Groundwater for drinking and industrial purposes: A study of water stability and human health risk assessment from black sand mineral rich coastal region of Kerala, India

Tempero-spatial analysis of groundwater to disseminate the level of drinking water quality and industrial suitability to meet the developmental requirement of a region is a significant area of research. Accordingly, groundwater quality and geochemical interactions prevailed in a black sand mineral rich coastal village is systematically presented in appraisal of drinking and industrial uses for economic engineering purposes. The study area focused is Alappad village, Kollam, Kerala, India has numerous ecological features in a sustainable perspective. The region is unique with placer deposits where an alluvial soil aquifer-saline water-freshwater interaction occurs. This dynamics decides the pertinent hydro geochemistry, potable and designated uses of ground water in season wise. Coastal area is hereby presented based on water quality parameters predicted with the health risk assessment model with a view on human health and cancer risk due to ions (Pb, Ni, Cu, Ba, Fe, Al, Mn, Zn) in groundwater.. To ascertain industrial usage, ground water is evaluated by Langelier saturation index (LSI), Ryznar stability index (RSI), Aggressive index (AI), Larson-Skold index (LS) and Puckorius scaling index (PSI) and inferences are complemented. Chemical weathering and evaporation processes are the natural factors controlling hydrochemistry of this aquifer. This complex coastal system has Nemerow pollution index (NPI) of moderate pollution for total dissolved ions of Fe and lesser for Cu, and Cr present in groundwater. LSI indicates, water is scale forming but non corrosive (46% in PRM, 20% in MON and 47% in POM). Water quality index (WQI) in POM (ranged 28.7-79.9) was excellent for drinking, followed by PRM (23.6-218.2) and MON (33.4-202.7) seasons. This groundwater bears temporary hardness with the dominance of Ca-Mg-HCO3 water type. Health risk assessment of non-carcinogenic risk index of trace metals (Fe, Zn, Mn, and Pb) revealed, children are at 'low risk' and 'medium' risk with Ni and Cu. The carcinogenic risk index indicated 93% of samples were high Ni induced cancer risk for children, and 87% for adults due to long term ingestion (drinking water intake) pathway. Studies specific on placer mineral deposited coastal region of India are not sufficiently reported with a focus on the above perspectives. Growing need of rare earths for material, device and energy applications, placer mineral explorations can destabilise the coastal hydrosphere. Interrelations of mineral soil - water chemistry prevailed and health hazard predicted would kindle a set of sustainable deliberations. This study summarises the drinking and industrial use of coastal groundwater for future development and human well-being on the basis of quality criteria, corrosion proneness, water stability and health risk factors.

Interaction of Val66Met BDNF and 5-HTTLPR polymorphisms with prevalence of post-earthquake 27-F PTSD in Chilean population

Post-traumatic stress (PTSD) disorder is a mental health condition that can occur after experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event. The 27-F earthquake that struck Chile in 2010 was one such event that had a significant impact on the mental health of the population. A study was conducted to investigate the prevalence of PTSD and its associated factors among survivors of this earthquake. The study was a longitudinal design, involving a sample of 913 patients aged 18 to 75 years who attended 10 Primary Care Centers in Concepción, Chile. The Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI) was used to assess both depressive episodes (DE) and PTSD before and after the earthquake. The study also involved genotyping studies using saliva samples from the participants, specifically focusing on the Val66Met and 5-HTTLPR polymorphisms. Statistical analysis was performed to examine the association between different variables and the presence of PTSD. These variables included demographic factors, family history of psychiatric disorders, DE, childhood maltreatment experiences, and critical traumatic events related to the earthquake. The results showed that the incidence of post-earthquake PTSD was 11.06%. No significant differences were found between the groups of participants who developed post-earthquake PTSD regarding the Val66Met or 5-HTTLPR polymorphisms. However, a significant association was found between the concomitant diagnosis of DE and the development of post-earthquake PTSD. The presence of DE doubled the risk of developing post-earthquake PTSD. The number of traumatic events experienced also had a statistically significant association with an increased risk of developing post-earthquake PTSD. The study's limitations include the potential interference of different DE subtypes, the complexity of quantifying the degree of earthquake exposure experienced by each individual, and events entailing social disruption, such as looting, that can profoundly influence distress. In conclusion, the study found that PTSD following the 27-F earthquake in Chile was associated with a concomitant diagnosis of DE and the number of traumatic events experienced. The study did not find a significant association between PTSD and the Val66Met or 5-HTTLPR polymorphisms. The researchers recommend that mental health professionals should prioritize the detection and treatment of concomitant depressive episodes and exposure to critical traumatic events in survivors of disasters. They also suggest that further research is needed to better understand the relationship between genetic factors and post-disaster PTSD.

Assessment of the 1693 tsunami wave generation and propagation simulation based on multiple focal mechanism scenarios for recent disaster mitigation in eastern sicily, Italy

The 1693 tsunami was the most extensive earthquake-tsunami event in Sicily, submerging Catania, Augusta, and Syracuse. However, the earthquake rupture, water level, arrival time, and furthest inundation distance of the tsunami waves are not yet known. This study aims to investigate the tsunamigenic source, run-up height, furthest inundation distance, and arrival time of the 1693 tsunami waves on the east coast of Sicily. Moreover, the assessment of tsunami-prone zones was also conducted based on worst-case earthquake-tsunami scenarios. Numerical modeling was applied by proposing six offshore focal mechanism scenarios using the shallow water equation in Delft3D and Delft Dashboard. The input parameters include length, width, strike, dip, slip, rake, and depth of the earthquake rupture. Meanwhile, the tsunami wave propagation onshore utilized XBeach and ArcGIS, considering the maximum run-up height, surface roughness analyzed from land use maps, slope, river existence, and coastline from Digital Terrain Model (DTM) identification. The results indicate that the worst possible impact of the 1693 tsunami was generated by an earthquake with a magnitude of Mw 7.13. The maximum water level, furthest inundation distance, and arrival time achieved 7.7 m, 318 m, and 9 min after wave generation offshore, respectively. This simulation is consistent with the discovery of 1693 tsunami deposits at a distance of less than 400 m from the coastlines of Augusta and Syracuse, but it is above the estimated furthest inundation distance in previous studies, which only reached around 100 m-200 m from the eastern coastline of Sicily. The results of the study are reliable as they align with the 1697 historical document where seawater inundated San Filippo Square, Catania.

Heavy Metal Pollution From a Major Earthquake and Tsunami in Chile Is Associated With Geographic Divergence of Clinical Isolates of Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Latin America

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) is a priority pathogen listed by the World Health Organization. The global spread of MRSA is characterized by successive waves of epidemic clones that predominate in specific geographical regions. The acquisition of genes encoding resistance to heavy-metals is thought to be a key feature in the divergence and geographical spread of MRSA. Increasing evidence suggests that extreme natural events, such as earthquakes and tsunamis, could release heavy-metals into the environment. However, the impact of environmental exposition to heavy-metals on the divergence and spread of MRSA clones has been insufficiently explored. We assess the association between a major earthquake and tsunami in an industrialized port in southern Chile and MRSA clone divergence in Latin America. We performed a phylogenomic reconstruction of 113 MRSA clinical isolates from seven Latin American healthcare centers, including 25 isolates collected in a geographic area affected by an earthquake and tsunami that led to high levels of heavy-metal environmental contamination. We found a divergence event strongly associated with the presence of a plasmid harboring heavy-metal resistance genes in the isolates obtained in the area where the earthquake and tsunami occurred. Moreover, clinical isolates carrying this plasmid showed increased tolerance to mercury, arsenic, and cadmium. We also observed a physiological burden in the plasmid-carrying isolates in absence of heavy-metals. Our results are the first evidence that suggests that heavy-metal contamination, in the aftermath of an environmental disaster, appears to be a key evolutionary event for the spread and dissemination of MRSA in Latin America.

Impact of the tsunami caused by the Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai eruption in Costa Rica on 15 January 2022

Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai had a large eruption (VEI 5-6) on 15 January 2022, which caused a tsunami recorded in all ocean basins. Costa Rica has made many advances in tsunami preparation over the past 9 years since the creation of SINAMOT (Sistema Nacional de Monitoreo de Tsunamis, National Tsunami Monitoring System), both on watch and warning protocols and on community preparedness. For the Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai event, the government declared a low-threat warning, suspending all in-water activities, even though the country did not receive any official warning from PTWC (Pacific Tsunami Warning Center) due to the lack of procedures for tsunamis generated by volcanoes. The tsunami was observed at 24 locations on both the Pacific and Caribbean coasts of Costa Rica, becoming the second most recorded tsunami in the country, after the 1991 Limon tsunami along the Caribbean coast. At 22 of those locations along the continental Pacific coast, observations were made by eyewitnesses, including one collocated with the sea level station at Quepos, which registered the tsunami. At Cocos Island (~ 500 km southwest of the continental Costa Rica, in the Pacific Ocean), several eyewitnesses reported the tsunami at two locations, and it was recorded at the sea level station. The tsunami was also recorded at the sea level station on the Caribbean coast. The tsunami effects reported were a combination of sea level fluctuations, strong currents, and coastal erosion, proving that the response actions were adequate for the size of the tsunami. Tsunami preparedness and the largest waves arriving during a dry season Saturday afternoon allowed the large number of eyewitness reports. This event then increased tsunami awareness in the country and tested protocols and procedures. Still, many people along the coast were not informed of the tsunami during the alert due to their remote location, the short notice of the warning, and a lack of procedures for some communities. There is thus still much work to do, particularly about warning dissemination, a direction in which communities should take an active role.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00445-023-01648-x.

A method for evaluating population and infrastructure exposed to natural hazards: tests and results for two recent Tonga tsunamis

BACKGROUND

Coastal communities are highly exposed to ocean- and -related hazards but often lack an accurate population and infrastructure database. On January 15, 2022 and for many days thereafter, the Kingdom of Tonga was cut off from the rest of the world by a destructive tsunami associated with the Hunga Tonga Hunga Ha'apai volcanic eruption. This situation was made worse by COVID-19-related lockdowns and no precise idea of the magnitude and pattern of destruction incurred, confirming Tonga's position as second out of 172 countries ranked by the World Risk Index 2018. The occurrence of such events in remote island communities highlights the need for (1) precisely knowing the distribution of buildings, and (2) evaluating what proportion of those would be vulnerable to a tsunami.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A GIS-based dasymetric mapping method, previously tested in New Caledonia for assessing and calibrating population distribution at high resolution, is improved and implemented in less than a day to jointly map population clusters and critical elevation contours based on runup scenarios, and is tested against destruction patterns independently recorded in Tonga after the two recent tsunamis of 2009 and 2022. Results show that ~ 62% of the population of Tonga lives in well-defined clusters between sea level and the 15 m elevation contour. The patterns of vulnerability thus obtained for each island of the archipelago allow exposure and potential for cumulative damage to be ranked as a function of tsunami magnitude and source area.

CONCLUSIONS

By relying on low-cost tools and incomplete datasets for rapid implementation in the context of natural disasters, this approach works for all types of natural hazards, is easily transferable to other insular settings, can assist in guiding emergency rescue targets, and can help to elaborate future land-use planning priorities for disaster risk reduction purposes.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40677-023-00235-8.

Uncovering a 70-year-old permafrost degradation induced disaster in the Arctic, the 1952 Niiortuut landslide-tsunami in central West Greenland

On December 15th 1952, at approximately 14:00 local time a mass of 5.9 × 10⁶ m³ of permafrozen talus deposits failed in a landslide close to the Niiortuut mountain on the south coast of the Nuussuaq peninsula, central West Greenland. Between 1.8 and 4.5 × 10⁶ m³ of the material entered the sea and generated a tsunami that propagated through the Vaigat strait (Sullorsuaq). Here we describe this catastrophic event for the first time by analysis of historical material supplemented by recent fieldwork and discuss the implications for the state of contemporary permafrozen slopes. The tsunami killed a fisherman working on the shore of southern Nuussuaq, 10 km south-east of the landslide. In the mining town of Qullissat, 30 km south of the landslide, it had a runup height of 2.2-2.7 m and caused minor material damage. Morphological evidence show that the basal surface of rupture was 80 m inside the permafrost cemented talus slope, whose degradation was a dynamic conditioning factor for the landslide. The 1952 Niiortuut landslide is the first historically recorded event of permafrost degradation induced landslide-tsunamis in the Arctic. We infer that the landslide and its cascading consequences occurred due to the early-twentieth century warming that started in the late 1910's in the Arctic. Warming is now increasingly affecting this region, as shown by an enhanced recent landslide activity.

Spatial distribution vegetation density, land surface temperature, and land surface moisture of Banda Aceh, Indonesia after 17 years of tsunami: a multitemporal analysis approaches

Although some studies on vegetation cover in relation to the land surface temperature (LST) and land surface moisture (LSM) have been carried out, but not yet been investigated in relation to the pre-disaster and after-tsunami disasters. This paper investigates the spatial extent of vegetation cover density, land surface temperature, and land surface moisture of Banda Aceh from 2000 to 2020 to represent the pre-disaster phase, during the disaster, post-disaster, rehabilitation, and reconstruction stages, and current conditions using remote sensing data. NDVI, LST, and NDMI indexes were utilized, and the mapping process of multitemporal images of Banda Aceh was carried out. The results show that after the tsunami, the distribution of vegetation density varies, tending to decrease for densely vegetated areas before increasing more than 5 years later. For medium categories, the vegetation density increased by 22% in 2020 and almost 26% in 2015. Meanwhile, dense vegetation grew by 19% and 13%, respectively, according to data for 2015 and 2020. In a similar outlook, the increasing vegetation density has demonstrated that the LST across Banda Aceh is dominated by 27-30 °C, with 2005 data occupying the coldest area. The city's moderate moisture content covered 85.43% of its surface. The low to medium vegetation density, LST, and LSM indexes from 2000 to 2010 is shown by overlaying a combination of three spatial extent indexes. It is shown that Banda Aceh's medium-to-high density, medium LSM, and medium-to-high LST spatially. Banda Aceh's dynamic changes in vegetation, LST, and LSM over the past two decades have been proven in this research; the Banda Aceh's spatial variation in vegetation density, LST, and LSM is influenced by the tsunami.

Elucidating the status of malaria in Andaman and Nicobar Islands post-millennium 2000

Malaria is a major vector-borne disease in the Indian sub-continent and has been pestering Andaman and Nicobar islands (ANI's) as well since British colonial times. A retrospective data mining technique has been adhered to assess the status of malaria for nineteen years from 2000 to 2019 in ANI's. The altered environment due to 2004 tsunami had increased malaria incidence significantly during (2005-2010). The Nicobar district recorded high incidence of malaria while the least in the north and middle Andaman district. Comparative high incidence of malaria was documented due to Plasmodium falciparum than Plasmodium vivax in the Nicobar district between 2005 and 2009. The declining trend of malaria-positive cases in ANI's was observed post 2010, articulating various initiatives taken by the local Andaman and Nicobar administration to curb this vector-borne disease. The initiatives were like (1) large-scale release of larvivorous fish, Gambusia affinis in the transient water pools, (2) outdoor application of DDT, (3) indoor application of Pyrethrum, (4) malaria awareness drive that led to the curbing of the proliferation not only the malaria vector but also other potential mosquito vector species as well, and (5) implementation of revised drug policy.

Agent-based models of human response to natural hazards: systematic review of tsunami evacuation

This systematic review provides a comprehensive overview of tsunami evacuation models. The review covers scientific studies from the last decade (2012-2021) and is explicitly focused on models using an agent-based approach. The PRISMA methodology was used to analyze 171 selected papers, resulting in over 53 studies included in the detailed full-text analysis. This review is divided into two main parts: (1) a descriptive analysis of the presented models (focused on the modeling tools, validation, and software platform used, etc.), and (2) model analysis (e.g., model purpose, types of agents, input and output data, and modeled area). Special attention was given to the features of these models specifically associated with an agent-based approach. The results lead to the conclusion that the research domain of agent-based tsunami evacuation models is quite narrow and specialized, with a high degree of variability in the model attributes and properties. At the same time, the application of agent-specific methodologies, protocols, organizational paradigms, or standards is sparse.

SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s11069-022-05643-x.

Vegetation indices' spatial prediction based novel algorithm for determining tsunami risk areas and risk values

This paper aims to propose a new algorithm to detect tsunami risk areas based on spatial modeling of vegetation indices and a prediction model to calculate the tsunami risk value. It employs atmospheric correction using DOS1 algorithm combined with k-NN algorithm to classify and predict tsunami-affected areas from vegetation indices data that have spatial and temporal resolutions. Meanwhile, the model uses the vegetation indices (i.e., NDWI, NDVI, SAVI), slope, and distance. The result of the experiment compared to other classification algorithms demonstrates good results for the proposed model. It has the smallest MSEs of 0.0002 for MNDWI, 0.0002 for SAVI, 0.0006 for NDVI, 0.0003 for NDWI, and 0.0003 for NDBI. The experiment also shows that the accuracy rate for the prediction model is about 93.62%.

Effective management of Japanese black pine (Pinus thunbergii Parlat.) coastal forests considering tsunami mitigation

Coastal forests have been recognized to considerably reduce the energy of tsunamis and act as a measure against them. However, broken trees due to tsunamis produce woody debris and cause secondary damage to people and buildings. Thus, coastal forests have both positive and negative effects on tsunamis and people. To elucidate the relationships between these effects and forest management, three experimental forest management types were considered in this study: the sparse type (ST: 0.6 ? Ry ≦ 0.7), middle type (MT: 0.8 ? Ry ≦ 0.9), and dense type (DT: unthinned), where Ry is the relative yield index. In addition, numerical simulations were performed for the forest types considered. The effect of fluid force reduction depended on the growth stage of the forest stands and the occurrence of forest damage caused by the tsunami. For a tsunami height of 5 m, DT and ST exhibited the highest and lowest effectiveness in reducing the fluid force, respectively. However, when the tsunami height exceeded 15 m, the three management types exhibited almost the same effectiveness in reducing the fluid force. Moreover, tree damage increased with an increase in the tsunami height. All trees were damaged under all management types for a tsunami height greater than or equal to 15 m. Modes of tree damage included tree overturning and trunk breakage. The modes of tree damage for MT and ST were overturning only, and DT exhibited a combination of overturning and trunk breakage. Therefore, ST and MT are more suitable than DT for preventing trunk breakage. Thus, forest management against tsunamis should take estimated tsunami height into account for each region.

Climate change, tsunami and biodiversity endangered at the South China Sea, past, current and prediction models for the future: A comprehensive study

In this study, the climate change, tsunami and biodiversity for 336 km coastline endangered at the South China Sea was investigated with the review for the past, current and prediction models for the future. The hydraulic study of the coastal area was conducted using a well-established 2D numerical model suite Delft3D. The study revealed that the generated earthquakes at the convergence zone in the last century are small (M_w7.3), the possibility that a megathrust earthquake event in the SCS basin occurs in the future. The study area comprises a narrow strip of vegetation notably dominated by Casuarina equisetifolia with other coastal plants. Mangrove forests are found along the coastline and estuaries that are overlaid with marine alluvial soils. The current paper is the first comprehensive study of the South China Sea, and the findings increase the awareness among the public to understand the risk associated with environmental pollution.

Diversity of native larvivorous fish fauna during pre- and post-tsunami in Car Nicobar, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, India

BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVES

Malaria is a serious public health problem in Car Nicobar Island, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, India. Using larvivorous fishes has proved to be the cheapest method for vector management approach, with long suppression of mosquito population. This study aims to scale-up the diversity of larvivorous fishes and their potential larvivoracity to evolve an appropriate biological intervention strategy against the immature stages of malaria vectors.

METHODS

During 2003 (pre-tsunami) and 2014-2016 (post-tsunami), an ecological descriptive survey was carried out in the water bodies around Car Nicobar Island. Fishes were captured using fishing nets and cast nets; and placed in plastic jars and preserved in formalin solution. Fishes were identified and classified according to the available keys. Their abundance and data on the current conservation status was recorded and analyzed. Their potential larvivoracity was graded according to their feeding intensity.

RESULTS

Pre-tsunami, a total of 27 larvivorous fish species belonging to 11 orders, 23 families and 23 genera were identified. Order Perciformes and the family Cyprinidae were the most ascendant group constituting 51.9 and 11.1%, respectively. While, 80.8% of species were preferred to inhabit the freshwater region, only 37% of species were surface feeders (SF). According to the conservation, assessment and management plan (CAMP, 1998), 44.4% species were at lower risk least concern (LRlc), while 55.6% species were at least concerned (LC) as per the IUCN, 2017 categorization. However, after the tsunami, 17 fish species had gone extinct and 10 fish species were found to remain alive in the local water bodies.

INTERPRETATION & CONCLUSION

Post-tsunami, the larvivoracity analysis indicated that Ophiocara aporos, Ophiocara procephala, Valamugil seheli, Channa punctata, Kuhlia rupestris, Khulia mugil, and Terapon jarbua possess high-level larvivorous potentiality in nature and are recommended for vector control in the study area. These fish species were facing several anthropogenic threats, such as human interference, loss of habitat, trade, overexploitation, and fishing. Therefore, it is important to protect the water bodies from external impact and implement the conservation strategies. Further, periodic fish fauna surveys, identification of breeding sites, scale-up of the larvivorous potentiality at the field level, creating public awareness through health education on establishment of larvivorous fish ponds and planning for mass rearing of the native fish species should be adopted as part of vector management approach in the endemic malarious region of Car Nicobar Island.

Field reconnaissance and structural assessment of the October 30, 2020, Samos, Aegean Sea earthquake: an example of severe damage due to the basin effect

An earthquake with a magnitude ranging from Mw = 6.9 (KOERI) to Mw = 7.0 (USGS) struck Samos Island in the Aegean Sea on October 30, 2020, with an epicentre 70 kms from the İzmir city centre in Turkey. The earthquake took place at 14:51 local time (11:51 UTC). The peak ground acceleration (PGA) of this earthquake was recorded to be 0.179 g at the epicentre of the earthquake. This earthquake occurred at a depth of 17.26 km (AFAD (2020) İzmir Earthquake Report, (In Turkish)) and lasted 16 s. The main shock from the earthquake triggered a tsunami that hit the building stocks built near the coast. During the gradual deregulation of COVID-19 pandemic regulations, various events caused considerable damage to the building stock, particularly in the Izmir Seferihisar and Bayraklı regions and resulted in a massive disruption of daily habits. The main shock caused 117 deaths in both Turkey and Greece, and 1632 people were also injured in Turkey. Moreover, several injuries occurred in Greece. A total of 103 buildings collapsed, 700 were severely damaged, 814 buildings were moderately damaged, and 7889 were slightly damaged. The basic aim of this paper is to briefly present the past and present seismotectonic characteristics of the region, present building stock, and former structural conditions before the earthquake, assess structural performance and classify distinguished earthquake-induced failures and damage due to the basin effect.

Field survey of the 30 October 2020 Samos (Aegean Sea) tsunami in the Greek islands

On October 30th, 2020, a magnitude 7.0 earthquake offshore off the northern coast of Samos, Greece, generated a tsunami that impacted the nearshore Greek islands and the Aegean coastline of Turkey. Here, we describe detailed results from several post-event field surveys, and report first wave arrival timing and polarity information as well as tsunami height/runup measurements, from five islands. In Chios, wave runup reached 1.38 m, in Samos ~ 3 m, in Fourni 1.57 m, in Thimena 1.46 m, and in Ikaria 1.18 m. This event marks two milestones. One, the General Secretariat for Civil Protection of Greece, disseminated a message through Greece's 1-1-2 Emergency Communications Service to all cell phones in the eastern Aegean geographical region, warning recipients to stay away from coastal areas. According to eyewitnesses, the message was received ~ 3-5 min prior to the second and largest flood in Vathi, as the first flood had not sufficiently alarmed the local authorities to evacuate residents. Two, we were able to infer complete tsunami hydrographs from measurements for the first two floods in Vathi, which suggests that the water level rose to about one meter overland flow depth in one minute.

Impact of the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami on the Incidence of Takotsubo Syndrome Using a Multicenter, Long-Term Regional Registry

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to clarify the incidence of takotsubo syndrome (TTS) after the Great East Japan earthquake (GEJ-E) between inland and coastal areas.Methods and Results:Consecutive hospitalized patients with TTS were registered between 2009 and 2016 in Iwate Prefecture. Patients were divided into 2 groups, by whether they lived inland or in the coastal area (both max. seismic intensity, 6^-). The incidence of TTS was calculated using the standardized incidence ratio (SIR) before and after the earthquake. The long-term prognosis of the 2 groups was compared by Kaplan-Meier analysis. A total of 112 patients with TTS were registered from the acute coronary syndrome records of each hospital (n=4,163); 9 patients with TTS were registered within 2 months of the earthquake. A significant monthly variation was observed in March and April 2011 compared with the other months (P=0.029). At 2 years after the earthquake, the SIR was significantly increased in the coastal area (P<0.01), but decreased after ≥3 years. There were no significant differences in the long-term prognosis between the 2 groups (P=0.20).

CONCLUSIONS

The incidence of TTS was increased in the acute phase after the GEJ-E, particularly in the coastal area. The magnitude of the tsunami damage is presumed to be a factor in the increased incidence of TTS, even though the seismic intensity in both areas was comparable.

Reconnaissance of 2020 M 7.0 Samos Island (Aegean Sea) earthquake

The Samos Island (Aegean Sea) Earthquake occurred on 30 October 2020. It produced a tsunami that impacted coastal communities, ground shaking that was locally amplified in some areas and that led to collapse of structures with 118 fatalities in both Greece and Turkey, and wide-ranging geotechnical effects including rockfalls, landsliding, and liquefaction. As a result of the global COVID-19 pandemic, the reconnaissance of this event did not involve the deployment of international teams, as would be typical for an event of this size. Instead, following initial deployments of separate Greek and Turkish teams, the reconnaissance and documentation efforts were managed in a coordinated manner with the assistance of international partners. This coordination ultimately produced a multi-agency joint report published on the 2-month anniversary of the earthquake, and this special issue. This paper provides an overview of the reconnaissance activities undertaken to document the effects of this important event and summarizes key lessons spanning topic areas from seismology to emergency response.

Visualizing drivers of gender health disparities: Ongoing participatory action research following the 2011 disaster in Japan

As part of an ongoing participatory action research project initiated following the 2011 Great East Japan Disaster to improve disaster policies and responses, this study examines social factors and processes that affect women's well-being in and after disasters. Using PhotoVoice methodology, the project has engaged women affected by the Great East Japan Disaster in participatory assessment and analysis over the last ten years. Begun in three sites in June 2011, the project is currently operating in seven locations: four in the coastal areas affected by the tsunami in the Iwate and Miyagi prefectures; two in Fukushima Prefecture; and one in the Tokyo Metropolitan Area, where the largest number of out-of-prefecture evacuees reside. Participating members, recruited in collaboration with local NGOs, are women affected by the disaster aged from in their 20s to over 70 years. They take photographs of their lives and attend facilitated group discussions on an ongoing basis. Participatory analysis of their photographs and narratives by members and group facilitators (including the author) uses the analytical approach of grounded theory's open and focused coding with constant comparison. The analysis identifies various ways the disaster affected women, compromising their livelihood, safety, and well-being. It reveals an interconnection between the evacuation of children and women of reproductive age, loss of employment in the female-dominated occupational sectors, and increased dependent care responsibilities, which in turn compromises women's financial and emotional well-being. The analysis also elucidates the gendered division of labor in private and public spheres, shortages of maternal and infant health care, and gender-based violence in the post-disaster context. Notably, many of these issues and connections correspond to known social determinants of health disparities. The study findings add a valuable but often neglected local perspective and call for increased policy attention to eliminating gender disparities in disasters.

trees in mature coastal forests to tsunami fluid forces

The Great East Japan Tsunami, triggered by the earthquake that occurred on March 11, 2011 in the Pacific Ocean, caused significant fatalities and socioeconomic damage. As recovery of a disaster area requires significant time, all possible mitigation measures must be prepared in advance for future events. As a tsunami countermeasure, coastal forests have been acknowledged to considerably reduce tsunami energy and decrease tsunami-related damage. In the Great East Japan tsunami, many trees of coastal forests were damaged by trunk breakage and overturning. This led to further infrastructural damage as the debris were transported landward and seaward by floodwaters. To better protect coastal areas from the secondary effects of tsunamis and reduce tsunami energy, coastal forests must exhibit higher resistance. This research investigated the effect of forestry management by applying different levels of thinning of trees as a means of resistance to tree damage under tsunami events. In October of 1999, study plots were established with different thinning intensities in a mature coastal forest of Pinus thunbergii trees. As a useful indicator of the resistance of coastal forests to tsunamis, the threshold tsunami velocities at which trees in these study plots begin to be destroyed were calculated using a mechanistic model. The results revealed that trunk diameter is the most important parameter for increasing resistance to tsunamis. An analysis of the generalized linear model for diameter growth showed that heavy thinning best enhanced the diameter growth. Therefore, heavy thinning is the most effective approach to increasing the resistance of trees to tsunamis. Considering the relationship between resistance to tsunami and inundation depth, the resistance to tsunami decreased rapidly with increasing inundation depth in all plots. Differences in the resistance to the tsunami were not observed across all plots when the inundation depth exceeded the mean tree height.

The 30 October 2020 Aegean Sea Tsunami: Post-Event Field Survey Along Turkish Coast

On 30 October 2020, a strong normal-faulting earthquake struck Samos Island in Greece and İzmir Province in Turkey, both in the eastern Aegean Sea. The earthquake generated a tsunami that hit the coasts of Samos Island, Greece and İzmir, Turkey. National teams performed two post-tsunami field surveys on 31 October to 1 November 2020, and 4-6 November 2020, along the Turkish coastline; while the former was a quick survey on the days following the tsunami, the latter involved more detailed measurement and investigation focusing on a ~ 110-km-long coastline extending from Alaçatı (Çeşme District of İzmir) to Gümüldür (Menderes District of İzmir). The survey teams measured runup and tsunami heights, flow depths, and inundation distances at more than 120 points at eight different localities. The largest tsunami runup among the surveyed locations was measured as 3.8 m in Akarca at a distance of 91 m from the shoreline. The maximum tsunami height of 2.3 m (with a flow depth of 1.4 m) was observed at Kaleiçi region in Sığacık, where the most severe tsunami damage was observed. There, the maximum runup height was measured as 1.9 m at the northeastern side of the bay. The survey team also investigated tsunami damage to coastal structures, noticing a gradual decrease in the impact from Gümüldür to further southeast. The findings of this field survey provide insights into the coastal impact of local tsunamis in the Aegean Sea.

Effects of the 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami on the abundance and composition of anthropogenic marine debris on the continental slope off the Pacific coast of northeastern Japan

The abundance and composition of anthropogenic marine debris from 2012 to 2014 was assessed according to three bottom trawl surveys conducted on the upper continental slope between 198 m and 501 m off the Pacific coast of northeastern Japan. The surveys quantitated marine debris as follows: 33.52-164.62 items km^-2 (January to July 2012), 91.68-215.11 items km^-2 (November 2012 to May 2013), and 160.13-178.19 items km^-2 (November 2013 to May 2014). Plastic bags or household materials mainly dominated terrestrial sources of debris. Principal component analysis latitudinally divided the study area according to debris abundance caused by geographical and hydrodynamic features. The long-term effect of tsunami-associated debris on the seafloor environment was recognized, because terrestrial sources such as heavy household materials were most abundant throughout the study period, with the additional accumulation of fishing gear and plastic bags.

The prevalence of psychological distress during pregnancy in Miyagi Prefecture for 3 years after the Great Eas t Japan Earthquake

Background

To examine changes in psychological distress prevalence among pregnant women in Miyagi Prefecture, which was directly affected by the Great East Japan Earthquake and tsunami, and compare it with the other, less damaged areas of Japan.

Methods

This study was conducted in conjunction with the Japan Environment and Children`s Study. We examined 76,152 pregnant women including 8270 in Miyagi Regional Center and 67,882 in 13 other regional centers from the all-birth fixed data of the Japan Environment and Children’s Study. We then compared the prevalence and risk of distress in women in Miyagi Regional Center and women in the 13 regional centers for 3 years after the disaster.

Results

Women in the Miyagi Regional Center suffered more psychological distress than those in the 13 regional centers: OR 1.38 (95% CI, 1.03–1.87) to 1.92 (95% CI, 1.42–2.60). Additionally, women in the inland area had a consistently higher prevalence of psychological distress compared to those from the 13 regional centers: OR 1.67 (95% CI, 1.18–2.38) to 2.19 (95% CI, 1.60–2.99).

Conclusions

The lack of pre-disaster data in the Japan Environment and Children’s Study made it impossible to compare the incidence of psychological distress before and after the March 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake. However, 3 years after the Great East Japan Earthquake, the prevalence of pregnant women with psychological distress did not improve in Miyagi Regional Center. Further, the prevalence of mental illness in inland areas was consistently higher than that in the 13 regional centers after the disaster.

Five-year blood pressure trajectories of survivors of the tsunami following the Great East Japan Earthquake in Iwate

Whether tsunami survivors who suffered substantial damage experienced increases in blood pressure (BP) immediately after the disaster and in the medium to long term is unclear. We divided tsunami survivors into groups, those who relocated (substantial damage) and those who did not (little damage) and compared the BP trajectories between the groups over the first 5 years after the disaster. Of the 42,831 residents, 3914 were assessed from 2010 to 2015. Subgroup analysis was performed among the 2037 subjects with no information on antihypertensive medications between 2010 and 2015 (no antihypertensive medication group). The BP trajectories in the relocation and no relocation groups were compared using linear mixed models. The multivariate-adjusted mean systolic BP (SBP) values for all subjects significantly decreased after the disaster in both the group who relocated (2010: 130.6 mmHg, 2015: 124.8 mmHg) and the group who did not relocate (2010: 130.7 mmHg, 2015: 126.7 mmHg). The interaction between relocation and time points on SBP was significant (P = 0.017). In the no antihypertensive medication group, the SBP values in the subgroup who relocated were significantly lower in the second, third, and fifth years after the disaster than those in the subgroup who did not relocate. It was concluded that the SBP values of survivors of the tsunami caused by Great East Japan Earthquake decreased in the medium to long term after the disaster, and the group who relocated had a larger decrease in SBP than the group who did not relocate.

Learnings from conducting mental health research during 2004 tsunami in Tamil Nadu, India

Background

The Indian Ocean tsunami experience in 2004 caused a major loss of life and subsequent emotional trauma for survivors. Psychosocial needs in the aftermath of this disaster were extensive, yet the cohesion and effectiveness of response were limited due to lack of preparedness and relevant policy. The Schizophrenia Research Foundation (SCARF) was one of the organizations that quickly responded to provide psychosocial assistance to people in the tsunami affected areas and recognized a need for relevant research on disaster response. Therefore, we undertook research on the challenges, success and limitations of psychosocial interventions in alleviating post-traumatic symptomology.

Discussion

Both community-level workers and researchers were limited in their preparedness to carry out tasks related to response. Language barriers, cultural differences, and a gap in long-term services limited the breadth and scope of research that was able to be completed. Lack of policy, poor co-ordination of services, lack of trained researchers and limited resources were challenges that emerged during this period and various strategies were adopted to meet these challenges.

Conclusions

Continued research and evaluation of data has brought crucial considerations to light, including the variance in symptomology, effective tools of measurement, and the nuanced response of survivors. Future research should take relevant factors into consideration including barriers to care. Understanding of the local language and religious beliefs are significant resources in understanding the nature of survivors’ trauma response and effective means of coping. Lastly, limitations regarding time frame and scope of research should be evaluated to provide more effective, comprehensive methods in future studies.

Occurrence of Cerebrovascular Diseases Decreased after the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami of 2011

Background

A temporary increase in the occurrence of cerebrovascular diseases (CVDs) after the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami of 2011 was reported; however, no studies have been conducted to investigate long-term effects. We assessed the long-term impact of the disaster on the incidence of CVDs.

Methods

Incidence data for CVDs from 2008 to 2017 were acquired from the population-based Stroke Registry with an inventory survey of Iwate Prefecture, Japan. Part of the coastal area in Iwate Prefecture was mildly flooded and the other part was severely flooded. Age-adjusted incidence rates of CVDs (according to the Japanese standard population) were calculated for each area. The relative risk (RR) of incidence based on the years before the disaster (2008–2010), adjusted by stratified age groups, was calculated for the year of the disaster (2011), and the years after the disaster (2012–2017) in each area.

Results

The age-adjusted incidence rates gradually decreased in all areas, with the exception of a temporary increase among men who lived on the coast the year the disaster occurred. The adjusted RR in the disaster year were not significant in any area and those of the postdisaster years were 0.91 (95% CI 0.87–0.96) for all inland men, 0.93 (0.89–0.97) for all inland women, 0.85 (0.78–0.93) for all coastal men, 0.87 (0.81–0.94) for all coastal women, 0.88 (0.80–0.98) for men at mildly flooded coast, 0.82 (0.75–0.89) for women at mildly flooded coast, 0.79 (0.68–0.91) for men at severely flooded coast, and 0.98 (0.86–1.11) for women at severely flooded coast.

Conclusions

The occurrence of CVDs in the flooded coastal areas did not increase in the year of the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami; furthermore, it decreased for men according to the severity of flood damage in the subsequent years; this can be attributed to supportive activities for the tsunami victims and the migration of the population.

Changes in smoking behavior among victims after the great East Japan earthquake and tsunami

Background

In areas affected by the tsunami of the great East Japan Earthquake, smoking behavior may have deteriorated due to high stress and drastic changes in living environment. Surveys were conducted to reveal changes in smoking behaviors among victims.

Methods

A population-based random-sample home-visit interview survey of victims in Iwate and Miyagi Prefectures affected by the tsunami disaster was conducted in 2012 (n = 1978), while a population-based nationwide survey was conducted in 2013 (n = 1082). A panel survey in 2014 was conducted with respondents of the 2012 survey (n = 930). Multiple logistic regression analysis was performed to reveal factors related to smoking status after the disaster.

Results

There was high smoking prevalence of both sexes in the tsunami disaster area (current smoking rate in coastal area, 50.0% for male, 21.4% for female; inland area, 34.7% for male, 7.6% for female). Low prevalence of male quitters was observed (quitter rate in coastal area, 20.8% for male, 8.0% for female; inland area, 23.4% for male, 5.5% for female). The prevalence of nicotine-dependent people assessed by FTND (Fagerström Test for Nicotine Dependence) in the coastal area was also higher than in the inland area or other areas of Japan. Smoking behavior among victims worsened after the disaster and did not improve 3 years from the disaster. Post-disaster factors related to smoking were living in coastal area, complete destruction of house, and living in temporary housing.

Conclusions

Smoking prevalence and the level of nicotine dependence of tsunami victims were still high even 3 years after the disaster. It is important to emphasize measures for smoking control in the disaster areas for an extended time period.

GROWTH AND SHRINKAGE PRE AND POST TSUNAMI IN FUKUSHIMA PREFECTURE, JAPAN

Depopulation is a severe problem in many urban areas globally. Massive population migrations can occur due to relocation after natural disasters and significantly change the demographic composition of regions and cities. The 2011 Great Tsunami in Japan resulted in a combined total of deaths and missing persons of more than 24,500. Post-tsunami recovery efforts resulted in widespread population relocation of high-risk communities into lower-risk areas. Using the Fukushima Prefecture in Japan as the study area, a region characterized by several depopulating cities both pre and post-tsunami, this research examines how the population relocation efforts have either exacerbated or assisted in lessening the effects of urban shrinkage and decline after the earthquake and tsunami of 2011. The results show that 30 municipalities have seen population and economic growth since 2011, and 12 municipalities are underdoing trends toward decline within Fukushima. Negatively affected cities tend to have larger populations than positively affected cities. Most of the small towns and villages closer to the inundation area are fall into the category of negatively affected areas. Moreover, the population increases in many post-disaster cities are primarily due to significant increases in elderly populations with minimal young persons that will inevitably decline in the next decade. By determining the effects of their relocation efforts, the government can better develop targeted strategies that good for the prosperity and development of the Fukushima Prefecture.

Prevalence and species richness of trematode parasites only partially recovers after the 2011 Tohoku, Japan, earthquake tsunami

Trematode parasites have complex life cycles and use a variety of host species across different trophic levels. Thus, they can be used as indicators of disturbance and recovery of coastal ecosystems. Estuaries on the Pacific coast of northeastern Japan were heavily affected by the 2011 Tohoku earthquake tsunami. To evaluate the effect of the tsunami on the trematode community, we examined trematodes in the mud snail, Batillaria attramentaria, at five study sites (three sites severely exposed to the tsunami and two sites sheltered from the tsunami) in Sendai Bay for 2 years prior to and 8 years after the tsunami. While the trematode prevalence decreased at all study sites, the species richness decreased only at the sites exposed to the tsunami. Although parasitism increased over the study period post-tsunami, the community had not fully recovered 8 years after the event. Trematode community structure has changed every year since the tsunami and has not stabilised. This could be explained by the alteration of first and second intermediate host communities. Our study suggests that it will take more time for the recovery of the trematode community and the associated coastal ecosystem in the Tohoku region.

Intergenerational Ethical Issues and Communication Related to High-Level Nuclear Waste Repositories

Purpose of Review

The nuclear power industry started in the 1950s and has now reached a phase of disposing high-level nuclear waste. Since the 1980s, the United Nations has developed a concept of sustainable development and governments have accordingly made ethical commitments to take responsibility towards future generations. The purpose of this review is to examine ethical dilemmas related to high-level nuclear waste disposal in a long-term perspective including potential access to the waste in the future. The time span considered here is 100,000 years based on current experts’ assessment of the radiological toxicity of the waste.

Recent Findings

In this review, we take into account findings on ethical issues related to the disposal of high-level nuclear waste put forward by the Radioactive Waste Management Committee (RWMC), the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP), nuclear waste management companies (SKB in Sweden and Posiva Oy in Finland), and several researchers. Some historical examples are presented for potential guidance on methods of communication into the future.

Summary

According to the sustainable development ethical principle, adopted by the United Nations, we conclude that governments with nuclear energy have committed themselves to protect future generations from harm related to high-level nuclear waste. This commitment involves the necessity to convey information together with the nuclear waste. Our paper examines disposal options chosen by Sweden and Finland, as well as some contemporary and historical efforts to design messages towards the future. We conclude that the international community still needs to find methods to communicate in an intelligible way over long periods of time.

The Great East Japan Earthquake (2011): using the One Health approach to minimise the impact on the livestock industry and human health

Supplying safe livestock products made from healthy animals is the primary purpose of the agriculture industry, making it essential to include agriculture in the One Health approach to disaster preparedness and response. After the Great East Japan Earthquake of 11 March 2011, and the following crisis at the Fukushima Nuclear Complex, producing and supplying safe livestock products became a challenging issue, because the area was highly polluted with radiation leaks from the nuclear plants. To produce livestock products that satisfied the safety standards for radioactive materials in food for humans, it was necessary to create feeding management guidelines and set standard limits for radioactive materials in animal feeds. The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF) established provisional maximum limits on radioactive caesium in feeds in order to secure safe food for the nation. Furthermore, there were other issues that Japan's livestock industry had to tackle. The authors outline key measures taken by the Livestock Industry Department of the MAFF to reconstruct the livestock industry, which was a small but important part of the whole reconstruction plan. They also discuss the measures implemented to protect companion animals.

Did kindergarteners who experienced the Great East Japan earthquake as infants develop traumatic symptoms? Series of questionnaire-based cross-sectional surveys: A concise and informative title: traumatic symptoms of kindergarteners who experienced disasters as infants

BACKGROUND

The Great East Japan Earthquake (GEJE) and tsunami of March 11, 2011 left behind many survivors, including children. This study aimed to assess changes in traumatic symptoms with time among kindergarteners who experienced GEJE as infants and to discuss the relationship between these symptoms and the disaster experience.

METHODS

The 15-item Post-Traumatic Stress Symptoms for Children (PTSSC-15) questionnaire were distributed to the parents of kindergarteners (children aged 4-5 years) at 8, 20, 30, and 42 months after GEJE. Questionnaires regarding environmental damage conditions affecting the children were distributed to teachers 8 months after the tsunami.

RESULTS

The number of kindergarteners was 262, 255, 236, and 202 at 8, 20, 30, and 42 months after the disaster. The PTSSC-15 total score was not different between kindergartners with and without environmental damage conditions. After 8 and 20 months, the PTSSC-15 total score of children who usually ate breakfast was significantly higher than that of children who did not. Moreover, after 30 and 42 months, the PTSSC-15 total score of kindergarteners who usually ate breakfast was not significantly higher than that of kindergarteners who did not.

CONCLUSIONS

The traumatic symptoms of kindergarteners were not related to disaster experiences.

Substitute or complement? How social capital, age and socioeconomic status interacted to impact mortality in Japan's 3/11 tsunami

Background

Research underscoring the critical nature of social capital and collective action during crises often overlooks the ways that social ties interact with vulnerability factors such as age and socioeconomic status.

Methods

We use three different data structures and five types of regression models to study mortality rates across 542 inundated neighborhoods from nearly 40 cities, towns, and villages in Japan's Tohoku region which was flooded by the 11 March 2011 tsunami.

Results

Controlling for factors thought important in past studies - including geographic administrative, and demographic conditions - we find that social capital interacts with age and socioeconomic status to strongly correlate with mortality at the neighborhood level. For the elderly and those with lower socioeconomic status, ceteris paribus, deeper reservoirs of social capital are linked with lower levels of mortality.

Conclusion

While most societies invest heavily in physical infrastructure to mitigate future shocks, this paper reinforces the growing call for spending on social infrastructure to develop communities which can cooperate and collaborate during crises. For the elderly and poor, social ties can serve as a literal lifeline during times of need.

Genetic structure of Japanese sea cucumbers (Apostichopus japonicus) along the Sanriku coast supports the effect of earthquakes and related tsunamis

The Japanese common sea cucumber (Apostichopus japonicus) is a major marine product from Sanriku, Japan, but its populations were severely affected by the 2011 Tohoku earthquake, possibly decreasing its genetic diversity and increasing its extinction risk. In this study, we estimated the genetic structure and diversity of sea cucumbers from Touni and Yamada Bays of Sanriku over 4 years after the earthquake. The between-population genetic structure was estimated using two mitochondrial DNA regions (cytochrome c oxidase subunit I and 16S rDNA). Genetic differentiation (as measured by pairwise F_ST) was not significant between locations. Thus, even after the tsunami, gene flow and genetic diversity among the two sea cucumber populations were maintained. Our data also suggested that sea cucumbers in Sanriku experienced population expansion of about 0.20-0.24 million years ago, during the stable Mindel-Riss interglacial period. We conclude that A. japonicus populations in Sanriku could maintain their genetic structure throughout multiple disastrous tsunamis over the past several 1000 years. The high dispersal ability of planktonic larvae may enable the entrance of new recruits, thereby reducing risks associated with genetic structure and diversity changes stemming from mass die-offs in a given body of water from the past to the present.

Infectious Diseases After Hydrologic Disasters

Hydrologic disasters, including hurricanes, tsunamis, and severe flooding, have been associated with infectious diseases, particularly among vulnerable and displaced populations in resource-poor settings. Skin and soft tissue infections, gastrointestinal infections, respiratory infections, zoonotic infections, and vector-borne diseases each present unique threats to human health in this setting. Increased emergency physician awareness of these infectious diseases and their diagnosis and management helps optimize medical care for survivors after a hydrologic disaster and safeguard the health of disaster responders.

Potential tsunami risk assessment to the city of Alexandria, Egypt

Tsunami extreme events present a highly significant hazard and considerable risk to the coastal communities. The continued occurrence of tsunami incidents, together with population growth, increases the risk in coastal communities. Two known catastrophic historic tsunamis in Alexandria occurred in the years 365 and 1303 AD, with reported wave heights of 1 m and 2.9 m, respectively. Approximately 5000 people lost their lives and 50,000 homes were destroyed in the city after the earthquake in 365. The 1303 tsunami destroyed the great lighthouse of Alexandria, one of the seven wonders of the ancient world. In order to avoid such events in the future, a detailed knowledge about the tsunami phenomenon and its potential risk is needed. In this paper, the vulnerability and risk to the city of Alexandria will be examined by remote sensing and GIS techniques considering three scenarios. Methodology used depends on building a comprehensive GIS in addition to recent satellite images. After digitizing raster data, it was then stored into a vector format. A digital parcel map was created; attributes (like distance to shore line, elevation, land use/cover, and population) for each polygon were added. Using the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission images, a digital elevation model was created, to test all the tsunami scenarios (based on 5 m, 9 m, and 20 m wave's height). Finally, vulnerability analysis including physical as well as social and economic constraints was executed for the determination of the vulnerability level of elements. Results indicated that Alexandria city is highly vulnerable to tsunami hazard. Very high risk covers the biggest portion of the area in Alexandria (49.16% and 58.71%), followed by high risk (30% and 28.41%), medium risk (13.61% and 7.76%), and low and very low risk (20.82% and 12.88%).

Distribution of hydrocarbons in seabed sediments derived from tsunami-spilled oil in Kesennuma Bay, Japan

As a result of the 2011 Great East Japan earthquake, about 11,000kL of fuel oil was spilled into Kesennuma Bay, Miyagi Prefecture. This oil either accumulated in seabed sediments or was burned in a marine fire on the sea surface. We investigated spatial and temporal variations in the concentrations of oil and hydrocarbons. The maximum concentrations of n-hexane extract (NHE), total petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the sediments in 2012 were 8000, 1200, and 16.2mg/kg (DW), respectively. NHE and TPH concentrations were high in the inner and west bay, and PAHs concentrations were high in the east bay. NHE and PAH concentrations didn't change; however, TPH concentrations decreased significantly with time. The total NHE in the sediment across the whole bay was estimated at 1685kL and there was still about 13% of the original amount in the sediment in December 2014.

Macrofaunal community structure in Bahía Concepción (Chile) before and after the 8.8 Mw Maule mega-earthquake and tsunami

Faunal assemblages of subtidal sedimentary environments are key components of coastal ecosystems. Benthic communities inhabiting the coastal zone near urban centers in Concepción Bay (Chile) have been described as highly disturbed (i.e. impoverished in diversity and species richness). This is due to the frequent presence of hypoxic conditions at the bottom due to the intrusion of low oxygen Equatorial Subsurface Water, high natural productivity and the high load of organic matter generated by several anthropogenic activities. A mega-earthquake (8.8 Mw) and subsequent tsunami occurred on the coast of south-central Chile on February 27, 2010 (27F), heavily impacting Concepción Bay, which is located 30 km south of the epicenter. The objectives of the present study are: (i) to evaluate the effect produced by the mega-earthquake and tsunami on the benthic community, and (ii) to assess dissimilarity in macrofauna composition and abundance in Concepción Bay at an inter-decadal time scale based on a comparison between our sampling conducted between 2010 and 2013 and information published since 1969. Our results show that the benthic macrofauna of Concepción Bay was disturbed by the 27F (i.e. high community dissimilarity in 2010). Changes in community structure were observed at an inter-annual scale (i.e. diminished community dissimilarity in 2013), suggesting a recovery post-27F. At an inter-decadal scale, community structure post-27F was dissimilar to the structure described for the 1980's and 1990's but more similar to that reported for 1969. The reducing conditions of the sediments due to the high input of organic matter that took place in the 1980's and 1990's may explain this dissimilarity.

Alterations in physique among young children after the Great East Japan Earthquake: Results from a nationwide survey

Background

Data for earthquake-related alterations in physique among young children in developed countries is lacking. The Great East Japan Earthquake caused severe damage in Iwate, Miyagi, and Fukushima Prefectures in northeastern Japan.

Methods

We retrospectively obtained anthropometric measurements in nursery school from 40,046 (cohort 1, historical control) and 53,492 (cohort 2) children aged 3.5–4.5 years without overweight in October 2008, and in October 2010, respectively. At the time of the earthquake in March, 2011, children in cohort 1 had already graduated from nursery school; however, children in cohort 2 were still enrolled in nursery school at this time. We compared the onset of overweight at 1 year after the baseline between children enrolled in their school located in one of the three target prefectures versus those in other prefectures using a logistic regression model, with adjustment for sex, age, history of disease, and obesity index at baseline. Overweight was defined as an obesity index of >+15%, which was calculated as (weight minus sex- and height-specific standard weight)/sex- and height-specific standard weight.

Results

The odds ratio (OR) for the onset of overweight in the three target prefectures was significant in cohort 2 (OR 1.25; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.01–1.55) but not in cohort 1. When the two cohort were pooled (n = 93,538), the OR of the interaction term for school location × cohort was significant (OR 1.56; 95% CI, 1.09–2.23).

Conclusions

Incident overweight in young children was significantly more common in the three prefectures affected by the Great East Japan Earthquake than in other prefectures after the disaster.

•

We obtained anthropometric data from 93,538 children aged 3.5–4.5 years.

•

Anthropometric data were measured before and after the Great East Japan Earthquake.

•

We compared the data in Iwate, Miyagi, and Fukushima vs. the other prefectures.

•

Incident overweight was higher in the three prefectures than the other prefectures.

Perspectives acquired through long-term epidemiological studies on the Great East Japan Earthquake

The Great East Japan Earthquake (GEJE) and subsequent tsunamis that occurred in 2011 caused extensive and severe structural damage and interrupted numerous research activities; however, the majority of such activities have been revived, and further public health researches and activities have started to follow the population affected by the disaster. In this mini-review, we overview our recent activities regarding epidemiologic studies in Miyagi Prefecture, the region most affected by the GEJE. Through our study processes, we were able to identify the particular characteristics of vulnerable populations, and provide ideas that may help save lives and reduce the amount of damage caused by a future disaster. Long-term follow-up and care of survivors is essential in affected areas, and health professionals should pay particular attention to various diseases, e.g., cardiovascular complications and mental disorders. Furthermore, building up resilience and social relationships in the community is beneficial to survivors. Ongoing cohort studies conducted before disasters can help minimize biases regarding the survivors’ pre-disaster information, and emerging cohort studies after disasters can find potential helpful novel indices. To identify characteristics of vulnerable populations, save lives, and reduce the amount of damage caused by a future disaster, constant research that is consistently improved by new data needs to be performed.

PTSD symptoms among tsunami exposed mothers in Sri Lanka: the role of disaster exposure, culturally specific coping strategies, and recovery efforts

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Women in Sri Lanka have been uniquely exposed to a complex and protracted set of stressors stemming from a civil war conflict spanning over 25 years and the tsunami which struck Southeast Asia in 2004. This study investigates coping strategies and their association with trauma-related symptoms of tsunami-exposed mothers in Sri Lanka at two time points.

DESIGN

Data for this study come from surveys administered in two waves of data collection to investigate both mothers' and adolescent children's post-tsunami mental health in early 2005, three months after the tsunami struck, and again in 2008, three years later.

METHODS

Latent-variable structural equation modeling was used to test the study hypotheses among 160 tsunami-affected mothers in the Polhena village, Matara district, Sri Lanka.

RESULTS

Among the various coping strategies examined, the use of cultural rituals as well as inner psychological strength was associated with lower levels of posttraumatic stress symptoms. In contrast, passive religious beliefs were associated with greater posttraumatic stress levels.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study reveal the differential associations of various coping strategies including rituals used by mothers exposed to the tsunami in Sri Lanka and their posttraumatic stress symptom levels.

Long-Term Fluctuations in Traumatic Symptoms of High School Girls Who Survived from the 2011 Japan Tsunami: Series of Questionnaire-Based Cross-Sectional Surveys

On March 11, 2011, Japan was struck by a massive earthquake and tsunami. The tsunami caused tremendous damage and traumatized children. We aimed to evaluate and compare the changes in the traumatic symptoms of high school girls 8, 20, 30, and 42 months after the 2011 tsunami. The Post-Traumatic Stress Symptoms for Children 15 items (PTSSC-15), a self-rating questionnaire on traumatic symptoms, was administered to 811 high school girls at the above-mentioned intervals. We calculated the total score, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) subscale, and depression subscale of PTSSC-15. The total score was correlated with house damage, evacuation experience, and bereavement experience. The PTSSC-15 total scores of high school girls with traumatic experience were significantly higher than the scores of children without these experiences (all p < 0.0001). The PTSSC-15 total score did not decrease significantly over time. Furthermore, the PTSD subscale of the PTSSC-15 did not significantly improved over the study duration. However, the depression subscale of the PTSSC-15 significantly improved at 30 months, but significantly worsened at 42 months (both p < 0.0001). This study demonstrates that the traumatic symptoms of high school girls who survived the massive tsunami fluctuated unpredictably with time. Nonetheless, high school girls continued to suffer depressive symptoms (insomnia, withdrawal, appetite loss, inattention, and physical symptoms) after 42 months.

Is mindfulness protective against PTSD? A neurocognitive study of 25 Tsunami disaster survivors

Background

It has been suggested that mindfulness is a protective factor that buffers individuals from experiencing severe posttraumatic stress following exposure to a trauma.

We aimed to examine the association between dispositional (trait) mindfulness and posttraumatic stress in individuals who had been exposed to the trauma of a natural disaster.

Method

A disaster group (n = 25) consisting of Norwegian tourists who survived the 2004 South East Asian tsunami at a location with high mortality rates was recruited. Dispositional mindfulness and posttraumatic stress were measured with the Five-Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire and the Impact of Event Scale-Revised Version, respectively.

Results

There was no significant association between mindfulness and posttraumatic stress. Moreover, there were no significant associations between posttraumatic stress and the mindfulness sub-facets of observing, acting with awareness, non-judging, and non-reacting. However, there was a significant positive correlation between the descriptive factor of mindfulness and IES-R total. There were no significant linear correlations between the five sub-facets of mindfulness and the three categories of posttraumatic symptoms, intrusion, avoidance and hyper-arousal.

Conclusions

Our findings do not indicate a relationship between dispositional mindfulness and posttraumatic stress levels after exposure to a trauma, except for the descriptive sub-facet of mindfulness and here the correlation is positive and not negative as would be expected if mindfulness is a protective factor for posttraumatic stress. Future studies should investigate the relationship between mindfulness and posttraumatic stress while accounting for factors such as trauma history, type of trauma, and individual differences in traumatic stress reactions.

The relationship between psychiatric morbidity and quality of life: interview study of Norwegian tsunami survivors 2 and 6 years post-disaster

BACKGROUND

The study investigated the impact of psychiatric disorders on Quality of Life (QOL) cross-sectionally and longitudinally in a group of Norwegian tourists severely exposed to the 2004 tsunami.

METHODS

Sixty-two adult Norwegian tsunami survivors were interviewed face to face 2 years post-tsunami (T1) and 58 were interviewed again by telephone 6 years post-tsunami (T2). The majority (81 %) reported direct exposure to the waves, and 14 participants (23 %) lost a close family member in the tsunami. Psychiatric morbidity was measured by structured clinical interviews and QOL was assessed with WHO's Quality of Life-Bref scale. Multiple linear regression analyses were performed to assess the independent effects of psychiatric disorders on QOL 2 and 6 years after the tsunami.

RESULTS

Psychiatric disorders, especially depression, but also PTSD and other anxiety disorders, were associated with reduced QOL. Psychiatric disorders were more strongly related to QOL at 6 years after the tsunami than at 2 years.

CONCLUSIONS

Psychiatric disorders, and especially depression, is related to reduced QOL in a disaster exposed population. Post-disaster psychiatric disorders, such as PTSD and especially depression, should be addressed properly in the aftermath of disasters.

A comparative study on the effectiveness of ozonated water and peracetic acid in the storability of packaged fresh-cut melon

Ozonated water and peracetic acid were tested as sanitizers to enhance the storability of fresh-cut melon cubes. Sanitizers were also combined with suitable packaging materials (polypropylene and polylactic acid based plastic films). Fresh-cut melon cubes were stored at 4 °C for up to 7 days. Ozonated water and peracetic acid treatments were given by dipping cubes into 0.8 ppm O3 and 100 ppm Tsunami 100™ solutions, respectively, for 3 min. Both sanitizers exhibited efficiency in reducing the total microbial counts on melon cubes (< 2 log CFU g(-1)). Respiratory activity and ethylene production were both affected by the interaction between the sanitizer and the packaging used. Carbon dioxide and oxygen reached 9.89 kPa and 12.20 kPa partial pressures, respectively, using peracetic acid treatment in combination with polypropylene film packaging, consequently developing off-odors starting from day 3. Strong color changes were noted in cubes stored in polylactic acid packaging after 7 days of storage, affecting the sensory quality of the melon cubes. Sensory evaluation (overall visual quality) indicated loss in flavor in the polypropylene packaging. The overall visual quality started to decline on 3rd day because of the development of translucency.Overall, the use of ozone in combination with polypropylene packaging provided the best solution to maintain the quality of melon cubes for up to 5 days of storage at 4 °C.

Psychological distress during pregnancy in Miyagi after the Great East Japan Earthquake: The Japan Environment and Children's Study

OBJECTIVE

To examine psychological distress among pregnant women in Miyagi prefecture which was directly affected by the Great East Japan Earthquake and tsunami and compare other areas of Japan that were less damaged.

METHODS

This study was conducted in conjunction with the Japan Environment and Children's Study (JECS). We examined 10,129 Japanese women using the primary fixed data of the JECS. The Kessler 6-item psychological distress scale (K6) was administered to 7473 eligible women including 998 in Miyagi unit center ('Miyagi UC') and 6475 in the other unit centers ('13UCs'). We compared the prevalence and the risk of distress (K6 ≥ 13) during pregnancy in 'Miyagi UC' and '13UCs'.

RESULTS

More women in 'Miyagi UC' (4.9%) suffered psychological distress, compared with '13UCs' (3.1%) (p<0.001). A significantly higher prevalence of women in 'Miyagi UC' (55.5%) had experienced negative life events, whereas '13UCs' showed 42.7% (p<0.0001). In multivariable logistic analyses adjusted for baseline characteristics, there was a significant regional difference of psychological distress (adjusted odds ratio; aOR in Miyagi UC=1.488; 95%CI, 1.059-2.090). After further adjusting for negative life events, the association was diminished (aOR=1.338; 95%CI, 0.949-1.884).

LIMITATIONS

The JECS had no data before the earthquake and the extent of damage was not investigated. Possible regional representativeness is also a limitation.

CONCLUSION

After the Great East Japan Earthquake, the prevalence of pregnant women with psychological distress (K6 ≥ 13) were high in Miyagi prefecture. Especially in the coastal area directly affected by tsunami, it is high with or without negative life events experienced.

Seawater influence monitored by NaCl on the growth of Trametes versicolor

There are only a few scientific data about the function of ecosystems after tsunami disasters. The ecosystems help the environment to recover after a disaster, and therefore, the research on its function is important. We estimated the seawater influences on wood degradation after a tsunami disaster by the growth of Trametes versicolor. The debris from the Great East Japan Earthquake on the pacific coast in March 2011 was used for the simulations. Its growth on debris was compared with those on seawater-treated woods, and the amount of sodium chloride was examined to know the approximate amount of salts in the samples. Sodium chloride contents were employed as an indicative parameter of sea salts, which contained many elements. As a result, this common white-rot fungus degraded wood debris in the same way as sound sapwood. Although the study was conducted at the laboratory level, this is the first report from the real debris, which assessed the fungal decomposition ability of the ecosystem after a tsunami disaster.

Impacts of the 2011 tsunami on the subtidal polychaete assemblage and the following recolonization in Onagawa Bay, northeastern Japan

The ecological impacts of the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake and tsunami and the following recolonization of the subtidal benthic polychaete community were examined by monthly pre- and post-quake field surveys that were conducted in Onagawa Bay from 2007 to 2013. Before the tsunami, the species composition in this benthic community was constant and was dominated by cirratulid and magelonid polychaetes. The density and biomass of benthic polychaetes drastically decreased after the tsunami, and the polychaete community fluctuated during the 2 years after the natural disaster. Spionid and capitellid polychaetes were dominant at this period. In June 2013, the community entered a new constant stage dominated by maldanids, which is different from the pre-quake community. Ecological impacts due to chemical pollution were suggested in addition to the tsunami disturbance. These overlapping effects and physical, chemical and biological factors affected the recovery and recolonization of the polychaete community after the natural disaster.

Physico-chemical analysis of ground water samples of coastal areas of south Chennai in the post-Tsunami scenario

The study of changes in ground water quality on the east coast of chennai due to the December 26, 2004 tsunami and other subsequent disturbances is a matter of great concern. The post-Tsunami has caused considerable plant, animal, material and ecological changes in the entire stretch of chennai coastal area. Being very close to sea and frequently subjected to coastal erosion, water quality has been a concern in this coastal strip, and especially after the recent tsunami this strip seems to be more vulnerable. In the present investigation, ten ground water samples were collected from various parts of south chennai coastal area. Physico-chemical parameters such as pH, temperature, Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), Dissolved oxygen (DO), total solids; turbidity and fecal coliform were analyzed. The overall Water quality index (WQI) values for all the samples were found to be in the range of 68.81-74.38 which reveals a fact that the quality of all the samples is only medium to good and could be used for drinking and other domestic uses only after proper treatment. The long term adverse impacts of tsunami on ground water quality of coastal areas and the relationships that exist and among various parameters are carefully analyzed. Local residents and corporation authorities have been made aware of the quality of their drinking water and the methods to conserve the water bodies.

Mental health and psychological impacts from the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake Disaster: a systematic literature review

Background

On March 11, 2011, Japan experienced an unprecedented combination of earthquake/tsunami/nuclear accidents (the Great East Japan Earthquake; GEJE). We sought to identify mental health and psychosocial consequences of this compound disaster.

Method

A systematic literature review was conducted of quantitative research articles addressing mental health of survivors and the psychological impact of the GEJE. For articles between March 2011 and December 2014, PubMed, PsychINFO, and EMBASE databases were searched with guidance on literature review method.

Results

Forty-nine studies met the inclusion criteria. A substantial proportion of the affected individuals experienced considerable psychological distress. Mental health outcomes included, but were not limited to, posttraumatic stress disorder, depression, and anxiety symptoms. Physical health changes, such as sleeping and eating disturbances, also occurred. In Fukushima, radioactive release induced massive fear and uncertainty in a large number of people, causing massive distress among the affected residents, especially among mothers of young children and nuclear plant workers. Stigma was additional challenge to the Fukushima residents. The review identified several groups with vulnerabilities, such as disaster workers, children, internally displaced people, patients with psychiatric disorders, and the bereaved.

Conclusions

Following the GEJE, a considerable proportion of the population was mentally affected to a significant degree. The affected individuals showed a wide array of mental and physical consequences. In Fukushima, the impact of nuclear disaster was immense and complex, leading to fear of radiation, safety issues, and stigma issues.