frequently used species contain toxic constituents, which may put women and their unborn children at serious risk. VigiBase(TM) listed adverse drug reactions for 18 of these species, but few reports came from the study area.

CONCLUSIONS

Research into the risks and benefits of medicinal plants for menstrual complaints should be given a higher priority in reproductive health programs that respect traditional knowledge and practices. Increased data collection is needed on adverse drug reactions among women using herbal medicines for reproductive health, especially in countries with limited reproductive health facilities.

Diversity, local knowledge and use of stingless bees (Apidae: Meliponini) in the municipality of Nocupétaro, Michoacan, Mexico

BACKGROUND

Stingless bees were significant resources managed by Mesoamerican peoples during pre-Columbian times and remain important in particular areas. Our study aimed at inventorying stingless bees' species, traditional knowledge and forms of use and management of them at the municipality of Nocupetaro, Michoacán, Mexico, a region of the Balsas River Basin.

METHODS

We inventoried the stingless bees of the municipality of Nocupétaro, Michoacán, México, through extensive collecting of bee specimens in different vegetation types. We then conducted semi-structured interviews to local experts in order to document their knowledge and management techniques of stingless bees' species.

RESULTS

We identified a total of eight stingless bees' species in the study area as well as three additional unidentified taxa recognized by people through the local names. Our inventory included one new record of species for the region (Lestrimelitta chamelensis Ayala, 1999). The taxa identified are all used by local people. Scaptotrigona hellwegeri Friese, 1900; Melipona fasciata Latreille, 1811; Frieseomelitta nigra Cresson, 1878 and Geotrigona acapulconis Strand, 1919 are particularly valued as food (honey), medicinal (honey and pollen), and material for handcrafts (wax). All species recorded are wild and their products are obtained through gathering. On average, local experts were able to collect 4 nests of stingless bees per year obtaining on average 6 L of honey and 4 Kg of wax but some came to collect up 10-12 hives per year (18 L of honey and 24 Kg of wax).

CONCLUSIONS

Local knowledge about use, management and ecological issues on stingless bees is persistent and deep in the study area. Information about this group of bees is progressively scarcer in Mexico and significant effort should be done from ethnobiological and ecological perspectives in order to complement the national inventory of bee resources and traditional knowledge and management of them.

Use and management of traditional medicinal plants by Maale and Ari ethnic communities in southern Ethiopia

BACKGROUND

Around 80% of the people of Ethiopia are estimated to be relying on medicinal plants for the treatment of different types of human health problems. The purpose of this study was to describe and analyse the use and management of medicinal plants used for the treatment of human health problems by the Maale and Ari communities in southern Ethiopia.

METHODS

Quantitative and qualitative ethnobotanical field inquiries and analytical methods including individual and focus group discussions (18), observations, individual interviews (n = 74), preference ranking and paired comparison were used. Data were collected in three study sites and from two markets; the latter surveyed every 15 days from February 2011 to February 2012.

RESULTS

A total of 128 medicinal plant species, belonging to 111 genera and 49 families, used as herbal medicine by Maale and Ari communities were documented. Predominantly harvested plant parts were leaves, which are known to have relatively low impact on medicinal plant resources. Species with high familiarity indices included Solanum dasyphyllum, Indigofera spicata, Ruta chalepensis, Plumbago zeylanica and Meyna tetraphylla. Low Jaccards similarity indices (≤ 0.33) indicated little correspondence in medicinal plant use among sites and between ethnic communities. The dominant ways of medicinal plant knowledge acquisition and transfer is vertical: from parents to children through oral means. Gender and site significantly influenced the number of human medicinal plants known currently in the study sites. Age was only a factor of significance in Maale. Marketing of medicinal plants harvested from wild and semi-wild stands is not common. Expansion of agricultural land and lack of cultivation efforts by local communities are mentioned by locals to affect the availability of medicinal plant resources.

CONCLUSION

S. dasyphyllum, I. spicata, P. zeylanica, M. tetraphylla, and Oxalis radicosa need to be considered for phytochemical and pharmacological testing to verify their efficacy and determine their dosages. Land use planning and development initiatives in the area and beyond need to sharply focus on strategies that could alleviate the major threats affecting medicinal plant resources in the landscape and encourage their cultivation to enhance their availability and complement ex-and in-situ conservation.

Personal networks: a tool for gaining insight into the transmission of knowledge about food and medicinal plants among Tyrolean (Austrian) migrants in Australia, Brazil and Peru

BACKGROUND

Investigations into knowledge about food and medicinal plants in a certain geographic area or within a specific group are an important element of ethnobotanical research. This knowledge is context specific and dynamic due to changing ecological, social and economic circumstances. Migration processes affect food habits and the knowledge and use of medicinal plants as a result of adaptations that have to be made to new surroundings and changing environments. This study analyses and compares the different dynamics in the transmission of knowledge about food and medicinal plants among Tyrolean migrants in Australia, Brazil and Peru.

METHODS

A social network approach was used to collect data on personal networks of knowledge about food and medicinal plants among Tyroleans who have migrated to Australia, Brazil and Peru and their descendants. A statistical analysis of the personal network maps and a qualitative analysis of the narratives were combined to provide insight into the process of transmitting knowledge about food and medicinal plants.

RESULTS

56 personal networks were identified in all (food: 30; medicinal plants: 26) across all the field sites studied here. In both sets of networks, the main source of knowledge is individual people (food: 71%; medicinal plants: 68%). The other sources mentioned are print and audiovisual media, organisations and institutions. Personal networks of food knowledge are larger than personal networks of medicinal plant knowledge in all areas of investigation. Relatives play a major role as transmitters of knowledge in both domains.

CONCLUSIONS

Human sources, especially relatives, play an important role in knowledge transmission in both domains. Reference was made to other sources as well, such as books, television, the internet, schools and restaurants. By taking a personal network approach, this study reveals the mode of transmission of knowledge about food and medicinal plants within a migrational context.

The globalization of traditional medicine in northern peru: from shamanism to molecules

Northern Peru represents the center of the Andean "health axis," with roots going back to traditional practices of Cupisnique culture (1000 BC). For more than a decade of research, semistructured interviews were conducted with healers, collectors, and sellers of medicinal plants. In addition, bioassays were carried out to evaluate the efficacy and toxicity of plants found. Most of the 510 species encountered were native to Peru (83%). Fifty percent of the plants used in colonial times have disappeared from the pharmacopoeia. Market vendors specialized either on common and exotic plants, plants for common ailments, and plants only used by healers or on plants with magical purposes. Over 974 preparations with up to 29 different ingredients were used to treat 164 health conditions. Almost 65% of the medicinal plants were applied in these mixtures. Antibacterial activity was confirmed in most plants used for infections. Twenty-four percent of the aqueous extracts and 76% of the ethanolic extracts showed toxicity. Traditional preparation methods take this into account when choosing the appropriate solvent for the preparation of a remedy. The increasing demand for medicinal species did not increase the cultivation of medicinal plants. Most species are wild collected, causing doubts about the sustainability of trade.

Intercultural health and ethnobotany: how to improve healthcare for underserved and minority communities?

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The present conceptual review explores intercultural healthcare--defined as the integration of traditional medicine and biomedicine as complementary healthcare systems--in minority and underserved communities. This integration can take place at different levels: individuals (patients, healers, biomedical healthcare providers), institutions (health centers, hospitals) or society (government policy).

BACKGROUND

Contemporary ethnobotany research of traditional medicine has primarily dealt with the botanical identification of plants commonly used by local communities, and the identification of health conditions treated with these plants, whereas ethnopharmacology has focused on the bioactivity of traditional remedies. On the other hand, medical anthropology seems to be the scholarship more involved with research into patients' healthcare-seeking itineraries and their interaction with traditional versus biomedical healthcare systems. The direct impact of these studies on public health of local communities can be contested.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

To compare and discuss the body of scholarly work that deals with different aspects of traditional medicine in underserved and minority communities, and to reflect on how gaps identified in research can be bridged to help improve healthcare in these communities.

KEY FINDINGS

The literature covers a broad range of information of relevance to intercultural healthcare. This information is fragmented across different scientific and clinical disciplines. A conceptual review of these studies identifies a clear need to devote more attention to ways in which research on traditional medicine can be more effectively applied to improve local public health in biomedical resource-poor settings, or in geographic areas that have disparities in access to healthcare.

CONCLUSIONS

Scholars studying traditional medicine should prioritize a more interdisciplinary and applied perspective to their work in order to forge a more direct social impact on public health in local communities most in need of healthcare.

Evaluations of the Antimicrobial Activities and Chemical Compositions of Body Fat from the Amphibians Leptodactylus macrosternum Miranda-Ribeiro (1926) and Leptodactylus vastus Adolf Lutz (1930) in Northeastern Brazil

Leptodactylus macrosternum and L. vastus (family: Leptodactylidae) are commonly encountered in the "Caatinga" biome in northern Brazil. The body fat of L. vastus is used as a zootherapeutic for treating a number of human maladies. The aim of this work was to determine the chemical composition of the body fats of L. macrosternum and L. vastus and to evaluate their antimicrobial activities as well as the ecological implications of their use in traditional folk medicine. Oils were extracted from body fat located in the ventral region of L. macrosternum (OLM) and L. vastus (OLV) using hexane as a solvent. The fatty acids were identified by GC-MS. The antimicrobial activities of the oils, either alone or in combination with antibiotics and antifungal drugs, were tested on standard strains of microorganisms as well as on multiresistant strains of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus. OLM contained 40% saturated and 60% unsaturated fatty acids, while OLV contained 58.33% saturated and 41.67% unsaturated fatty acids. Our results indicated that both OLM and OLV demonstrated relevant antimicrobial activities (with MIC 256  μ g/mL for both) against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Candida krusei. However, no antimicrobial effects were observed when these oils were combined with antibiotics or antifungal drugs.

Birds and people in semiarid northeastern Brazil: symbolic and medicinal relationships

BACKGROUND

At least 511 species of birds occur in the semiarid region of northeastern Brazil and many of them interact with human populations in a number of different ways, including their use in zootherapeutics and their links with local beliefs.

OBJECTIVE

The present work examined these types of birds/human interactions (use in zootherapeutics and their links with local beliefs) in the semiarid region of Rio Grande do Norte State in northeastern Brazil.

METHODS

Information was obtained through semi-structured interviews with 120 local residents.

RESULTS

A total of 16 wild bird species distributed among 11 families were found to interact directly with humans, with Columbidae being the best represented family. Seven species were identified in the medicinal category, five were related to symbolic aspects, while four species were identified as being related to both categories (medicinal and symbolic).

CONCLUSION

The accumulated folk knowledge, beliefs, and practices involving the avifauna in the semiarid region of Brazil, whether symbolic or medicinal, demonstrated the cultural importance of this vertebrate group to local human populations and revealed a belief system intrinsically related to cynegetic practices in the region.

Medicinal ethnobotany in Huacareta (Chuquisaca, Bolivia)

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to document the types of diseases treated by the use of medicinal plants, their main applications and also to have a report of the major diseases treated at the Hospital of San Pablo de Huacareta (Chuquisaca Bolivia).

METHODS

We conducted semi-structured interviews on the use medicinal plants with 10 local informants, and categorized the kinds of diseases treated by traditional medicine. We obtained reports of cases treated at the Hospital of Huacareta in order to compare the use frequency of traditional medicine and allopathic medicine for the treatment of recurrent diseases in the area.

RESULTS

Our survey identified 258 traditional medicine uses, spanning a total of 13 diseases categories and including 91 native and exotic plant species and one unidentified sample plant type. Gastrointestinal disorders (55%) were most frequently treated with medicinal plants, followed by afflictions of the musculoskeletal system (25%) and dermatological disorders (24%). Hospital information indicates that the most common diseases are acute respiratory infections (47%) and acute diarrheal diseases (37%). The herbal remedies were mostly used in the form of teas and decoctions. The informants used mainly native plant species, although exotic species has been introduced to the pharmacopoeia.

CONCLUSIONS

The treatment of gastrointestinal disorders is the primary objective of the medical ethnobotany of the inhabitants of Huacareta, while respiratory system diseases are mostly treated in the hospital. Looking at the data from the Hospital records we can infer that gastrointestinal disorders are among the most common diseases in the study area. For most respondents, traditional medicine is a reliable choice for the care of their illnesses. However, the preference of the population for either traditional medicine or allopathic medicine needs to be clarified in future comparative studies to obtain more convincing results. The results presented can be used as a base for subsequent work related to traditional medicine and its contribution to allopathic medicine in San Pablo de Huacareta.

Can Andean medicine coexist with biomedical healthcare? A comparison of two rural communities in Peru and Bolivia

BACKGROUND

It is commonly assumed that indigenous medical systems remain strong in developing countries because biomedicine is physically inaccessible or financially not affordable. This paper compares the health-seeking behavior of households from rural Andean communities at a Peruvian and a Bolivian study site. The main research question was whether the increased presence of biomedicine led to a displacement of Andean indigenous medical practices or to coexistence of the two healing traditions.

METHODOLOGY

Open-ended interviews and free listing exercises were conducted between June 2006 and December 2008 with 18 households at each study site. Qualitative identification of households' therapeutic strategies and use of remedies was carried out by means of content analysis of interview transcriptions and inductive interference. Furthermore, a quantitative assessment of the incidence of culture-bound illnesses in local ethnobiological inventories was performed.

RESULTS

Our findings indicate that the health-seeking behavior of the Andean households in this study is independent of the degree of availability of biomedical facilities in terms of quality of services provided, physical accessibility, and financial affordability, except for specific practices such as childbirth. Preference for natural remedies over pharmaceuticals coexists with biomedical healthcare that is both accessible and affordable. Furthermore, our results show that greater access to biomedicine does not lead to less prevalence of Andean indigenous medical knowledge, as represented by the levels of knowledge about culture-bound illnesses.

CONCLUSIONS

The take-home lesson for health policy-makers from this study is that the main obstacle to use of biomedicine in resource-poor rural areas might not be infrastructural or economic alone. Rather, it may lie in lack of sufficient recognition by biomedical practitioners of the value and importance of indigenous medical systems. We propose that the implementation of health care in indigenous communities be designed as a process of joint development of complementary knowledge and practices from indigenous and biomedical health traditions.

Traditional knowledge among Zapotecs of Sierra Madre Del Sur, Oaxaca. Does it represent a base for plant resources management and conservation?

Traditional classification systems represent cognitive processes of human cultures in the world. It synthesizes specific conceptions of nature, as well as cumulative learning, beliefs and customs that are part of a particular human community or society. Traditional knowledge has been analyzed from different viewpoints, one of which corresponds to the analysis of ethnoclassifications. In this work, a brief analysis of the botanical traditional knowledge among Zapotecs of the municipality of San Agustin Loxicha, Oaxaca was conducted. The purposes of this study were: a) to analyze the traditional ecological knowledge of local plant resources through the folk classification of both landscapes and plants and b) to determine the role that this knowledge has played in plant resource management and conservation. The study was developed in five communities of San Agustín Loxicha. From field trips, plant specimens were collected and showed to local people in order to get the Spanish or Zapotec names; through interviews with local people, we obtained names and identified classification categories of plants, vegetation units, and soil types. We found a logic structure in Zapotec plant names, based on linguistic terms, as well as morphological and ecological caracteristics. We followed the classification principles proposed by Berlin [6] in order to build a hierarchical structure of life forms, names and other characteristics mentioned by people. We recorded 757 plant names. Most of them (67%) have an equivalent Zapotec name and the remaining 33% had mixed names with Zapotec and Spanish terms. Plants were categorized as native plants, plants introduced in pre-Hispanic times, or plants introduced later. All of them are grouped in a hierarchical classification, which include life form, generic, specific, and varietal categories. Monotypic and polytypic names are used to further classify plants. This holistic classification system plays an important role for local people in many aspects: it helps to organize and make sense of the diversity, to understand the interrelation among plants-soil-vegetation and to classify their physical space since they relate plants with a particular vegetation unit and a kind of soil. The locals also make a rational use of these elements, because they know which crops can grow in any vegetation unit, or which places are indicated to recollect plants. These aspects are interconnected and could be fundamental for a rational use and management of plant resources.

The use of fish in Ilhabela (São Paulo/Brazil): preferences, food taboos and medicinal indications

This study was conducted in three communities of artisanal fishermen from Ilhabela, located on the northern coast of São Paulo, Brazil. The objective was to analyze the preferences, taboos and medicinal indications of fish and thus representing one of the interactions of fishermen with fish stocks. Data collection was conducted through interviews with the aid of semi-structured questionnaires. We interviewed 25 families, 29 residents in three communities studied during our fieldwork for data collection. Five interviews were done in Jabaquara Beach, 6 in Fome Beach and 14 Serraria Beach. During the interviews, 18 species were cited as preferred for consumption, 11 species considered to be taboo (food prohibited), 5 species were cited as avoided as food, and 4 species indicated in case of illness. The families of fishermen prefer to consume finfish and do not consume puffer fish, the latter probably due to its toxic characteristic. Fish such as little tunny, largehead hairtail, shark, serra mackerel and king mackerel are avoided by unhealthy people and in cases of wounds, inflammation, pregnancy and postpartum. Other fish, such as sea chubs, silver porgy, bluefish and grouper are reported as medicinal in these situations. Aspects related to fish consumption are part of the knowledge of fishermen and their families and provide a wealth of information that combined to biological information is useful for the conservation of fishery resources. Data such as those presented in this study, regarding the use of aquatic animals for treatment of diseases, could serve as a basis for future studies on substances that contain active elements in curing diseases.

Traditional-medical knowledge and perception of pangolins (Manis sps) among the Awori people, Southwestern Nigeria

medicines is taken from the wild; hence demand by traditional medicine is a cause of over-exploitation of wild animals. Indiscriminate use of endangered species portends grievous implications for biodiversity conservation. This study investigated the dynamics of the use of pangolin in trado-medicinal preparations amongst the Awori people.

METHODS

Forty traditional Yorubic-medical practitioners (tymps) selected through stratified random-sampling technique were interviewed using open-ended questionnaires. Various aspects of the utilisation of pangolin in traditional medicinal practices were investigated. Data collected were analysed using simple frequencies and percentages.

RESULTS

An average of 1.6 pangolins were utilised per tymp per month. About 43% of respondents contracted hunters for deliberate searches for the animals. More than 92% believed that pangolins' abundance is steadily decreasing. Above 97% reported a continuous decline in the size of pangolin. Pangolin was used in treating 47 conditions. Situations accommodated included those that can be treated by orthodox medicine like rheumatism and venereal diseases as well as some that are out of range for orthodox medicine including kleptomania and good luck charms. Some substitute animals like gorilla are under a greater conservation threat than pangolin.

CONCLUSIONS

Utilisation of pangolin in traditional medicine has no consideration for sustainability. Awareness should be created on people as regards the implications of unsustainable depletion of medicinal resources. Efforts should be intensified on ex-situ breeding of pangolin while subjecting the scales and other parts to laboratory studies to determine the bioactive constituents.

Evaluation of the Antimicrobial Activity of the Decoction of Tropidurus hispidus (Spix, 1825) and Tropidurus semitaeniatus (Spix, 1825) Used by the Traditional Medicine

Tropidurus hispidus and Tropidurus semitaeniatus are two lizard species utilized in traditional medicine in Northeast Brazil. Their medicinal use includes diseases related with bacterial infections such as tonsillitis and pharyngitis. They are used in the form of teas (decoctions) for the treatment of illnesses. In this work, we evaluated the antimicrobial activity of the decoctions of T. hispidus (DTH) and T. semitaeniatus (DTS) against bacterial strains, namely, standard and multiresistant Escherichia coli, Staphylococus aureus, and Pseudomonas aureuginosa, alone and in combination with aminoglycoside antibiotics. The decoctions were prepared using the whole body of the dried lizards, and the filtrate was frozen and lyophilized. When tested alone, the samples did not demonstrate any substantial inhibition of bacterial growth. However, in combination with antibiotics as aminoglycosides, decoctions reduced the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of the assayed antibiotics against multiresistant strains of S. aureus and P. aureuginosa. Chemical prospecting tests revealed the presence of alkaloids in DTS. This is the first study evaluating the medicinal efficacy of T. hispidus and T. semitaeniatus and contributes to the list of new sources of medicines from natural products of animal origin.