Systematics and character evolution of capitate hydrozoans

Capitate hydrozoans are a morphologically and ecologically diverse hydrozoan suborder, currently including about 200 species. Being grouped in two clades, Corynida and Zancleida, these hydrozoans still show a number of taxonomic uncertainties at the species, genus and family levels. Many Capitata species established symbiotic relationships with other benthic organisms, including bryozoans, other cnidarians, molluscs and poriferans, as well as with planktonic dinoflagellates for mixotrophic relationships and with bacteria for thiotrophic ectosymbioses. Our study aimed at providing an updated and comprehensive phylogeny reconstruction of the suborder, at modelling the evolution of selected morphological and ecological characters, and at testing evolutionary relationships between the symbiotic lifestyle and the other characters, by integrating taxonomic, ecological and evolutionary data. The phylogenetic hypotheses here presented shed light on the evolutionary relationships within Capitata, with most families and genera being recovered as monophyletic. The genus Zanclea and family Zancleidae, however, were divided into four divergent clades, requiring the establishment of the new genus Apatizanclea and the new combinations for species in Zanclea and Halocoryne genera. The ancestral state reconstructions revealed that symbiosis arose multiple times in the evolutionary history of the Capitata, and that homoplasy is a common phenomenon in the group. Correlations were found between the evolution of symbiosis and morphological characters, such as the perisarc. Overall, our results highlighted that the use of genetic data and a complete knowledge of the life cycles are strongly needed to disentangle taxonomic and systematic issues in capitate hydrozoans. Finally, the colonization of tropical habitat appears to have influenced the evolution of a symbiotic lifestyle, playing important roles in the evolution of the group.

Dietary Polyphenols against Oxidative Stress in Head and Neck Cancer: What's New, What's Next

Head and neck cancers (HNC) are a worldwide health problem, accounting for over 5% of all types of cancers. Their varied nature makes it sometimes difficult to find clear explanations for the molecular mechanisms that underline their onset and development. While chemio- and radiotherapy are clearly not to be dismissed, we cannot undervalue the effect that polyphenols - especially dietary polyphenols - can have in helping us to cope with this medical emergency. By influencing several different proteins involved in numerous different metabolic pathways, polyphenols can have a broad spectrum of biological action and can hopefully act synergistically to tackle down head and neck cancer. Moreover, being natural molecules, polyphenols does not present any side effects and can even enhance drugs efficacy, making our clinical therapy against head and neck cancer more and more effective. Certainly, oxidative stress plays an important role, altering several molecular pathways, lowering the body's defenses, and ultimately helping to create a microenvironment conducive to the appearance and development of the tumor. In this regard, the regular and constant intake of foods rich in polyphenols can help counteract the onset of oxidative stress, improving the health of the general population. In this review, we highlight the role of polyphenols in managing oxidative stress, with such positive effects that they can be considered new tools to use in our anti-head and neck cancer strategy.

The Dynamics of OXA-23 β-Lactamase from Acinetobacter baumannii

Antibiotic resistance is a pressing topic, which also affects β-lactam antibiotic molecules. Until a few years ago, it was considered no more than an interesting species from an academic point of view, Acinetobacter baumanii is today one of the most serious threats to public health, so much so that it has been declared one of the species for which the search for new antibiotics, or new ways to avoid its resistance, is an absolute priority according to WHO. Although there are several molecular mechanisms that are responsible for the extreme resistance of A. baumanii to antibiotics, a class D β-lactamase is the main cause for the clinical concern of this bacterial species. In this work, we analyzed the A. baumanii OXA-23 protein via molecular dynamics. The results obtained show that this protein is able to assume different conformations, especially in some regions around the active site. Part of the OXA-23 protein has considerable conformational motility, while the rest is less mobile. The importance of these observations for understanding the functioning mechanism of the enzyme as well as for designing new effective molecules for the treatment of A. baumanii is discussed.

Effects of Terpenes on the Osteoarthritis Cytokine Profile by Modulation of IL-6: Double Face versus Dark Knight?

BACKGROUND

Hemp seed oil and terpenes are emerging as a dietary supplement and complementary therapy for patients suffering from knee osteoarthritis (KOA). However, the mechanisms and effects induced by these molecules on inflammatory cytokines are not yet fully understood. The aim of this study was to evaluate the changes in the cytokine IL-1β, IL-1α, IL-2, IL-6, and TNF-α levels from two oral hemp seed oil-based dietary supplements, of which only one included the addition of terpenes, in a population of KOA patients.

METHODS

Sera from venous blood samples were collected from thirty-eight patients who were divided into two subgroups. The control group underwent a 45-day treatment with a dietary supplement containing only hemp seed oil, while the treatment group assumed a hemp seed oil and terpene-based dietary supplement for the same number of days. A Bio-Plex Human Cytokine assay was performed by a customized human cytokine five-plex panel for IL-1β, IL-1α, IL-2, IL-6, and TNF-α. Patients were evaluated before the beginning of the treatment (T0) and soon after it (T1).

RESULTS

No measurable levels of IL-2 and TNF-α were found in any of the subjects. Low levels of IL-1β were found, which were significantly decreased in the treatment group. No change in IL-1α levels was observed, while treated patients had a significant increase in IL-6 levels.

CONCLUSIONS

Hemp seed oil and terpene treatment modified the IL-1β and IL-6 levels, counteracting KOA inflammation in this way. In this study, IL-6 revealed its new and alternative action, since it is traditionally known as a pro-inflammatory factor, but it recently has been found to have anti-inflammatory activity in the muscle-derived form, which is the one it assumes as a myokine when activated by terpenes.

A hybrid-capture approach to reconstruct the phylogeny of Scleractinia (Cnidaria: Hexacorallia)

A well-supported evolutionary tree representing most major lineages of scleractinian corals is in sight with the development and application of phylogenomic approaches. Specifically, hybrid-capture techniques are shedding light on the evolution and systematics of corals. Here, we reconstructed a broad phylogeny of Scleractinia to test previous phylogenetic hypotheses inferred from a few molecular markers, in particular, the relationships among major scleractinian families and genera, and to identify clades that require further research. We analysed 449 nuclear loci from 422 corals, comprising 266 species spanning 26 families, combining data across whole genomes, transcriptomes, hybrid capture and low-coverage sequencing to reconstruct the largest phylogenomic tree of scleractinians to date. Due to the large number of loci and data completeness (<38% missing data), node supports were high across shallow and deep nodes with incongruences observed in only a few shallow nodes. The "Robust" and "Complex" clades were recovered unequivocally, and our analyses confirmed that Micrabaciidae Vaughan, 1905 is sister to the "Robust" clade, transforming our understanding of the "Basal" clade. Several families remain polyphyletic in our phylogeny, including Deltocyathiidae Kitahara, Cairns, Stolarski & Miller, 2012, Caryophylliidae Dana, 1846, and Coscinaraeidae Benzoni, Arrigoni, Stefani & Stolarski, 2012, and we hereby formally proposed the family name Pachyseridae Benzoni & Hoeksema to accommodate Pachyseris Milne Edwards & Haime, 1849, which is phylogenetically distinct from Agariciidae Gray, 1847. Results also revealed species misidentifications and inconsistencies within morphologically complex clades, such as Acropora Oken, 1815 and Platygyra Ehrenberg, 1834, underscoring the need for reference skeletal material and topotypes, as well as the importance of detailed taxonomic work. The approach and findings here provide much promise for further stabilising the topology of the scleractinian tree of life and advancing our understanding of coral evolution.

AI-Aided Search for New HIV-1 Protease Ligands

The availability of drugs capable of blocking the replication of microorganisms has been one of the greatest triumphs in the history of medicine, but the emergence of an ever-increasing number of resistant strains poses a serious problem for the treatment of infectious diseases. The search for new potential ligands for proteins involved in the life cycle of pathogens is, therefore, an extremely important research field today. In this work, we have considered the HIV-1 protease, one of the main targets for AIDS therapy. Several drugs are used today in clinical practice whose mechanism of action is based on the inhibition of this enzyme, but after years of use, even these molecules are beginning to be interested by resistance phenomena. We used a simple artificial intelligence system for the initial screening of a data set of potential ligands. These results were validated by docking and molecular dynamics, leading to the identification of a potential new ligand of the enzyme which does not belong to any known class of HIV-1 protease inhibitors. The computational protocol used in this work is simple and does not require large computational power. Furthermore, the availability of a large number of structural information on viral proteins and the presence of numerous experimental data on their ligands, with which it is possible to compare the results obtained with computational methods, make this research field the ideal terrain for the application of these new computational techniques.

Heavy Metal Pollution and Male Fertility: An Overview on Adverse Biological Effects and Socio-Economic Implications

Trace metals can be divided into two subgroups considering their pathophysiological effects: the first consists of microelements essential for life (arsenic, cobalt, chromium, copper, fluorine, iron, iodine, manganese, molybdenum, nickel, selenium, silicon, tin, vanadium and zinc), implicated in important metabolic processes; the second includes toxic microelements, such as cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), chromium (Cr), and lead (Pb) for living organisms, even at low concentrations. These metals contribute to serious consequences for human health, including male infertility. Studies performed in several in vitro and in vivo models revealed that environmental exposure to toxic pollutants, as heavy metals, negatively affects human male fertility. Stem cells, due to their ability to self-renew and differentiate in several cell types, have been proposed as a useful tool in assisted reproductive technology, permitting the spermatogenesis recovery in patients with irreversible infertility. Considering the effects of heavy metals on male fertility and, from a demographic point of view, the decreased fertility ratio, further strategies are required to maintain a sustainable turn-over of 2 children for woman. We discuss here the findings on the biological effects of heavy metal pollution in the male fertility and underline the related socioeconomic impact on population demography.

Natural bioactive compounds against oxidative stress: dietary polyphenols strike back

Abstract:

Oxidative stress is a major cellular and metabolic burden that can really alter cell life and become the base for disease onset and development. Many widespread pathologies can develop from an unresolved oxidative stress situation; thus, addressing this state is paramount for human health. Our antioxidant enzymes sometimes are not just enough. Fortifying our defense and the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory system can make a difference in our health: if this is attainable with our dietary habits, it could be a dream come true. Polyphenols are a fantastic tool indeed in the fight against oxidative stress: they are easy to obtain, with little cost, no side effects, and have a multitude of metabolic actions. This perspective review would shed light on polyphenol’s metabolic and molecular action regarding oxidative stress to help preserve our health.

Effects of Vitamin D on the Renin–Angiotensin System and Acute Childhood Pneumonia

Vitamin D promotes kidney calcium reabsorption and regulates calcium and phosphate metabolism, as well as the intestinal absorption of calcium and phosphorus and bone mineralization events. Vitamin D is also known for its immunomodulatory properties. It has been shown in the literature that the active form of vitamin D, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, performs multiple functions in the adaptive and innate immune system, as well as acting on the endothelial membrane. Recent evidence shows that vitamin D is a negative endocrine modulator of the renin–angiotensin system (RAS), with protection from diseases leading to lung damage, such as pneumonia caused by various pathogens. Vitamin D support associated with the use of antibiotics could be crucial to counteract these infectious diseases.

Antibiotic Resistance to Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Potential Use of Natural and Biological Products as Alternative Anti-Mycobacterial Agents

Background: Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by the bacillus Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). TB treatment is based on the administration of three major antibiotics: isoniazid, rifampicin, and pyrazinamide. However, multi-drug resistant (MDR) Mtb strains are increasing around the world, thus, allowing TB to spread around the world. The stringent response is demonstrated by Mtb strains in order to survive under hostile circumstances, even including exposure to antibiotics. The stringent response is mediated by alarmones, which regulate bacterial replication, transcription and translation. Moreover, the Mtb cell wall contributes to the mechanism of antibiotic resistance along with efflux pump activation and biofilm formation. Immunity over the course of TB is managed by M1-macrophages and M2-macrophages, which regulate the immune response against Mtb infection, with the former exerting inflammatory reactions and the latter promoting an anti-inflammatory profile. T helper 1 cells via secretion of interferon (IFN)-gamma, play a protective role in the course of TB, while T regulatory cells secreting interleukin 10, are anti-inflammatory. Alternative therapeutic options against TB require further discussion. In view of the increasing number of MDR Mtb strains, attempts to replace antibiotics with natural and biological products have been object of intensive investigation. Therefore, in this review the anti-Mtb effects exerted by probiotics, polyphenols, antimicrobial peptides and IFN-gamma will be discussed. All the above cited compounds are endowed either with direct antibacterial activity or with anti-inflammatory and immunomodulating characteristics.

Behind the Double Helix: The Complicated Life of Rosalind Franklin

BACKGROUND: Rosalind Franklin was a British scientist in the 1950s, that in her short career covered a lot of important scientific topics, ranging from coal structure porosity, to biological molecules cristallography, and finally to viruses structure definition. AIM: This article aimed to underline the important role that she had for the elucidation of the DNA structure, and to reiterate the difficulties, she had to face – prominently as a woman – to be fully accepted in the world of scientific research. METHODS: An historical research was conducted and summarized, regarding the life of Rosalind Franklin. RESULTS: This myth overshadowed her intellectual strength and independence both as a scientist and as an individual. CONCLUSION: As one of the twentieth century’s pre-eminent scientists, Franklin’s work has benefited all of humanity. The 100th anniversary of her birth in 2020 was prompting much reflection on her career and research contributions, not least Franklin’s catalytic role in unraveling the structure of DNA Franklin’s premature death, combined with misogynist treatment by the male scientific establishment, cast her as a feminist icon.

Update on COVID-19 and Effectiveness of a Vaccination Campaign in a Global Context

The COVID-19 pandemic caused by SARS-CoV-2 remains a significant issue for global health, the economy, and society. When SARS-CoV-2 began to spread, the most recent serious infectious disease of this century around the world, with its high morbidity and mortality rates, it is understandable why such infections have generally been spread in the past, mainly from international travel movements. This perspective review aimed to provide an update for clinicians on the recent developments related to the microbiological perspectives in pandemics, diagnostics, prevention (such as the spread of a virus), vaccination campaigns, treatment options, and health consequences for COVID-19 based on the current literature. In this way, the authors attempt to raise awareness on the transversal nature of these challenges by identifying the main risk/vulnerability factors that the scientific community must face including our current knowledge on the virus capacity of the mechanism of entry into the cells, the current classifications of viral variants, the knowledge of the mathematical model on the spread of viruses (the possible routes of transmission), and the effectiveness of vaccination campaigns in a global context of pandemic, particularly from COVID-19, with a look at new or future vaccines.

The complete mitochondrial genome of Dendrophyllia minuscula (Cnidaria: Scleractinia) from the NEOM region of the Northern Red Sea

The scleractinian coral family Dendrophylliidae is a major component of shallow and deep-water coral ecosystems worldwide, but our knowledge on the evolutionary history of the family remains scarce. Here, we used ezRAD coupled with Illumina sequencing technology and reconstructed the complete mitochondrial genome of Dendrophyllia minuscula (GenBank accession number OL634845), from mesophotic depths in the Red Sea NEOM area. The mitochondrial genome of D. minuscula consisted of 19,054 bp, organized in 13 protein-coding genes, 2 rRNA genes, and 2 tRNA genes, in agreement with the Scleractinia typical mitogenome organization. This complete mitochondrial genome contributes toward a better knowledge of mesophotic and deep-water coral diversity and evolutionary history.

Mitochondrial Genome of Nonmodel Marine Metazoans by Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS)

Mitochondrial genomes (mtgenome) represent an important source of information for addressing fundamental evolutionary, phylogeographic, systematic, and ecological questions in marine organisms. In the last two decades the advent of high-throughput next-generation sequencing (NGS) has provided an unprecedented possibility to access large amount of genomic data and, as such, there has been a rapid growth in mtgenome resources and studies. In particular, NGS strategies represent a great advantage for investigating nonmodel marine organisms for which no or limited genomic resources are available. Here, we describe a routinely used standardized protocol to obtain mtgenome of nonmodel marine organisms by NGS. The protocol is composed of five main steps, including DNA extraction, DNA fragmentation, library preparation, high-throughput sequencing, and bioinformatic analyses. Each of the first three steps is followed by size/quality and concentration validations. The advantages of the described protocol rely on the assumption that no a priori information on mtgenome of the studied organism is needed and on its versatility as researchers may choose several kits for DNA extraction and library preparation and adopt different methods for DNA fragmentation depending on their needs, experience, and suppliers.

Integrative systematics illuminates the relationships in two sponge-associated hydrozoan families (Capitata: Sphaerocorynidae and Zancleopsidae)

An integrated approach using morphological and genetic data is needed to disentangle taxonomic uncertainties affecting the hydrozoan families Sphaerocorynidae and Zancleopsidae. Here we used this approach to accurately characterise species in these families, identify the previously unknown polyp stages of the genera Euphysilla and Zancleopsis, which were originally described exclusively based on the medusa stages, describe a new sphaerocorynid genus and species, and assess the phylogenetic position of the two families within the Capitata. The monotypic genus Astrocoryne was found to be a synonym of Zancleopsis. Astrocoryne cabela was therefore transferred to the genus Zancleopsis as Zancleopsis cabela comb. nov. The new polyp-based genus and species Kudacoryne diaphana gen. nov. sp. nov. was erected within the Sphaerocorynidae. Both taxa are primarily based on genetic data, but the introduction of this new genus was made necessary by the fact that it clustered with the genera Heterocoryne and Euphysilla, despite showing Sphaerocoryne-like polyps. Interestingly, the species analysed in this work showed contrasting biogeographical patterns. Based on our data and literature records, some species appear to have a wide circumtropical range, whereas others are limited to few localities. Overall, these results lay the ground for future investigations aimed at resolving the taxonomy and systematics of these two enigmatic families.

Evaluation of a Nutraceutical Product with Probiotics, Vitamin D, Plus Banaba Leaf Extracts (Lagerstroemia speciosa) in Glycemic Control

BACKGROUND

Dysbiosis is related to changes in the composition and behaviour of intestinal microbiota, which may contribute to an age-related decline in metabolic and immune system functioning (immune-senescence).

OBJECTIVE

The microbiota-targeted dietary and probiotic interventions have been shown to favorably affect the host health by an enhancement of antioxidant activity, improving immune homeostasis, suppression of chronic inflammation, regulation of metabolism and prevention of insulin resistance.

RESULTS

In our study, the use of specific probiotics strains improved the serum concentration of glycemic markers, thereby promoting better overall health.

CONCLUSION

Probiotics may help correct defects in the gut microbial environment improving metabolic parameters, such as blood sugar levels, glycosylated hemoglobin and a decrease in body weight.

Another look at dietary polyphenols: challenges in cancer prevention and treatment

Cancer is a pathology that impacts in a profound manner people all over the world. The election strategy against cancer often uses chemotherapy and radiotherapy, which more often than not can present many side effects and not always reliable efficacy. By contrast, it is widely known that a diet rich in fruit and vegetables has a protective effect against cancer insurgence and development. Polyphenols are generally believed to be responsible for those beneficial actions, at least partially. In this review, we highlight the metabolic interaction between polyphenols and our metabolism and discuss their potential for anticancer prevention and therapy.

Global tropical reef fish richness could decline by around half if corals are lost

Reef fishes are a treasured part of marine biodiversity, and also provide needed protein for many millions of people. Although most reef fishes might survive projected increases in ocean temperatures, corals are less tolerant. A few fish species strictly depend on corals for food and shelter, suggesting that coral extinctions could lead to some secondary fish extinctions. However, secondary extinctions could extend far beyond those few coral-dependent species. Furthermore, it is yet unknown how such fish declines might vary around the world. Current coral mass mortalities led us to ask how fish communities would respond to coral loss within and across oceans. We mapped 6964 coral-reef-fish species and 119 coral genera, and then regressed reef-fish species richness against coral generic richness at the 1° scale (after controlling for biogeographic factors that drive species diversification). Consistent with small-scale studies, statistical extrapolations suggested that local fish richness across the globe would be around half its current value in a hypothetical world without coral, leading to more areas with low or intermediate fish species richness and fewer fish diversity hotspots.

Rebalancing the Oral Microbiota as an Efficient Tool in Endocrine, Metabolic and Immune Disorders

The current treatment and prevention procedures of oral disorders follow a very targeted approach considering mouth and its structures as a system that is completely independent, than the rest of the body. The main therapeutic approach is to keep the levels of oral bacteria and hygiene in an acceptable range compatible with oral-mouth health, completely separated from systemic microbial homeostasis (eubiosis vs dysbiosis). This can negatively impact the diagnosis of a more complex systemic disease and its progression. Dysbiosis occurs as a consequence of imbalance in oral and gut microbiota which leads to cardiovascular diseases, diabetes mellitus, rheumatoid arthritis, and Alzheimer's disease, as reported in current literature. Likewise, there is a need to highlight and develop a novel philosophical approach in the treatments for oral diseases that will necessarily involve nonconventional approaches.

Phylogenomics of Porites from the Arabian Peninsula

The advent of high throughput sequencing technologies provides an opportunity to resolve phylogenetic relationships among closely related species. By incorporating hundreds to thousands of unlinked loci and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), phylogenomic analyses have a far greater potential to resolve species boundaries than approaches that rely on only a few markers. Scleractinian taxa have proved challenging to identify using traditional morphological approaches and many groups lack an adequate set of molecular markers to investigate their phylogenies. Here, we examine the potential of Restriction-site Associated DNA sequencing (RADseq) to investigate phylogenetic relationships and species limits within the scleractinian coral genus Porites. A total of 126 colonies were collected from 16 localities in the seas surrounding the Arabian Peninsula and ascribed to 12 nominal and two unknown species based on their morphology. Reference mapping was used to retrieve and compare nearly complete mitochondrial genomes, ribosomal DNA, and histone loci. De novo assembly and reference mapping to the P. lobata coral transcriptome were compared and used to obtain thousands of genome-wide loci and SNPs. A suite of species discovery methods (phylogenetic, ordination, and clustering analyses) and species delimitation approaches (coalescent-based, species tree, and Bayesian Factor delimitation) suggested the presence of eight molecular lineages, one of which included six morphospecies. Our phylogenomic approach provided a fully supported phylogeny of Porites from the Arabian Peninsula, suggesting the power of RADseq data to solve the species delineation problem in this speciose coral genus.

Microbiota and Obesity: Where Are We Now?

Simple Summary

Emerging new data reported in the international scientific literature show that specific alterations in the human gut microbiota are characteristic in obesity and obesity-related metabolic diseases. Obesity is conditioned by a multitude of factors, and the microbiota is certainly an important player. The analysis of the data obtained from experimental studies allow us to hypothesize that changes in the composition of the microbiota may be the cause, and not simply the consequence, of alterations in human metabolism. Clinical trials on wide samples that investigate the role of diet-induced modulation of the gut microbiota on the host metabolism are needed to understand the interactions at the molecular level for the observed correlations between metabolism and microbiota changes.

Abstract

Genetic and environmental factors are underlying causes of obesity and other metabolic diseases, so it is therefore difficult to find suitable and effective medical treatments. However, without a doubt, the gut microbiota—and also the bacteria present in the oral cavity—act as key factors in the development of these pathologies, yet the mechanisms have not been fully described. Certainly, a more detailed knowledge of the structure of the microbiota—composition, intra- and inter-species relationships, metabolic functions—could be of great help in counteracting the onset of obesity. Identifying key bacterial species will allow us to create a database of “healthy” bacteria, making it possible to manipulate the bacterial community according to metabolic and clinical needs. Targeting gut microbiota in clinical care as treatment for obesity and health-related complications—even just for weight loss has become a real possibility. In this topical review we provide an overview of the role of the microbiota on host energy homeostasis and obesity-related metabolic diseases, therefore addressing the therapeutic potential of novel and existing strategies (impact of nutrition/dietary modulation, and fecal microbiota transplantation) in the treatment of metabolic disease.

Cryptic species and host specificity in the bryozoan-associated hydrozoan Zanclea divergens (Hydrozoa, Zancleidae)

Zanclea divergens is a tropical hydrozoan living in symbiotic association with bryozoans and currently reported from Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, and Maldives. Here, we used an integrative approach to assess the morpho-molecular diversity of the species across the Indo-Pacific. Phylogenetic and species delimitation analyses based on seven mitochondrial and nuclear loci revealed four well-supported molecular lineages corresponding to cryptic species, and representing a Pacific clade, an Indian clade, and two Red Sea clades. Since the general polyp morphology was almost identical in all samples, the nematocyst capsules were measured and analysed to search for possible fine-scale differences, and their statistical treatment revealed a significant difference in terms of length and width among the clades investigated. All Zanclea divergens specimens were specifically associated with cheilostome bryozoans belonging to the genus Celleporaria. The Pacific and Indian clades were associated with Celleporaria sp. and C. vermiformis, respectively, whereas both Red Sea lineages were associated with C. pigmentaria. Nevertheless, the sequencing of host bryozoans revealed that one of the Red Sea hydrozoan clades is associated with two morphologically undistinguishable, but genetically divergent, bryozoan species. Overall, our results show that Z. divergens is a species complex composed of morphologically cryptic lineages showing partially disjunct distributions and host specificity. The presence of two sympatric lineages living on the same host species reveal complex dynamics of diversification, and future research aimed at understanding their diversification process will likely improve our knowledge on the mechanisms of speciation among currently sympatric cryptic species.

Morphological and genetic divergence between Mediterranean and Caribbean populations of Madracis pharensis (Heller 1868) (Scleractinia, Pocilloporidae): too much for one species?

The colonial stony coral genus Madracis is cosmopolitan, lives in shallow and deep water habitats, and includes zooxanthellate, azooxanthellate and facultative symbiotic species. One of its species, Madracis pharensis, has been recorded from the Mediterranean and East Atlantic, where it forms small knobby and facultative zooxanthellate colonies (also named M. pharensis f. pharensis), and from the tropical Caribbean, where it also occurs in a massive and zooxanthellate form (named M. pharensis f. luciphila by some). These two forms have been previously found to host different Symbiodinium species. In this study, species boundaries and phylogenetic relationships between these two Madracis pharensis forms (from the Mediterranean Sea and the Caribbean), M. senaria, and the Indo-west Pacific M. kirbyi were analyzed through an integrated systematics approach, including corallite dimensions, micromorphology and two molecular markers (ITS and ATP8). Significant genetic and morphological differences were found between all the examined Madracis species, and between M. pharensis from the Mediterranean Sea and M. pharensis f. luciphila from the Caribbean in particular. Based on these results, the latter does not represent a zooxanthellate ecomorph of the former but a different species. Its identity remains to be ascertained and its relationship with the Caribbean M. decactis, with which it bears morphologic resemblance, must be investigated in further studies. Overall, the presence of cryptic Madracis species in the Easter and Central Atlantic Ocean remains to be evaluated.

Polyphyly of the genus Zanclea and family Zancleidae (Hydrozoa, Capitata) revealed by the integrative analysis of two bryozoan-associated species

The Zancleidae is a hydrozoan family that currently comprises three genera and 42 nominal species. The validity of numerous taxa in this family still needs to be assessed with integrative analyses and complete life cycle descriptions. The vast majority of its species live symbiotically with other organisms, among which cheilostomate bryozoans are the most common hosts. These bryozoan-associated zancleids are host-specific and encompass all species of the genera Halocoryne and Zanclella, as well as several species in the genus Zanclea. Zancleids show variable morphologies, including highly reduced polyps and medusae. Their phylogenetic history is uncertain due to the often intergrading morphologies and the shortage of molecular data. In the present study, two species of Zanclea from the Indian Ocean and the Red Sea are analysed, using morphological and DNA-based approaches. Morphological analyses of the polyp and medusa stages show that, despite a general resemblance with each other and with Zanclella diabolica, the two species differ in some characters, and this is supported also by molecular investigations. The DNA analyses show that the two species are monophyletic and closely related, but divergent from other Zanclea lineages. This newly recovered clade may correspond with the genus Zanclella or with a cryptic genus. The lack of both morphological and molecular data for several zancleid species did not allow to address this issue. Additionally, the single-and multi-locus phylogeny reconstructions reveal that both the family Zancleidae and the genus Zanclea are polyphyletic taxa, since they are composed of at least three divergent lineages. Most zancleid species have polyps and medusae similar to other closely related taxa, and this conserved general morphology poses a challenge in the delimitation of species, genera and even families in this group. Consequently, further conjunct morphological and molecular efforts are strongly needed to clarify the diversity and evolution of the family Zancleida as a whole.

Molecular identification and functional characterization of a novel glutamate transporter in yeast and plant mitochondria

The genome of Saccharomyces cerevisiae encodes 35 members of the mitochondrial carrier family (MCF) and 58 MCF members are coded by the genome of Arabidopsis thaliana, most of which have been functionally characterized. Here two members of this family, Ymc2p from S. cerevisiae and BOU from Arabidopsis, have been thoroughly characterized. These proteins were overproduced in bacteria and reconstituted into liposomes. Their transport properties and kinetic parameters demonstrate that Ymc2p and BOU transport glutamate, and to a much lesser extent L-homocysteinesulfinate, but not other amino acids and many other tested metabolites. Transport catalyzed by both carriers was saturable, inhibited by mercuric chloride and dependent on the proton gradient across the proteoliposomal membrane. The growth phenotype of S. cerevisiae cells lacking the genes ymc2 and agc1, which encodes the only other S. cerevisiae carrier capable to transport glutamate besides aspartate, was fully complemented by expressing Ymc2p, Agc1p or BOU. Mitochondrial extracts derived from ymc2Δagc1Δ cells, reconstituted into liposomes, exhibited no glutamate transport at variance with wild-type, ymc2Δ and agc1Δ cells, showing that S. cerevisiae cells grown in the presence of acetate do not contain additional mitochondrial transporters for glutamate besides Ymc2p and Agc1p. Furthermore, mitochondria isolated from wild-type, ymc2Δ and agc1Δ strains, but not from the double mutant ymc2Δagc1Δ strain, swell in isosmotic ammonium glutamate showing that glutamate is transported by Ymc2p and Agc1p together with a H⁺. It is proposed that the function of Ymc2p and BOU is to transport glutamate across the mitochondrial inner membrane and thereby play a role in intermediary metabolism, C1 metabolism and mitochondrial protein synthesis.

Corals hosting symbiotic hydrozoans are less susceptible to predation and disease

In spite of growing evidence that climate change may dramatically affect networks of interacting species, whether-and to what extent-ecological interactions can mediate species' responses to disturbances is an open question. Here we show how a largely overseen association such as that between hydrozoans and scleractinian corals could be possibly associated with a reduction in coral susceptibility to ever-increasing predator and disease outbreaks. We examined 2455 scleractinian colonies (from both Maldivian and the Saudi Arabian coral reefs) searching for non-random patterns in the occurrence of hydrozoans on corals showing signs of different health conditions (i.e. bleaching, algal overgrowth, corallivory and different coral diseases). We show that, after accounting for geographical, ecological and co-evolutionary factors, signs of disease and corallivory are significantly lower in coral colonies hosting hydrozoans than in hydrozoan-free ones. This finding has important implications for our understanding of the ecology of coral reefs, and for their conservation in the current scenario of global change, because it suggests that symbiotic hydrozoans may play an active role in protecting their scleractinian hosts from stresses induced by warming water temperatures.

The complete mitochondrial genome of Porites harrisoni (Cnidaria: Scleractinia) obtained using next-generation sequencing

In this study, we sequenced the complete mitochondrial genome of Porites harrisoni using ezRAD and Illumina technology. Genome length consisted of 18,630 bp, with a base composition of 25.92% A, 13.28% T, 23.06% G, and 37.73% C. Consistent with other hard corals, P. harrisoni mitogenome was arranged in 13 protein-coding genes, 2 rRNA, and 2 tRNA genes. nad5 and cox1 contained embedded Group I Introns of 11,133 bp and 965 bp, respectively.

Using ezRAD to reconstruct the complete mitochondrial genome of Porites fontanesii (Cnidaria: Scleractinia)

Corals in the genus Porites are among the major framework builders of reef structures worldwide, yet the genus has been challenging to study due to a lack of informative molecular markers. Here, we used ezRAD sequencing to reconstruct the complete mitochondrial genome of Porites fontanesii (GenBank accession number MG754069), a widespread coral species endemic to the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. The gene arrangement of P. fontanesii did not differ from other Scleractinia and consisted of 18,658 bp, organized in 13 protein-coding genes, 2 rRNA genes, and 2 tRNA genes. This mitochondrial genome contributes essential data to work towards a better understanding of evolutionary relationships within Porites.

Cyphastrea (Cnidaria : Scleractinia : Merulinidae) in the Red Sea: phylogeny and a new reef coral species

The scleractinian coral Cyphastrea is a common and widespread genus throughout the coral reefs of the Indo-Pacific. Little is known about the phylogenetic relationships within this taxon and species identification is based mainly on traditional skeletal characters, such as the number of septa, septa cycles, growth form and corallite dimensions. Here we present the first focussed reconstruction of phylogenetic relationships among Cyphastrea species, analysing 57 colonies from the Red Sea, where five morphospecies live in sympatry. Analyses based on three loci (nuclear histone H3, 28S rDNA and a mitochondrial intergenic region) reveal the existence of three well-supported molecular lineages. None of the five previously defined morphospecies are monophyletic and they cluster into two clades, suggesting the need of a systematic revision in Cyphastrea. The third lineage is described as C. magna Benzoni &amp; Arrigoni, sp. nov., a new reef coral species collected from the northern and central Red Sea. Cyphastrea magna Benzoni &amp; Arrigoni, sp. nov. is characterised by the largest corallite diameter among known Cyphastrea species, a wide trabecular columella &gt;1/4 of calice width, and 12 equal primary septa. This study suggests that morphology-based taxonomy in Cyphastrea may not identify monophyletic units and strengthens the application of genetics in coral systematics.

Astrocoryne cabela, gen. nov. et sp. nov. (Hydrozoa : Sphaerocorynidae), a new sponge-associated hydrozoan

The family Sphaerocorynidae includes two valid genera and five species, most of which have a confusing taxonomic history. Here, a new genus and species, Astrocoryne cabela, gen. et sp. nov., is described from the Maldives and the Red Sea, based on both morphological and molecular evidence. Astrocoryne cabela has an apomorphy represented by the type of tentacles, here named ‘dicapitate’, and consisting of capitate tentacles with a proximal capitulum-like cluster of nematocysts. Molecular analyses confirmed the monophyly of this species, as well as its belonging to the Sphaerocorynidae, together with Sphaerocoryne spp. and Heterocoryne caribbensis Wedler &amp; Larson, 1986, for which we present molecular data for the first time. Moreover, the high divergence of A. cabela from other species of the family justifies the establishment of a new genus. Interestingly, specimens from the Maldives and the Red Sea showed marked morphological variation in the polyp stage, although only a slight genetic divergence was detected. This study highlights that a comprehensive morpho-molecular assessment of Sphaerocorynidae is strongly needed in order to clarify the taxonomic issues and the diversity of this taxon.

When forms meet genes: revision of the scleractinian genera Micromussa and Homophyllia (Lobophylliidae) with a description of two new species and one new genus

The scleractinian family Lobophylliidae is undergoing a major taxonomic revision thanks to the combination of molecular and morphological data. In this study, we investigate the evolutionary relationships and the macro- and micromorphology of six nominal coral species belonging to two of the nine molecular clades of the Lobophylliidae, clades A and B, and of Symphyllia wilsoni, a lobophylliid species analyzed from a molecular point of view for the first time. Sequence data from mitochondrial DNA (COI and the intergenic spacer between COI and l-rRNA), and nuclear DNA (histone H3 and ITS region) are used to generate robust molecular phylogenies and a median-joining haplotype network. Molecular results are strongly in agreement with detailed observations of gross- and fine-scale morphology of skeletons, leading to the formal revision of the genera Micromussa and Homophyllia and the description of two newly discovered zooxanthellate shallow-water species, Micromussa pacifica sp. nov. Benzoni & Arrigoni and Micromussa indiana sp. nov. Benzoni & Arrigoni, and a new genus, Australophyllia gen. nov. Benzoni & Arrigoni. In particular, Acanthastrea lordhowensis and Montastraea multipunctata are moved into Micromussa, A. hillae is synonymized with A. bowerbanki and is transferred to Homophyllia, and a revised diagnosis for both genera is provided. Micromussa pacifica sp. nov. is described from the Gambier Islands with its distribution spanning New Caledonia and eastern Australia. Despite a superficial resemblance with Homophyllia australis, it has distinctive macroand micromorphological septal features. Micromussa indiana sp. nov., previously identified as M. amakusensis, is here described from the Gulf of Aden and the southern Red Sea as a distinct species that is genetically separated from M. amakusensis and is morphologically distinct from the latter due to its smaller corallite size and lower number of septa. Finally, molecular trees show that S. wilsoni is closely related, but molecularly separated from clades A and B, and, also based on a unique combination of corallite and sub-corallite characters, the species is moved into Australophyllia gen. nov. These findings confirm the need for using both genetic and morphological datasets for the ongoing taxonomic revision of scleractinian corals.

Species delimitation in the reef coral genera Echinophyllia and Oxypora (Scleractinia, Lobophylliidae) with a description of two new species

Scleractinian corals are affected by environment-induced phenotypic plasticity and intraspecific morphological variation caused by genotype. In an effort to identify new strategies for resolving this taxonomic issue, we applied a molecular approach for species evaluation to two closely related genera, Echinophyllia and Oxypora, for which few molecular data are available. A robust multi-locus phylogeny using DNA sequence data across four loci of both mitochondrial (COI, ATP6-NAD4) and nuclear (histone H3, ITS region) origin from 109 coral colonies was coupled with three independent putative species delimitation methods based on barcoding threshold (ABGD) and coalescence theory (PTP, GMYC). Observed overall congruence across multiple genetic analyses distinguished two traditional species (E. echinoporoides and O. convoluta), a species complex composed of E. aspera, E. orpheensis, E. tarae, and O. glabra, whereas O. lacera and E. echinata were indistinguishable with the sequenced loci. The combination of molecular species delimitation approaches and skeletal character observations allowed the description of two new reef coral species, E. bulbosa sp. n. from the Red Sea and E. gallii sp. n. from the Maldives and Mayotte. This work demonstrated the efficiency of multi-locus phylogenetic analyses and recently developed molecular species delimitation approaches as valuable tools to disentangle taxonomic issues caused by morphological ambiguities and to re-assess the diversity of scleractinian corals.

The Hidden Diversity of Zanclea Associated with Scleractinians Revealed by Molecular Data

Scleractinian reef corals have recently been acknowledged as the most numerous host group found in association with hydroids belonging to the Zanclea genus. However, knowledge of the molecular phylogenetic relationships among Zanclea species associated with scleractinians is just beginning. This study, using the nuclear 28S rDNA region and the fast-evolving mitochondrial 16S rRNA and COI genes, provides the most comprehensive phylogenetic reconstruction of the genus Zanclea with a particular focus on the genetic diversity among Zanclea specimens associated with 13 scleractinian genera. The monophyly of Zanclea associated with scleractinians was strongly supported in all nuclear and mitochondrial phylogenetic reconstructions. Furthermore, a combined mitochondrial 16S and COI phylogenetic tree revealed a multitude of hidden molecular lineages within this group (Clades I, II, III, V, VI, VII, and VIII), suggesting the existence of both host-generalist and genus-specific lineages of Zanclea associated with scleractinians. In addition to Z. gallii living in association with the genus Acropora, we discovered four well-supported lineages (Clades I, II, III, and VII), each one forming a strict association with a single scleractinian genus, including sequences of Zanclea associated with Montipora from two geographically separated areas (Maldives and Taiwan). Two host-generalist Zanclea lineages were also observed, and one of them was formed by Zanclea specimens symbiotic with seven scleractinian genera (Clade VIII). We also found that the COI gene allows the recognition of separated hidden lineages in agreement with the commonly recommended mitochondrial 16S as a DNA barcoding gene for Hydrozoa and shows reasonable potential for phylogenetic and evolutionary analyses in the genus Zanclea. Finally, as no DNA sequences are available for the majority of the nominal Zanclea species known, we note that they will be necessary to elucidate the diversity of the Zanclea-scleractinian association.

Taxonomy and phylogenetic relationships of the coral genera Australomussa and Parascolymia (Scleractinia, Lobophylliidae)

Novel micromorphological characters in combination with molecular studies have led to an extensive revision of the taxonomy and systematics of scleractinian corals. In the present work, we investigate the macro- and micromorphology and the phylogenetic position of the genera Australomussa and Parascolymia, two monotypic genera ascribed to the family Lobophylliidae. The molecular phylogeny of both genera was addressed using three markers, the partial mitochondrial COI gene and the nuclear histone H3 and the ribosomal ITS region. Based on molecular data, Australomussa and Parascolymia belong to the Lobophylliidae and they cluster together with the genera Lobophyllia and Symphyllia within the same clade. While A. rowleyensis and P. vitiensis are closely related based on the three gene regions examined, their macro and micromorphology suggest that these species are distinct, differing in several characters, such as continuity and thickness of the costosepta, the number of septa, septal tooth height, spacing, and shape, and the distribution and shape of granules. Thus, we revise the taxonomic status of the genus Australomussa as a junior synonym of Parascolymia.

Pachyseris inattesa sp. n. (Cnidaria, Anthozoa, Scleractinia): a new reef coral species from the Red Sea and its phylogenetic relationships

A new scleractinian coral species, Pachyseris inattesa sp. n., is described from the Red Sea. Despite a superficial resemblance with some species in the agariciid genus Leptoseris with which it has been previously confused, P. inattesa sp. n. has micro-morphological characters typical of the genus Pachyseris. This genus, once part of the Agariciidae, is comprised of five extant species and is widely distributed throughout the tropical Indo-Pacific. It is currently incertae sedis as a result of recent molecular analysis and appears to be closely related to the Euphylliidae. A molecular phylogenetic reconstruction including P. inattesa sp. n., the genus type species P. rugosa, and P. speciosa, all present in the Red Sea, was performed using the mitochondrial intergenic spacer between COI and 16S-rRNA. The results confirm that P. inattesa sp. n. is a monophyletic lineage closely related to the other Pachyseris species examined.

The complete mitochondrial genome of Acanthastrea maxima (Cnidaria, Scleractinia, Lobophylliidae)

The complete nucleotide sequence of the mitochondrial genome of the scleractinian coral Acanthastrea maxima has been obtained, representing the first sequenced mitogenome of a member of the Lobophylliidae. The mitochondrial genome is 18,278  bp in length, the longest sequence among the robust corals sequenced mitogenome to date. The overall GC composition (33.7%) and the gene arrangement are similar to those of the other scleractinian corals, including 13 protein-coding genes, 2 rRNA genes (rnl and rns) and 2 tRNA genes (tRNA-Met and tRNA-Trp). All genes except tRNA-Trp, atp8, cox1, tRNA-Met and rnl are engulfed by a large group I intron in the nad5 gene. A second group I intron of 1077 bp in length is inserted in the cox1 gene and it encodes a putative homing endonuclease. There are four regions of gene overlaps totalling 22 bp and nine intergenic spacer regions for a total of 2220 bp, of which the cox3-cox2 region may correspond to the putative control region.