51
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CXCR4 promotes differentiation of oligodendrocyte progenitors and remyelination. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2010; 107:11062-7. [PMID: 20534485 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1006301107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 186] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by episodes of autoimmune attack of oligodendrocytes leading to demyelination and progressive functional deficits. Because many patients exhibit functional recovery in between demyelinating episodes, understanding mechanisms responsible for repair of damaged myelin is critical for developing therapies that promote remyelination and prevent disease progression. The chemokine CXCL12 is a developmental molecule known to orchestrate the migration, proliferation, and differentiation of neuronal precursor cells within the developing CNS. Although studies suggest a role for CXCL12 in oligodendroglia ontogeny in vitro, no studies have investigated the role of CXCL12 in remyelination in vivo in the adult CNS. Using an experimental murine model of demyelination mediated by the copper chelator cuprizone, we evaluated the expression of CXCL12 and its receptor, CXCR4, within the demyelinating and remyelinating corpus callosum (CC). CXCL12 was significantly up-regulated within activated astrocytes and microglia in the CC during demyelination, as were numbers of CXCR4+NG2+ oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs). Loss of CXCR4 signaling via either pharmacological blockade or in vivo RNA silencing led to decreased OPCs maturation and failure to remyelinate. These data indicate that CXCR4 activation, by promoting the differentiation of OPCs into oligodendrocytes, is critical for remyelination of the injured adult CNS.
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Gao Q, Lu J, Huo Y, Baby N, Ling E, Dheen S. NG2, a member of chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans family mediates the inflammatory response of activated microglia. Neuroscience 2010; 165:386-94. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.10.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2009] [Revised: 10/12/2009] [Accepted: 10/12/2009] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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53
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Lavdas AA, Chen J, Papastefanaki F, Chen S, Schachner M, Matsas R, Thomaidou D. Schwann cells engineered to express the cell adhesion molecule L1 accelerate myelination and motor recovery after spinal cord injury. Exp Neurol 2010; 221:206-16. [DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2009.10.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2009] [Revised: 10/30/2009] [Accepted: 10/31/2009] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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54
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Pregnancy, prolactin and white matter regeneration. J Neurol Sci 2009; 285:22-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2009.06.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2009] [Revised: 06/02/2009] [Accepted: 06/22/2009] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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55
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Tong XP, Li XY, Zhou B, Shen W, Zhang ZJ, Xu TL, Duan S. Ca(2+) signaling evoked by activation of Na(+) channels and Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchangers is required for GABA-induced NG2 cell migration. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 186:113-28. [PMID: 19596850 PMCID: PMC2712990 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.200811071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
NG2 cells originate from various brain regions and migrate to their destinations during early development. These cells express voltage-gated Na(+) channels but fail to produce typical action potentials. The physiological role of Na(+) channels in these cells is unclear. We found that GABA induces membrane depolarization and Ca(2+) elevation in NG2 cells, a process requiring activation of GABA(A) receptors, Na(+) channels, and Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchangers (NCXs), but not Ca(2+) channels. We have identified a persistent Na(+) current in these cells that may underlie the GABA-induced pathway of prolonged Na(+) elevation, which in turn triggers Ca(2+) influx via NCXs. This unique Ca(2+) signaling pathway is further shown to be involved in the migration of NG2 cells. Thus, GABAergic signaling mediated by sequential activation of GABA(A) receptors, noninactivating Na(+) channels, and NCXs may play an important role in the development and function of NG2 glial cells in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-ping Tong
- Institute of Neuroscience and State Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
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56
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Chew SH. Phagocytosis of degenerating myelin in transected feline optic nerve: an immunohistochemical study. Biotech Histochem 2009; 79:177-83. [PMID: 15764284 DOI: 10.1080/10520290400018047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The phagocytic activity of neuroglial cells in adult feline degenerating optic nerve was investigated by immunocytochemistry at both light and electron microscopy levels. Degeneration was initiated by unilateral eye enucleation and the segment distal to the transection showing true Wallerian degeneration was examined. Following enucleation, twelve adult domestic cats were examined over a period of seven to 215 days. All cases showed slow clearance of myelin debris and absence of proliferating monocytes throughout the post-enucleation period. All phagocytic cells present were neuroglial cells, and many of these cells expressed oligodendroglial antigens. These findings demonstrate the persistence of an active population of oligodendrocytes that might play an additional functional role during Wallerian degeneration of feline optic nerve.
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Affiliation(s)
- S H Chew
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Division of Health Sciences, Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Western Australia 6102.
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57
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Cayre M, Canoll P, Goldman JE. Cell migration in the normal and pathological postnatal mammalian brain. Prog Neurobiol 2009; 88:41-63. [PMID: 19428961 PMCID: PMC2728466 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2009.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2008] [Revised: 12/23/2008] [Accepted: 02/05/2009] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
In the developing brain, cell migration is a crucial process for structural organization, and is therefore highly regulated to allow the correct formation of complex networks, wiring neurons, and glia. In the early postnatal brain, late developmental processes such as the production and migration of astrocyte and oligodendrocyte progenitors still occur. Although the brain is completely formed and structured few weeks after birth, it maintains a degree of plasticity throughout life, including axonal remodeling, synaptogenesis, but also neural cell birth, migration and integration. The subventricular zone (SVZ) and the dentate gyrus (DG) of the hippocampus are the two main neurogenic niches in the adult brain. Neural stem cells reside in these structures and produce progenitors that migrate toward their ultimate location: the olfactory bulb and granular cell layer of the DG respectively. The aim of this review is to synthesize the increasing information concerning the organization, regulation and function of cell migration in a mature brain. In a normal brain, proteins involved in cell-cell or cell-matrix interactions together with secreted proteins acting as chemoattractant or chemorepellant play key roles in the regulation of neural progenitor cell migration. In addition, recent data suggest that gliomas arise from the transformation of neural stem cells or progenitor cells and that glioma cell infiltration recapitulates key aspects of glial progenitor migration. Thus, we will consider glioma migration in the context of progenitor migration. Finally, many observations show that brain lesions and neurological diseases trigger neural stem/progenitor cell activation and migration toward altered structures. The factors involved in such cell migration/recruitment are just beginning to be understood. Inflammation which has long been considered as thoroughly disastrous for brain repair is now known to produce some positive effects on stem/progenitor cell recruitment via the regulation of growth factor signaling and the secretion of a number of chemoattractant cytokines. This knowledge is crucial for the development of new therapeutic strategies. One of these strategies could consist in increasing the mobilization of endogenous progenitor cells that could replace lost cells and improve functional recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myriam Cayre
- Institut de Biologie du Developpement de Marseille Luminy (IBDML), Parc scientifique de Luminy, case 907, 13288 Marseille Cedex 09, France.
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58
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Zhang J, Brodie C, Li Y, Zheng X, Roberts C, Lu M, Gao Q, Borneman J, Savant-Bhonsale S, Elias SB, Chopp M. Bone marrow stromal cell therapy reduces proNGF and p75 expression in mice with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. J Neurol Sci 2009; 279:30-8. [PMID: 19193386 PMCID: PMC2692832 DOI: 10.1016/j.jns.2008.12.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2008] [Revised: 12/19/2008] [Accepted: 12/23/2008] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Demyelination is prominent in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). The receptor p75 and its high affinity ligand proNGF are required for oligodendrocyte death after injury. We hypothesize that bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) provide therapeutic benefit in EAE mice by reducing proNGF/p75 expression. PBS or BMSCs (2 x 10(circumflex)6) were administered intravenously on the day of EAE onset. Neurological function and demyelination areas were measured. Immunohistochemical staining was used to measure apoptotic oligodendrocytes, expression of proNGF and p75, and the relationship between proNGF and p75 in neural cells. proNGF was used to treat oligodendrocytes in culture with or without BMSCs. EAE mice exhibited neurological function deficit and demyelination, and expression of proNGF and p75 was increased. BMSC treatment improved functional recovery, reduced demyelination area and apoptotic oligodendrocytes, decreased expression of proNGF and p75 compared with PBS treatment. proNGF(+) cells colocalized with neural cell markers, while p75 colocalized with an oligodendrocytic marker, and proNGF colocalized with p75. proNGF induced apoptosis of oligodendrocytes in vitro, and p75 antibody blocked this apoptotic activity. BMSCs reduced p75 expression and apoptotic activity in oligodendrocytes with proNGF treatment. BMSC treatment benefits on EAE mice may be fostered by decreasing the cellular expression of proNGF and p75, thereby reducing oligodendrocyte death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI, 48202
| | - Chaya Brodie
- Department of Neurosurgery, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI, 48202
| | - Yi Li
- Department of Neurology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI, 48202
| | - Xuguang Zheng
- Department of Neurology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI, 48202
| | - Cindi Roberts
- Department of Neurology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI, 48202
| | - Mei Lu
- Biostatistics and Research Epidemiology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI, 48202
| | - Qi Gao
- Department of Neurology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI, 48202
| | | | | | - Stanton B. Elias
- Department of Neurology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI, 48202
| | - Michael Chopp
- Department of Neurology, Henry Ford Health System, Detroit, MI, 48202
- Department of Physics, Oakland University, Rochester, MI, 48309
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59
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Harrer MD, von Büdingen HC, Stoppini L, Alliod C, Pouly S, Fischer K, Goebels N. Live imaging of remyelination after antibody-mediated demyelination in an ex-vivo model for immune mediated CNS damage. Exp Neurol 2009; 216:431-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2008.12.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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60
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Mato S, Alberdi E, Ledent C, Watanabe M, Matute C. CB1cannabinoid receptor-dependent and -independent inhibition of depolarization-induced calcium influx in oligodendrocytes. Glia 2009; 57:295-306. [DOI: 10.1002/glia.20757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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61
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Peru RL, Mandrycky N, Nait-Oumesmar B, Lu QR. Paving the axonal highway: from stem cells to myelin repair. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 4:304-18. [PMID: 18759012 DOI: 10.1007/s12015-008-9043-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS), a demyelinating disorder of the central nervous system (CNS), remains among the most prominent and devastating diseases in contemporary neurology. Despite remarkable advances in anti-inflammatory therapies, the inefficiency or failure of myelin-forming oligodendrocytes to remyelinate axons and preserve axonal integrity remains a major impediment for the repair of MS lesions. To this end, the enhancement of remyelination through endogenous and exogenous repair mechanisms and the prevention of axonal degeneration are critical objectives for myelin repair therapies. Thus, recent advances in uncovering myelinating cell sources and the intrinsic and extrinsic factors that govern neural progenitor differentiation and myelination may pave a way to novel strategies for myelin regeneration. The scope of this review is to discuss the potential sources of stem/progenitor cells for CNS remyelination and the molecular mechanisms underlying oligodendrocyte myelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raniero L Peru
- Department of Developmental Biology and Kent Waldrep Center for Basic Research on Nerve Growth and Regeneration, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, Dallas, TX, 75390, USA
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62
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Alcazar A, Cid C. High cytotoxic sensitivity of the oligodendrocyte precursor cells to HSP90 inhibitors in cell cultures. Exp Neurol 2009; 216:511-4. [PMID: 19162015 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2008.12.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2008] [Revised: 12/18/2008] [Accepted: 12/22/2008] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) are able to proliferate, and most differentiate into post-mitotic oligodendrocytes that contribute to remyelination. We have previously studied the expression of heat shock protein90 (HSP90) in OPCs. The ansamycins, such as geldanamycin and 17-allylamino-17-demethoxygeldanamycin (17-AAG) act as specific HSP90 inhibitors, are potent anti-tumor agents and are currently undergoing clinical trials. This work investigated the effect of HSP90 inhibitors on cultured OPCs. Geldanamycin, 17-AAG and another chemically unrelated HSP90 inhibitor, radicicol, were extremely cytotoxic for OPCs. The IC50 values of geldanamycin, 17-AAG and radicicol for OPCs were 7.1, 10.7 and 137 nM, respectively, compared to 1000-2000 nM for preoligodendrocytes, astrocytes and neurons. Adult OPCs were found to be susceptible to HSP90 inhibitors in a similar fashion to perinatal cells. OPC death induced by these HSP90 inhibitors led to a significant decrease in the oligodendrocyte population. The present results highlight that OPCs are uniquely sensitive to HSP90 inhibitors. Geldanamycin and 17-AAG, which penetrate the blood-brain barrier, are novel cancer chemotherapeutic agents and we noted that, in anti-cancer therapy with these drugs, the OPCs may be compromised.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Alcazar
- Department of Investigation, Hospital Ramón y Cajal, Ctra. Colmenar km 9.1, E-28034, Madrid, Spain.
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63
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Abstract
Recent advances in stem cell biology have raised expectations that both diseases of, and injuries to, the central nervous system may be ameliorated by cell transplantation. In particular, cell therapy has been studied for inducing efficient remyelination in disorders of myelin, including both the largely pediatric disorders of myelin formation and maintenance and the acquired demyelinations of both children and adults. Potential cell-based treatments of two major groups of disorders include both delivery of myelinogenic replacements and mobilization of residual oligodendrocyte progenitor cells as a means of stimulating endogenous repair; the choice of modality is then predicated upon the disease target. In this review we consider the potential application of cell-based therapeutic strategies to disorders of myelin, highlighting the promises as well as the problems and potential perils of this treatment approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamir Ben-Hur
- Department of Neurology, The Agnes Ginges Center for Human Neurogenetics, Hadassah-Hebrew University Hospital, Jerusalem, Israel.
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64
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McCombe PA. Recombinant EPF/chaperonin 10 promotes the survival of O4-positive pro-oligodendrocytes prepared from neonatal rat brain. Cell Stress Chaperones 2008; 13:467-74. [PMID: 18465204 PMCID: PMC2673933 DOI: 10.1007/s12192-008-0045-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2007] [Revised: 03/30/2008] [Accepted: 04/02/2008] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Chaperonin 10 (cpn 10) is a small heat-shock protein that is usually intracellular. Early pregnancy factor (EPF), a biologically active protein that was first described in the serum of pregnant mammals, is homologous to cpn 10. EPF/cpn 10 has been reported to have effects on immunomodulation and cell survival and to inhibit activation of toll-like receptors by lipopolysaccharide. We found that recombinant EPF/cpn 10 was able to suppress experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model of multiple sclerosis, which is a disease causing inflammation and demyelination of the brain and spinal cord. This beneficial effect could be due to anti-inflammatory and/or cell survival properties of EPF/cpn 10. We aimed to assess the effects of cpn 10 on cells of the oligodendrocyte lineage because oligodendrocytes are the brain cells that produce myelin and that are depleted in multiple sclerosis. Two forms of recombinant EPF/cpn 10 were prepared in the pGEX expression system and in the baculovirus expression system. Purified O4(+) pro-oligodendrocytes were prepared from the brains of day-old Wistar rats and isolated by cell sorting with flow cytometry. Single cells were dispensed into micro-well plates and tested for survival in the presence of a range of concentrations of the two forms of cpn 10. We also studied the effects of bFGF, PDGF, IGF-1 and insulin as controls. With cpn 10 present, there was enhanced survival of O4(+) cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- P A McCombe
- Central Clinical School, The University of Queensland Royal Brisbane Hospital, Herston, Queensland, Australia.
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65
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Cdk5 phosphorylation of WAVE2 regulates oligodendrocyte precursor cell migration through nonreceptor tyrosine kinase Fyn. J Neurosci 2008; 28:8326-37. [PMID: 18701695 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1482-08.2008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Myelin formation of the CNS is a complex and dynamic process. Before the onset of myelination, oligodendrocytes (OLs), the myelin-forming glia of the CNS, proliferate and migrate along axons. Little is known about the molecular mechanisms underlying the early myelination processes. Here, we show that platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), the crucial physiological ligand in early OL development, controls the migration of oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) through cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk5). PDGF stimulates Cdk5 activity in a time-dependent manner, whereas suppression of Cdk5 by the specific inhibitor roscovitine or by the retrovirus encoding short-hairpin RNA for Cdk5 impairs PDGF-dependent OPC migration. The activation of Cdk5 by PDGF is mediated by the phosphorylation of the nonreceptor tyrosine kinase, Fyn, whose inhibition reduces PDGF-dependent OPC migration. Furthermore, Cdk5 regulates PDGF-dependent OPC migration through the direct phosphorylation of WASP (Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein)-family verprolin-homologous protein 2 (WAVE2). Cdk5 phosphorylates WAVE2 at Ser-137 in vitro. Infection of the WAVE2 construct harboring the Ser-137-to-Ala reduces PDGF-dependent migration. Together, PDGF regulates OPC migration through an as-yet-unidentified signaling cascade coupling Fyn kinase to Cdk5 phosphorylation of WAVE2. These results provide new insights into both the role of Cdk5 in glial cells and the molecular mechanisms controlling the early developmental stage of OLs.
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66
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Marriott MP, Emery B, Cate HS, Binder MD, Kemper D, Wu Q, Kolbe S, Gordon IR, Wang H, Egan G, Murray S, Butzkueven H, Kilpatrick TJ. Leukemia inhibitory factor signaling modulates both central nervous system demyelination and myelin repair. Glia 2008; 56:686-98. [PMID: 18293407 DOI: 10.1002/glia.20646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) receptor signaling limits the severity of inflammatory demyelination in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, a T-cell dependent animal model of multiple sclerosis (MS) [Butzkueven et al. (2002) Nat Med 8:613-619]. To identify whether LIF exerts direct effects within the central nervous system to limit demyelination, we have studied the influence of LIF upon the phenotype of mice challenged with cuprizone, a copper chelator, which produces a toxic oligodendrocytopathy. We find that exogenously administered LIF limits cuprizone-induced demyelination. Knockout mice deficient in LIF exhibit both potentiated demyelination and oligodendrocyte loss after cuprizone challenge, an effect that is ameliorated by exogenous LIF, arguing for a direct beneficial effect of endogenous LIF receptor signaling. Numbers of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells in cuprizone-challenged mice are not influenced by either exogenous LIF or LIF deficiency, arguing for effects directed to the differentiated oligodendrocyte. Studies on the influence of LIF upon remyelination after cuprizone challenge fail to reveal any significant effect of exogenous LIF. The LIF-knockout mice do, however, display impaired remyelination, although oligodendrocyte replenishment, previously identified to occur from the progenitor pool, is not significantly compromised. Thus endogenous LIF receptor signaling is not only protective of oligodendrocytes but can also enhance remyelination, and exogenous LIF has therapeutic potential in limiting the consequences of oligodendrocyte damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark P Marriott
- Howard Florey Institute, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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67
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Koehler NKU, Roebbert M, Dehghani K, Ballmaier M, Claus P, von Hoersten S, Shing M, Odin P, Strehlau J, Heidenreich F. Up-regulation of platelet-derived growth factor by peripheral-blood leukocytes during experimental allergic encephalomyelitis. J Neurosci Res 2008; 86:392-402. [PMID: 17893914 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.21497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
In multiple sclerosis (MS) and its animal model, experimental allergic encephalomyelitis (EAE), clinical disease is associated with infiltration of the central nervous system (CNS) by immune cells. Subsequent remission with remyelination has been linked to an increased occurrence of oligodendrocyte progenitor (O2A) cells. Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) and fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2) are key growth factors for O2A cells, yet little is known about their relevance in EAE and MS. We analyzed the expression of PDGF, FGF-2, and their receptors by peripheral-blood leukocytes (PBLs) and lymphocyte subsets during MBP-induced EAE. Strong up-regulation of PDGF, but not FGF-2, was observed in PBLs, with the highest expression after the disease maximum. T, NK, and NKT cells expressed PDGF, which is a novel observation because thus far only monocytes/macrophages have been reported to express PDGF. These results extend the idea that growth factors may contribute to improved CNS tissue repair, including PDGF, which is secreted by lesion-homing immune cells. The production of PDGF by lymphocytes may have potential therapeutic value when activating or modulating T-cell responses in demyelinating diseases.
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68
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Abstract
Myelination is critical for the normal functioning of the vertebrate nervous system. In the CNS, myelin is produced by oligodendrocytes, and the loss of oligodendrocytes and myelin results in severe functional impairment. Although spontaneous remyelination occurs in chronic demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis, the repair process eventually fails, often resulting in long-term disability. Two distinct general approaches can be considered to promote myelin repair. In one the target is stimulation of the endogenous myelin repair process through delivery of growth factors, and in the second the target is augmentation of the repair process through the delivery of exogenous cells with myelination potential. In both cases, effective treatment of diseases such as multiple sclerosis requires modulation of the immune system, since demyelination is associated with specific immunological activation. Recent studies have shown that some populations of stem cells, including mesenchymal stem cells, have the capacity of promoting endogenous myelin repair and modulating the immune response, prompting an assessment of their use as therapy in demyelinating diseases such as MS. Other types of demyelinating disorders, such as the leukodystrophies, may require multiple repair strategies including both replacement of dysfunctional cells and delivery or supplementation of growth factors, immune modulators or metabolic enzymes. Here we discuss the use of stem cells for the treatment of demyelinating diseases. While the current number of stem cell-based clinical trials for demyelinating diseases is limited, this is likely to increase significantly in the next few years, and a clear understanding of the applicability, limitations and underlying mechanisms mediating stem cell repair is critical.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert H Miller
- Center for Translational Neuroscience, Department of Neurosciences, Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA.
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69
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Mock DJ, Strathmann F, Blumberg BM, Mayer-Proschel M. Infection of murine oligodendroglial precursor cells with Human Herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6)--establishment of a murine in vitro model. J Clin Virol 2007; 37 Suppl 1:S17-23. [PMID: 17276361 DOI: 10.1016/s1386-6532(06)70006-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Human Herpesvirus 6 was previously demonstrated to infect human oligodendroglial precursor cells (OPCs) in vitro causing cell cycle arrest and premature differentiation with consequent loss of the precursor pool. OBJECTIVES To develop an in vitro murine OPC model to study the cell cycle and differentiation effects of HHV-6 in more readily available, genetically well-defined cells free of the risk of contamination with human herpesviruses. STUDY DESIGN Murine OPCs were exposed to infectious HHV-6A or HHV-6B and analyzed for production of viral transcripts, particles, and replicating virus. FACS analysis and specific markers were used to evaluate effects on cell cycling and differentiation. RESULTS HHV-6 infection of murine OPCs resulted in production of both immediate-early and some late transcripts but no replicating virus by TaqMan quantitative PCR or electron microscopy. Both a specific G1/S cell cycle arrest and premature loss of OPCs through differentiation into oligodendrocytes as previously seen with human precursors were recapitulated. CONCLUSIONS Infection of murine OPCs by HHV-6 reproduces the critical phenotypes of cell cycle arrest and altered differentiation seen in human cells. The murine system provides a highly defined, accessible, and reproducible source of cells permitting the elucidation of specific viral and cell cycle genes involved in CNS viral infections of OPCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- David J Mock
- Department of Neurology, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14642, USA.
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70
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Kumar S, Biancotti JC, Yamaguchi M, de Vellis J. Combination of growth factors enhances remyelination in a cuprizone-induced demyelination mouse model. Neurochem Res 2006; 32:783-97. [PMID: 17186374 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-006-9208-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2006] [Accepted: 10/16/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Loss of oligodendrocytes (OLs) is often associated with demyelination. PDGF-AA, bFGF, NT3 and IGF-1 are known to regulate OL proliferation, survival and/or differentiation. Following cuprizone-induced demyelination in mice a combination of above four growth factors (GF) was intracranially injected to stimulate remyelination in vivo. Activation of cell signaling and transcription factors involved in cell proliferation, survival and differentiation was observed in response to GF. Increased cell proliferation and migration occurred in corpus callosum, lateral ventricles, rostral migratory stream and cerebri at 2-5 days post injection (dpi) of GF cocktail. The fate of these newly formed nestin or bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) positive progenitors was traced to proteoglycan NG2 and glutathione transferase (GST) pi positive cells, early and mature OL lineage markers, respectively. Immunostaining for myelin showed the presence of more myelinated fibers in GF-injected brains at 21 dpi. Remyelination in response to GF was confirmed by electron microscopy. In conclusion, this combination of GF is a promising tool to consider for remyelination strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shalini Kumar
- Department of Neurobiology, Mental Retardation Research Center, Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California-Los Angeles, 635 Charles E. Young Drive South, Los Angeles, CA 90095-7332, USA
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71
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Nguyen L, Borgs L, Vandenbosch R, Mangin JM, Beukelaers P, Moonen G, Gallo V, Malgrange B, Belachew S. The Yin and Yang of cell cycle progression and differentiation in the oligodendroglial lineage. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 12:85-96. [PMID: 16807909 DOI: 10.1002/mrdd.20103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
In white matter disorders such as leukodystrophies (LD), periventricular leucomalacia (PVL), or multiple sclerosis (MS), the hypomyelination or the remyelination failure by oligodendrocyte progenitor cells involves errors in the sequence of events that normally occur during development when progenitors proliferate, migrate through the white matter, contact the axon, and differentiate into myelin-forming oligodendrocytes. Multiple mechanisms underlie the eventual progressive deterioration that typifies the natural history of developmental demyelination in LD and PVL and of adult-onset demyelination in MS. Over the past few years, pathophysiological studies have mostly focused on seeking abnormalities that impede oligodendroglial maturation at the level of migration, myelination, and survival. In contrast, there has been a strikingly lower interest for early proliferative and differentiation events that are likely to be equally critical for white matter development and myelin repair. This review highlights the Yin and Yang principles of interactions between intrinsic factors that coordinately regulate progenitor cell division and the onset of differentiation, i.e. the initial steps of oligodendrocyte lineage progression that are obviously crucial in health and diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurent Nguyen
- Developmental Neurobiology Unit, Center for Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience, University of Liège, C.H.U. Sart Tilman, B36, 4000 Liège, Belgium
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72
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Rivera FJ, Couillard-Despres S, Pedre X, Ploetz S, Caioni M, Lois C, Bogdahn U, Aigner L. Mesenchymal Stem Cells Instruct Oligodendrogenic Fate Decision on Adult Neural Stem Cells. Stem Cells 2006; 24:2209-19. [PMID: 16763198 DOI: 10.1634/stemcells.2005-0614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Adult stem cells reside in different tissues and organs of the adult organism. Among these cells are MSCs that are located in the adult bone marrow and NSCs that exist in the adult central nervous system (CNS). In transplantation experiments, MSCs demonstrated neuroprotective and neuroregenerative effects that were associated with functional improvements. The underlying mechanisms are largely unidentified. Here, we reveal that the interactions between adult MSCs and NSCs, mediated by soluble factors, induce oligodendrogenic fate decision in NSCs at the expense of astrogenesis. This was demonstrated (a) by an increase in the percentage of cells expressing the oligodendrocyte markers GalC and myelin basic protein, (b) by a reduction in the percentage of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP)-expressing cells, and (c) by the expression pattern of cell fate determinants specific for oligodendrogenic differentiation. Thus, it involved enhanced expression of the oligodendrogenic transcription factors Olig1, Olig2, and Nkx2.2 and diminished expression of Id2, an inhibitor of oligodendrogenic differentiation. Results of (a) 5-bromo-2'-deoxyuridine pulse-labeling of cells, (b) cell fate analysis, and (c) cell death/survival analysis suggested an inductive mechanism and excluded a selection process. A candidate factor screen excluded a number of growth factors, cytokines, and neurotrophins that have previously been shown to influence neurogenesis and neural differentiation from the oligodendrogenic activity derived from the MSCs. This work might have major implications for the development of future transplantation strategies for the treatment of degenerative diseases in the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco J Rivera
- Volkswagen-Foundation Research Group, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
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73
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Talbott JF, Cao Q, Enzmann GU, Benton RL, Achim V, Cheng XX, Mills MD, Rao MS, Whittemore SR. Schwann cell-like differentiation by adult oligodendrocyte precursor cells following engraftment into the demyelinated spinal cord is BMP-dependent. Glia 2006; 54:147-59. [PMID: 16921543 PMCID: PMC2813493 DOI: 10.1002/glia.20369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
The development of remyelinating strategies designed to enhance recruitment and differentiation of endogenous precursor cells available to a site of demyelination in the adult spinal cord will require a fundamental understanding of the potential for adult spinal cord precursor cells to remyelinate as well as an insight into epigenetic cues that regulate their mobilization and differentiation. The ability of embryonic and postnatal neural precursor cell transplants to remyelinate the adult central nervous system is well documented, while no transplantation studies to date have examined the remyelinating potential of adult spinal-cord-derived oligodendrocyte precursor cells (adult OPCs). In the present study, we demonstrate that, when transplanted subacutely into spinal ethidium bromide/X-irradiated (EB-X) lesions, adult OPCs display a limited capacity for oligodendrocyte remyelination. Interestingly, the glia-free environment of EB lesions promotes engrafted adult OPCs to differentiate primarily into cells with immunophenotypic and ultrastructural characteristics of myelinating Schwann cells (SCs). Astrocytes modulate this potential, as evidenced by the demonstration that SC-like differentiation is blocked when adult OPCs are co-transplanted with astrocytes. We further show that inhibition of bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling through noggin overexpression by engrafted adult OPCs is sufficient to block SC-like differentiation within EB-X lesions. Present data suggest that the macroglial-free environment of acute EB lesions in the ventrolateral funiculus is inhibitory to adult spinal cord-derived OPC differentiation into remyelinating oligodendrocytes, while the presence of BMPs and absence of noggin promotes SC-like differentiation, thereby unmasking a surprising lineage fate for these cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason F Talbott
- University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, Kentucky 40202, USA
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74
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Rhodes KE, Raivich G, Fawcett JW. The injury response of oligodendrocyte precursor cells is induced by platelets, macrophages and inflammation-associated cytokines. Neuroscience 2006; 140:87-100. [PMID: 16631314 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2006.01.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2004] [Revised: 12/21/2005] [Accepted: 01/04/2006] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Oligodendrocyte precursor cells recognized with the NG2 antibody respond rapidly to CNS injuries with hypertrophy and upregulation of the NG2 chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan within 24 h. These cells participate in glial scar formation, remaining around the injury site for several weeks. After injury, reactive oligodendrocyte precursor cells increase their production of several chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans, including NG2: this cell type thus represents a component of the inhibitory environment that prevents regeneration of axons in the injured CNS. This study analyzes factors that activate oligodendrocyte precursor cells. Both microglia and astrocytes become reactive around motor neurons following peripheral nerve lesions. We show that oligodendrocyte precursor cells do not hypertrophy or increase NG2 levels after these lesions. Those lesions that cause an oligodendrocyte precursor cell reaction generally open the blood-brain barrier. We therefore opened the blood-brain barrier with microinjections of vascular endothelial growth factor or lipopolysaccharide to the rat and mouse brain, and examined oligodendrocyte precursor cell reactivity after 24 h. Both treatments led to increases in NG2 and hypertrophy of oligodendrocyte precursor cells. Of directly injected blood components serum and thrombin were without effect, while platelets and macrophages activated oligodendrocyte precursor cells. We tested the effects of a range of injury-related cytokines, of which tumor necrosis factor alpha; interleukin-1; transforming growth factor beta; interferon gamma had effects on oligodendrocyte precursor cells. Oligodendrocyte precursor cell chemokines, and mitogens did not increase NG2 levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- K E Rhodes
- Cambridge University Centre for Brain Repair, University of Cambridge, Forvie Site, Robinson Way, Cambridge CB2 2PY, UK
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75
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Polito A, Reynolds R. NG2-expressing cells as oligodendrocyte progenitors in the normal and demyelinated adult central nervous system. J Anat 2006; 207:707-16. [PMID: 16367798 PMCID: PMC1571577 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-7580.2005.00454.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 214] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The mammalian adult central nervous system (CNS) is known to respond rapidly to demyelinating insults by regenerating oligodendrocytes for remyelination from a dividing precursor population. A widespread population of cells exists within the adult CNS that is thought to belong to the oligodendrocyte lineage, but which do not express proteins characteristic of mature myelinating oligodendrocytes, such as myelin basic protein (MBP) and 2,3-cyclic nucleotide 3-phosphodiesterase (CNP). Instead, these cells have phenotypic characteristics of a more immature stage of the oligodendrocyte lineage. They express the NG2 chondroitin sulphate proteoglycan, in addition to O4 and the platelet-derived growth factor alpha-receptor, all widely accepted as markers for oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) throughout development. However, NG2+ cells residing in the adult CNS do not resemble embryonic or neonatal NG2+ cells in terms of their morphology or proliferation characteristics, but instead represent a unique type of glial cell that has the ability to react rapidly to CNS damage. In this review, we present the evidence that adult NG2+ cells are part of the oligodendrocyte lineage and are capable of giving rise to new oligodendrocytes under both normal and demyelinating conditions. We also review the literature that these cells may have multiple functional roles within the adult CNS, notwithstanding their primary role as OPCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annabella Polito
- Department of Cellular & Molecular Neuroscience, Division of Neuroscience & Mental Health, Imperial College Faculty of Medicine, Charing Cross Hospital Campus, London, UK
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76
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Cid C, Alvarez-Cermeño JC, Salinas M, Alcázar A. Anti-heat shock protein 90β antibodies decrease pre-oligodendrocyte population in perinatal and adult cell cultures. Implications for remyelination in multiple sclerosis. J Neurochem 2005; 95:349-60. [PMID: 16135098 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2005.03371.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Lesions in the CNS of patients with multiple sclerosis (MS) often fail to remyelinate, resulting in neurological dysfunction. A key factor seems to be the inefficiency of oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs). We recently reported antibodies against heat shock protein 90beta (Hsp90beta) in MS patients that recognized the antigen on the OPC surface. This study investigates the mechanism and result of anti-Hsp90beta antibody attack. These antibodies induced OPC death in culture in a complement-dependent fashion. Anti-Hsp90beta antibody-induced, complement-mediated OPC death only operated in these cells and caused a significant reduction in the number of O4-positive pro-oligodendrocytes (pre-oligodendrocytes). Adult cultured OPCs also expressed Hsp90beta on their cell surface and were attacked by anti-Hsp90beta antibodies leading to a significant decrease in the pre-oligodendrocyte population. In the presence of low levels of anti-Hsp90beta antibody--i.e. in the range seen in the CSF of MS patients--the complement concentration was critical to reduce the pre-oligodendrocyte population (via attack to OPCs). Higher concentrations of anti-Hsp90beta antibodies and complement became extinct the pre-oligodendrocytes. Complement 1-esterase inhibitor prevented these effects in the pre-oligodendrocyte population. These findings demonstrate, for the first time in vitro, a feasible mechanism to decrease the production of new oligodendrocytes, thus limiting the possibility of remyelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Cid
- Depto. Investigacion, Hospital Ramon y Cajal, Madrid, Spain
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77
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Abstract
Multiple sclerosis presents particular and serious problems to those attempting to develop cell-based therapies: the occurrence of innumerable lesions scattered throughout the CNS, axon loss, astrocytosis, and a continuing inflammatory process, to name but a few. Nevertheless, the limited and relatively focused nature of damage to oligodendrocytes and myelin, at least in early disease, the large body of available knowledge concerning the biology of oligodendrocytes, and the success of experimental myelin repair, have allowed cautious optimism that therapies may be possible. Here, we review the clinical and biological problems presented by multiple sclerosis in the context of cell therapies, and the neuroscientific background to the development of strategies for myelin repair. We attempt to highlight those areas where difficulties have yet to be resolved and draw on a variety of more recent experimental findings to speculate on how remyelinating therapies are likely to develop in the foreseeable future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Rice
- University of Bristol Institute of Clinical Neurosciences, Department of Neurology, Frenchay Hospital, Bristol, BS16 1LE, United Kingdom
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78
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Murtie JC, Zhou YX, Le TQ, Vana AC, Armstrong RC. PDGF and FGF2 pathways regulate distinct oligodendrocyte lineage responses in experimental demyelination with spontaneous remyelination. Neurobiol Dis 2005; 19:171-82. [PMID: 15837572 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2004.12.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 118] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2004] [Revised: 10/28/2004] [Accepted: 12/10/2004] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Repair of myelin damage in the adult CNS requires oligodendrocyte progenitor (OP) proliferation and subsequent differentiation into remyelinating oligodendrocytes. Platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) and fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF2) have been predicted to act individually and/or cooperatively to generate remyelinating oligodendrocytes. Analysis of PDGF alpha receptor (PDGF alpha R) heterozygous (+/-) mice indicates that PDGF alpha R expression modulates oligodendrocyte density in non-lesioned adult CNS. Analysis of cuprizone demyelination and recovery in PDGF alpha R+/- mice, FGF2 knockout (-/-) mice, and PDGF alpha R+/- FGF2-/- mice demonstrated that: (1) OP proliferation and oligodendrocyte regeneration is impaired in PDGF alpha R heterozygotes, (2) PDGF alpha R+/- and FGF2-/- deletions do not act cooperatively to impair OP amplification, (3) oligodendrocyte differentiation is more frequent in FGF2-/- mice, and (4) FGF2 deletion in combination with the PDGF alpha R+/- genotype rescues impaired oligodendrocyte regeneration of PDGF alpha R heterozygotes. These findings demonstrate distinct roles for PDGF and FGF2 in vivo in the context of a demyelinating disease with spontaneous remyelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua C Murtie
- Program in Molecular and Cell Biology, Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences, Bethesda, MD 20814-4799, USA
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79
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Zhang J, Li Y, Cui Y, Chen J, Lu M, Elias SB, Chopp M. Erythropoietin treatment improves neurological functional recovery in EAE mice. Brain Res 2005; 1034:34-9. [PMID: 15713257 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2004.11.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/16/2004] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Erythropoietin (EPO), originally recognized for its central role in erythropoiesis, has been shown to improve neurological outcome after stroke. Here, we investigated the treatment of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) in mice with EPO. Mice were treated with recombinant human EPO (rhEPO) upon onset of paresis. Neurological functional tests were scored daily by grading of clinical signs (score 0-5). Hematoxylin and eosin (HE) staining of cerebral tissue was performed to detect inflammatory infiltrates. Double staining for Luxol fast blue and Bielshowsky was used to demonstrate myelin and axons, respectively. Immunohistochemistry was performed to measure the expression of bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU, a marker for cell proliferation), NG2 (a marker for oligodendrocyte progenitor cells) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). Treatment with rhEPO significantly improved neurological functional recovery, reduced inflammatory infiltrates and demyelination, and increased oligodendrocyte progenitor cell proliferation and BDNF+ cells compared to the EAE controls. These data indicate that rhEPO treatment improved functional recovery after EAE in mice, possibly, via stimulating oligodendrogenesis, downregulating proinflammatory infiltrates and by elevating BDNF expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Henry Ford Health Sciences Center, Henry Ford Hospital, Neurology Res (ER 3056), 2799 W Grand Boulevard, Detroit, MI 48202, USA
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80
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Talbott JF, Loy DN, Liu Y, Qiu MS, Bunge MB, Rao MS, Whittemore SR. Endogenous Nkx2.2+/Olig2+ oligodendrocyte precursor cells fail to remyelinate the demyelinated adult rat spinal cord in the absence of astrocytes. Exp Neurol 2005; 192:11-24. [PMID: 15698615 PMCID: PMC2813490 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2004.05.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 155] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2004] [Revised: 04/17/2004] [Accepted: 05/12/2004] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Chronic demyelination is a pathophysiologic component of compressive spinal cord injury (SCI) and a characteristic finding in demyelinating diseases including multiple sclerosis (MS). A better characterization of endogenous cells responsible for successful remyelination is essential for designing therapeutic strategies aimed at restoring functional myelin. The present study examined the spatiotemporal response of endogenous oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) following ethidium bromide (EB)-induced demyelination of the adult rat spinal cord. Beginning at 2 days post-EB injection (dpi), a robust mobilization of highly proliferative NG2(+) cells within the lesion was observed, none of which expressed the oligodendrocyte lineage-associated transcription factor Nkx2.2. At 7 dpi, a significant up-regulation of Nkx2.2 by OPCs within the lesion was observed, 90% of which coexpressed NG2 and virtually all of which coexpressed the bHLH transcription factor Olig2. Despite successful recruitment of Nkx2.2(+)/Olig2(+) OPCs within the lesion, demyelinated axons were not remyelinated by these OPCs in regions lacking astrocytes. Rather, Schwann cell remyelination predominated throughout the central core of the lesion, particularly around blood vessels. Oligodendrocyte remyelination was observed in the astrogliotic perimeter, suggesting a necessary role for astrocytes in oligodendrocyte maturation. In addition, reexpression of the radial glial antigen, RC-1, by reactive astrocytes and ependymal cells was observed following injury. However, these cells did not express the neural stem cell (NSC)-associated transcription factors Sox1 or Sox2, suggesting that the endogenous response is primarily mediated by glial progenitors. In vivo electrophysiology demonstrated a limited and unsustained functional recovery concurrent with endogenous remyelination following EB-induced lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason F. Talbott
- The MD/PhD Program, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292, USA
- Kentucky Spinal Cord Injury Research Center, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292, USA
- Department of Anatomical Sciences and Neurobiology, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292, USA
| | - David N. Loy
- The MD/PhD Program, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292, USA
- Kentucky Spinal Cord Injury Research Center, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292, USA
- Department of Anatomical Sciences and Neurobiology, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292, USA
| | - Ying Liu
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomy, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84132, USA
- Laboratory of Neurosciences, National Institute on Aging, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Mengsheng S. Qiu
- Kentucky Spinal Cord Injury Research Center, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292, USA
- Department of Anatomical Sciences and Neurobiology, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292, USA
| | - Mary Bartlett Bunge
- The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA
- Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA
| | - Mahendra S. Rao
- Laboratory of Neurosciences, National Institute on Aging, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Scott R. Whittemore
- Kentucky Spinal Cord Injury Research Center, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292, USA
- Department of Anatomical Sciences and Neurobiology, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292, USA
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40292, USA
- Corresponding author. Department of Neurological Surgery, Kentucky, Spinal Cord Injury Research Center, University of Louisville School, of Medicine, MDR 616, 511 South Floyd Street, Louisville, KY 40202. Fax: +1-502-852-5148. (S.R. Whittemore)
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81
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Guest JD, Hiester ED, Bunge RP. Demyelination and Schwann cell responses adjacent to injury epicenter cavities following chronic human spinal cord injury. Exp Neurol 2005; 192:384-93. [PMID: 15755556 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2004.11.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 223] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2004] [Revised: 11/18/2004] [Accepted: 11/30/2004] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The natural history of post-traumatic demyelination and myelin repair in the human spinal cord is largely unknown and has remained a matter of speculation. A wealth of experimental studies indicate that mild to moderate contusive injuries to the mammalian spinal cord evolve into a cavity with a preserved rim of white matter in which a population of segmentally demyelinated axons persists. It is believed that such injured axons have abnormal conduction properties. Theoretically, such axons might show improved function if myelin repair occurred. Schwann cells can remyelinate axons affected by multiple sclerosis, but little evidence exists that such repair can occur spontaneously following traumatic human SCI. Therefore, it is important to determine if chronic demyelination is present following human spinal cord injury. There are no previous reports that have conclusively demonstrated demyelination in the human spinal cord following traumatic spinal cord injury using immunohistochemical techniques. Immunohistochemical methods were used to study the distribution of peripheral and central myelin proteins as well as axonal neurofilament at the injury epicenter in 13 postmortem chronically injured human spinal cords 1-22 years following injury. Of these seven could be assessed by our methods. We found that some axonal demyelination can be detected even a decade following human SCI and indirect evidence that invading Schwann cells contributed to restoration of myelin sheaths around some spinal axons.
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Affiliation(s)
- J D Guest
- Department of Neurological Surgery and the Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami, Lois Pope LIFE Center, 1095 NW 14th Terrace, Miami, FL 33136, USA.
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82
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Crockett DP, Burshteyn M, Garcia C, Muggironi M, Casaccia-Bonnefil P. Number of oligodendrocyte progenitors recruited to the lesioned spinal cord is modulated by the levels of the cell cycle regulatory protein p27Kip-1. Glia 2005; 49:301-8. [PMID: 15472992 DOI: 10.1002/glia.20111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Remyelination is a critical step for recovery of function after demyelination and defines the ability to generate new myelin. This repair process is dependent on the presence of resident oligodendrocyte progenitors (OLPs) that have been shown to remyelinate axons after demyelination. We have previously shown that the levels of the cell cycle inhibitor p27Kip-1 modulate the number of neonatal cortical OLPs. We now asked whether this cell cycle molecule plays also a role in regulating the number of adult OLP in the spinal cord after demyelination induced by lysolecithin injection. The proliferative response of OLP in the spinal cord of injected wild-type (wt) and p27Kip-1 null mice was evaluated 3 days after lesion. In vivo labeling with bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) was used to identify cells in S phase. Double immunofluorescence for the OLP marker NG2, and for BrdU was used to count the number of proliferating progenitors. Consistent with a role of p27Kip-1 in regulating the number of adult OLP in the injured spinal cord, a larger number of proliferating OLPs was observed in p27Kip-1null mice compared with wild-type controls. These cells were able to differentiate as assessed by the presence of MBP+ cells in the spinal cord 14 days after injury. We conclude that the cellular levels of the cell cycle inhibitor p27Kip-1 modulate the repair response of OLPs to injury in the adult spinal cord.
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Affiliation(s)
- David P Crockett
- Department Neuroscience and Cell Biology, UMDNJ-Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854, USA.
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83
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Dietrich J, Blumberg BM, Roshal M, Baker JV, Hurley SD, Mayer-Pröschel M, Mock DJ. Infection with an endemic human herpesvirus disrupts critical glial precursor cell properties. J Neurosci 2004; 24:4875-83. [PMID: 15152048 PMCID: PMC6729472 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.5584-03.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Human herpesvirus 6 (HHV-6), a common resident virus of the human CNS, has been implicated in both acute and chronic inflammatory--demyelinating diseases. Although HHV-6 persists within the human CNS and has been described to infect mature oligodendrocytes, nothing is known about the susceptibility of glial precursors, the ancestors of myelin-producing oligodendrocytes, to viral infection. We show that HHV-6 infects human glial precursor cells in vitro. Active infection was demonstrated by both electron microscopy and expression of viral gene transcripts and proteins, with subsequent formation of cell syncytia. Infection leads to alterations in cell morphology and impairment of cell replication but not increased cell death. Infected cells showed decreased proliferation as measured by bromodeoxyuridine uptake, which was confirmed by blunting of the cell growth rate of infected cells compared with uninfected controls over time. The detailed analysis using novel, fluorescent-labeled HHV-6A or HHV-6B reagents demonstrated strong G1/S phase inhibition in infected precursor cells. Cell cycle arrest in HHV-6-infected cells was associated with a profound decrease in the expression of the glial progenitor cell marker A2B5 and a corresponding increase in the oligodendrocyte differentiation marker GalC. These data demonstrate for the first time that infection of primary human glial precursor cells with a neurologically relevant human herpesvirus causes profound alterations of critical precursor cell properties. In light of recent observations that repair of CNS demyelination is dependent on the generation of mature oligodendrocytes from the glial precursor cell pool, these findings may have broad implications for both the ineffective repair seen in demyelinating diseases and the disruption of normal glial maturation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joerg Dietrich
- Department of Biomedical Genetics, University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry, Rochester, New York 14642, USA
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84
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Zhang H, Vutskits L, Calaora V, Durbec P, Kiss JZ. A role for the polysialic acid – neural cell adhesion molecule in PDGF-induced chemotaxis of oligodendrocyte precursor cells. J Cell Sci 2004; 117:93-103. [PMID: 14627627 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.00827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Directed migration of oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) is important for myelin formation and repair but the mechanisms of directional control are poorly understood. Here we have tested the role of polysialic acid-neural cell adhesion molecule (PSA-NCAM) in the directional migration of OPCs towards platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF). Using a Boyden microchemotaxis chamber and the Dunn direct viewing chamber, we show that in concentration gradients of PDGF, PSA-positive OPCs polarize and efficiently migrate towards the source of PDGF (chemotaxis). The loss or inactivation of the polysialic tail of NCAM leads to an altered pattern of OPC migration in response to PDGF gradients. Cells under these conditions, while being polarized and migrating, show no bias of displacement towards the source of PDGF and make random turns. By contrast, directed migration of OPCs towards basic fibroblast growth factor was not affected by the removal of PSA. Moreover, inactivation of PSA does not interfere with the random migration pattern of cells in uniform concentrations of PDGF (chemokinesis). These results suggest that PSA-NCAM is specifically involved in establishing the directionality of OPC migration in response to the concentration gradient of PDGF, but it is not essential for cell motility per se.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Zhang
- Department of Morphology, University of Geneva Medical School, 1 rue Michel Servet, CH-1211 Geneva 4, Switzerland
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85
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Cid C, Alvarez-Cermeño JC, Camafeita E, Salinas M, Alcázar A. Antibodies reactive to heat shock protein 90 induce oligodendrocyte precursor cell death in culture. Implications for demyelination in multiple sclerosis. FASEB J 2003; 18:409-11. [PMID: 14688203 DOI: 10.1096/fj.03-0606fje] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) are extremely efficient at remyelination. These cells persist in the adult human central nervous system and can proliferate. However, the failure to remyelinate is a pathological characteristic of the human demyelinating disease multiple sclerosis (MS), which suggests that these cells are ineffective in this disorder. This paper reports that IgG antibodies in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of MS patients specifically recognize an antigen on OPCs in culture. Control patients were found not to possess these antibodies. The antigen was immunoprecipitated in cell extracts from cultures with purified IgG from MS CSF. Peptide mass fingerprinting identified it as the beta type of heat shock protein 90 (Hsp90). Two-dimensional electrophoresis and immunoblot showed that this antigen in fact corresponds to two specific isoforms of Hsp90beta. Several control assays using monoclonal and polyclonal anti-Hsp90 antibodies confirmed the specific expression of Hsp90 on OPCs. Labeling OPCs in vivo with MS CSF and anti-Hsp90 antibodies and subsequent immunofluorescence confocal microscopy located the antigen on the cell surface. The binding of CSF antibodies from MS patients to the OPC surface led to complement activation and significant extinction of the OPC population. These results suggest that OPCs may be a target of anti-Hsp90 antibodies in MS patients and that this could prevent remyelination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Cid
- Servicio Bioquímica-Investigación Hospital Ramón y Cajal, Madrid, Spain
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86
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Nguyen D, Höpfner M, Zobel F, Henke U, Scherübl H, Stangel M. Rat oligodendroglial cell lines express a functional receptor for the chemokine CCL3 (macrophage inflammatory protein-1alpha). Neurosci Lett 2003; 351:71-4. [PMID: 14583384 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2003.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Regulation of migration, proliferation and differentiation of oligodendrocyte precursor cells is central for the accurate assembly of myelin in the CNS. The recent demonstration that oligodendrocyte precursors express chemokine receptors suggests that chemokines are candidates to play a role in the regulation of migration, since they are important molecules involved in the trafficking of other cell types. Since the chemokine CCL3 (macrophage inflammatory protein-1alpha) is expressed in various CNS diseases, we have used the oligodendrocyte precursor cell lines CG4 and OLN-93 to study the expression of receptors for CCL3 and the influence of CCL3 on oligodendrocyte precursor behaviour. Oligodendroglial cells express the receptor CCR1, but not CCR5. CCL3 induced an intracellular rise in Ca(2+), a typical signalling event of G protein-coupled receptors. Migration of cells was slightly inhibited by CCL3, while proliferation was not affected. The implications on CNS development, during which expression of chemokines and their receptors occurs, and on inflammatory demyelinating diseases of the CNS, like multiple sclerosis, are discussed.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Calcium Signaling/drug effects
- Calcium Signaling/immunology
- Cell Differentiation/drug effects
- Cell Differentiation/immunology
- Cell Division/drug effects
- Cell Division/immunology
- Cell Line
- Cell Movement/drug effects
- Cell Movement/immunology
- Chemokine CCL3
- Chemokine CCL4
- Demyelinating Diseases/immunology
- Demyelinating Diseases/metabolism
- Demyelinating Diseases/physiopathology
- Macrophage Inflammatory Proteins/metabolism
- Macrophage Inflammatory Proteins/pharmacology
- Oligodendroglia/drug effects
- Oligodendroglia/immunology
- Oligodendroglia/metabolism
- Rats
- Receptors, CCR1
- Receptors, CCR5/drug effects
- Receptors, CCR5/immunology
- Receptors, CCR5/metabolism
- Receptors, Chemokine/drug effects
- Receptors, Chemokine/immunology
- Receptors, Chemokine/metabolism
- Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/drug effects
- Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/immunology
- Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/metabolism
- Stem Cells/drug effects
- Stem Cells/immunology
- Stem Cells/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Nguyen
- Department of Neurology, Universitätsklinikum Benjamin Franklin, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
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87
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Insulin-like growth factor (IGF) signaling through type 1 IGF receptor plays an important role in remyelination. J Neurosci 2003. [PMID: 12930811 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.23-20-07710.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
We examined the role of IGF signaling in the remyelination process by disrupting the gene encoding the type 1 IGF receptor (IGF1R) specifically in the mouse brain by Cre-mediated recombination and then exposing these mutants and normal siblings to cuprizone. This neurotoxicant induces a demyelinating lesion in the corpus callosum that is reversible on termination of the insult. Acute demyelination and oligodendrocyte depletion were the same in mutants and controls, but the mutants did not remyelinate adequately. We observed that oligodendrocyte progenitors did not accumulate, proliferate, or survive within the mutant mice, compared with wild type, indicating that signaling through the IGF1R plays a critical role in remyelination via effects on oligodendrocyte progenitors.
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88
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Imitola J, Snyder EY, Khoury SJ. Genetic programs and responses of neural stem/progenitor cells during demyelination: potential insights into repair mechanisms in multiple sclerosis. Physiol Genomics 2003; 14:171-97. [PMID: 12923300 DOI: 10.1152/physiolgenomics.00021.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, it has become evident that the adult mammalian CNS contains a population of neural stem cells (NSCs) described as immature, undifferentiated, multipotent cells, that may be called upon for repair in neurodegenerative and demyelinating diseases. NSCs may give rise to oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) and other myelinating cells. This article reviews recent progress in elucidating the genetic programs and dynamics of NSC and OPC proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis, including the response to demyelination. Emerging knowledge of the molecules that may be involved in such responses may help in the design of future stem cell-based treatment of demyelinating diseases such as multiple sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaime Imitola
- Center for Neurologic Diseases, Partners MS Center, Department of Neurology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
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89
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Kobayashi J, Seiwa C, Sakai T, Gotoh M, Komatsu Y, Yamamoto M, Fukutake M, Matsuno K, Sakurai Y, Kawano Y, Asou H. Effect of a traditional Chinese herbal medicine, Ren-Shen-Yang-Rong-Tang (Japanese name: Ninjin-Youei-To), on oligodendrocyte precursor cells from aged-rat brain. Int Immunopharmacol 2003; 3:1027-39. [PMID: 12810360 DOI: 10.1016/s1567-5769(03)00101-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Understanding of oligodendrocyte precursor cells and their role in the generation of oligodendrocytes in developing and adult rodents has been considered, particularly much less is known about aged-rodent oligodendrocyte precursor cells and their cell lineage. In this present study, we have developed oligodendrocyte cultures from the 30-month-old rat brain and examined whether oligodendrocyte precursor cells can proliferate in vitro. Adult oligodendrocyte precursor cells (O1(-), O4(+)) and oligodendrocytes (O1(+), O4(+)) are present in the cultures of the 30-month-old rat brain. They are also capable of proliferating and differentiating in the cultures. These capabilities increased four- to fivefold, when the aged rats are treated with Ninjin-Youei-To for 3 months in comparison with those of control aged rats. These results suggest that Ninjin-Youei-To has a potential mitotic effect on oligodendrocyte precursor cells in aged-rat brains and may be expected to have a therapeutic effect on brain aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junko Kobayashi
- Department of Neuro-cell Biology, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Gerontology, 35-2 Sakaecho, Tokyo Itabashi 173-0015, Japan
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90
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Mycko MP, Papoian R, Boschert U, Raine CS, Selmaj KW. cDNA microarray analysis in multiple sclerosis lesions: detection of genes associated with disease activity. Brain 2003; 126:1048-57. [PMID: 12690045 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awg107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
cDNA microarray analysis of the regions of pathologically proven different activity of multiple sclerosis lesions was performed. Major differences in gene expression (DGE) occurred between the lesion margin and lesion centre in active lesions studied (57 and 69 genes differentially expressed, respectively), whereas the margins and centres of silent lesions showed markedly reduced heterogeneity (only 11 and two genes differentially expressed, respectively). To compare differences between chronic active and silent lesions, we performed DGE comparison of the pooled data from both types of lesions. The major DGE occurred at the lesion margin, 156 (26; 5%), the greater number representing upregulated genes at the margin of active lesions (15%). Fourteen genes were found to be significantly upregulated in marginal versus central zones in active lesions examined. These genes comprised predominantly inflammation/immune-related factors. We also performed DGE analysis of pooled genes upregulated at the margin of active lesions and found that among the 50 genes showing differences, nine out of 14 were identified in the previous analysis of overlapping differentially expressed genes. Thus this microarray analysis has identified a novel set of genes associated with lesion activity in multiple sclerosis, many of them not previously linked with the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcin P Mycko
- Department of Neurology, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland, Serono Research Institute, Geneva, Switzerland
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91
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Stangel M, Bernard D. Polyclonal IgM influence oligodendrocyte precursor cells in mixed glial cell cultures: implications for remyelination. J Neuroimmunol 2003; 138:25-30. [PMID: 12742649 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-5728(03)00087-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Polyclonal immunoglobulins for intravenous use (IVIg) are a potent immunomodulator and have been shown to be effective in several immune-mediated diseases. This includes inflammatory demyelinating diseases of the central nervous system (CNS) like multiple sclerosis (MS). Besides their immunomodulatory function, IVIg have been proposed to enhance remyelination based on studies in the animal model of Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (TMEV). Disappointingly, recent treatment trials in patients with MS have failed to demonstrate repair of longstanding deficits. Since the clinical trials have used IVIg that contained nearly exclusively IgG, whereas the most pronounced effect in TMEV was seen with IgM, this could be a possible explanation for the negative outcome in the MS trials. Here we have examined the effects of a new polyclonal IgM preparation (IVIgM) on cultured oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs). To achieve successful remyelination, OPCs proliferate, migrate, and differentiate into mature myelinating oligodendrocytes. IVIgM and commercial IVIg preparations had no influence on proliferation and differentiation of either isolated OPCs or OPCs in coculture with microglia. In contrast, IVIgM inhibited the proliferation of OPCs in mixed glial cultures containing astrocytes and microglia. This was not seen in cultures treated with IVIg, albumin, or interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma), suggesting that this is a specific effect of IVIgM. Differentiation was slightly delayed by IVIgM in mixed glial cultures, but this was not statistically significant and interferon-gamma had a similar effect. These results underline the importance of IgM in influencing OPCs and corroborate the in vivo findings that polyclonal IgM are more potent than IgG in their capacity to influence remyelination. The exact mechanism of how this modulation of OPCs is achieved remains unknown, but a complex interaction among all cells present in the CNS has to be postulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Stangel
- Department of Neurology, Universitätsklinikum Benjamin Franklin, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany.
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92
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Casaccia-Bonnefil P, Liu A. Relationship between cell cycle molecules and onset of oligodendrocyte differentiation. J Neurosci Res 2003; 72:1-11. [PMID: 12645074 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.10565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Patrizia Casaccia-Bonnefil
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, UMDNJ-Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854, USA.
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93
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Filipovic R, Jakovcevski I, Zecevic N. GRO-alpha and CXCR2 in the human fetal brain and multiple sclerosis lesions. Dev Neurosci 2003; 25:279-90. [PMID: 12966224 DOI: 10.1159/000072275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2003] [Accepted: 04/01/2003] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Chemokines, small proinflammatory cytokines, are involved in migration of inflammatory cells, but also have a role in normal central nervous system development. One chemokine, growth-related oncogene-alpha (GRO-alpha) and its receptor CXCR2, are involved in proliferation and migration of oligodendrocyte progenitors in rats. Here we studied the regional and cell type-specific expression of GRO-alpha and CXCR2 in the human telencephalon at midgestation, the time that oligodendrocytes are being generated in the human brain. Our results showed that both GRO-alpha and CXCR2 are predominately expressed by oligodendrocyte progenitors and activated microglial cells in the highly proliferative subventricular zone. This cellular and regional localization suggests that GRO-alpha/CXCR2 may play a role in human oligodendrocyte proliferation and subsequent migration. We also studied the expression of GRO-alpha and CXCR2 in brain sections of multiple sclerosis (MS) patients. Consistent with their role in the inflammatory process of MS, both GRO-alpha and CXCR2 were expressed in activated microglia localized on the border of MS lesions. However, neither GRO-alpha nor CXCR2 were present in early oligodendrocyte progenitors, a finding that may partially explain why remyelination is not more efficient in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Filipovic
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Connecticut Medical School, Farmington, Conn 06030-3401, USA
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94
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Grossman AW, Churchill JD, Bates KE, Kleim JA, Greenough WT. A brain adaptation view of plasticity: is synaptic plasticity an overly limited concept? PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2002; 138:91-108. [PMID: 12432765 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6123(02)38073-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
A view that is emerging is that the brain has multiple forms of plasticity that must be governed, at least in part, by independent mechanisms. This view is illustrated by: (1) the apparent separate governance of some non-neural changes by activity, in contrast to synaptic changes driven by learning; (2) the apparent independence of different kinds of synaptic changes that occur in response to the learning aspects of training; (3) the occurrence of separate patterns of synaptic plasticity in the same system in response to different task demands; and (4) apparent dissociations between behaviorally induced synaptogenesis and LTP. The historical focus of research and theory in areas ranging from learning and memory to experiential modulation of brain development has been heavily upon synaptic plasticity since shortly after the discovery of the synapse. Based upon available data, it could be argued that: (1) synaptic, and even neuronal, plasticity is but a small fraction of the range of changes that occur in response to experience; and (2) we are just beginning to understand the importance of these other forms of brain plasticity. Appreciation of this aspect of the brain's adaptive process may allow us to better understand the capacity of the brain to tailor a particular set of changes to the demands of the specific experiences that generated them.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron W Grossman
- Beckman Institute, Neuroscience Program, Medical Scholars Program, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA.
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95
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Liu Y, Wu Y, Lee JC, Xue H, Pevny LH, Kaprielian Z, Rao MS. Oligodendrocyte and astrocyte development in rodents: an in situ and immunohistological analysis during embryonic development. Glia 2002; 40:25-43. [PMID: 12237841 DOI: 10.1002/glia.10111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Lineally related multipotent neuroepithelial cells (NEP), neuronal restricted precursors (NRP), and glial restricted precursors (GRP) have been identified in the spinal cord. To determine the sequence of differentiation and identify lineage and stage-specific markers, we have examined the spatiotemporal expression of established glial markers during rodent embryonic development and within fetal cell culture. In this report, we show that proliferating stem cells in the developing neural tube do not express any glial markers at E10.5. By E11, however, glial precursors have begun to differentiate and at least two regions of the ventral neural tube containing glial precursor cells can be distinguished, an Nkx2.2/Neurogenin 3 (Ngn3) domain and a platelet-derived growth factor receptor alpha (PDGFRalpha)/Olig2/Sox10 domain. Radial glia, as identified by RC1 immunoreactivity, develop in concert with other glial precursors and can be distinguished by their morphology, spatial distribution, and antigen expression. Astrocytes as assessed by glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) immunoreactivity are first detected at E16. A novel dorsal domain of CD44 immunoreactivity that can be distinguished from the more ventral glial precursor domains can be detected as early as E13.5.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Liu
- Laboratory of Neurosciences, National Institute on Aging, Baltimore, Maryland 21224, USA
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96
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Picard-Riera N, Decker L, Delarasse C, Goude K, Nait-Oumesmar B, Liblau R, Pham-Dinh D, Baron-Van Evercooren A. Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis mobilizes neural progenitors from the subventricular zone to undergo oligodendrogenesis in adult mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2002; 99:13211-6. [PMID: 12235363 PMCID: PMC130612 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.192314199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 359] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The destiny of the mitotically active cells of the subventricular zone (SVZ) in adult rodents is to migrate to the olfactory bulb, where they contribute to the replacement of granular and periglomerular neurons. However, these adult neural progenitors also can be mobilized in periventricular white matter and triggered to differentiate into astrocytes and oligodendrocytes in response to lysolecithin-induced demyelination. To mimic the environmental conditions of multiple sclerosis, we assessed the proliferation, migration, and differentiation potential of adult SVZ progenitor cells in response to experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) in mice. Inflammation and demyelination were observed in all mouse brains after EAE induction. EAE induced cell proliferation throughout the brain and especially within the lesions. Proliferating cells were neural progenitors, astrocytes, and oligodendrocyte precursors. EAE enhanced the migration of SVZ-derived neural progenitors to the olfactory bulb and triggered their mobilization in the periventricular white matter. The mobilized cells gave rise to neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes in the olfactory bulb but essentially to astrocytes and oligodendrocytes in the lesioned white matter. Our data indicate that the adult mouse SVZ is a source of newly generated oligodendrocytes and thus may contribute, along with oligodendrocyte precursors, to the replacement of oligodendrocytes in inflammatory demyelinating diseases of the central nervous system such as multiple sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathalie Picard-Riera
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U-546, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Pitié-Salpêtrière, 105 Boulevard de l'Hôpital, 75634 Cedex 13, France
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97
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Abstract
Multiple sclerosis is a common cause of neurological disability in young adults. The disease is complex -- its aetiology is multifactorial and largely unknown; its pathology is heterogeneous; and, clinically, it is difficult to diagnose, manage and treat. However, perhaps its most frustrating aspect is the inadequacy of the healing response of remyelination. This regenerative process generally occurs with great efficiency in experimental models, and sometimes proceeds to completion in multiple sclerosis. But as the disease progresses, the numbers of lesions in which demyelination persists increases, significantly contributing to clinical deterioration. Understanding why remyelination fails is crucial for devising effective methods by which to enhance it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin J M Franklin
- Department of Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Cambridge Centre for Brain Repair, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK.
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98
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Filipovic R, Rakic S, Zecevic N. Expression of Golli proteins in adult human brain and multiple sclerosis lesions. J Neuroimmunol 2002; 127:1-12. [PMID: 12044969 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-5728(02)00070-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
It has been suggested that Golli proteins, structurally related to myelin basic proteins (MBPs), have a role in autoimmune processes. We studied the expression of these proteins in multiple sclerosis (MS) and determined that the number of Golli-immunoreactive (ir) cells was significantly higher around lesions of chronic MS than in control white matter. Golli proteins were expressed in the adult oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs), activated microglia/macrophages, and some demyelinated axons around MS lesions. Their expression in adult OPCs indicates remyelination attempts, whereas the expression in the subpopulation of microglia/macrophages suggests roles in the immune processes of MS. In addition, Golli proteins may be markers of axonal transection, which is characteristic for MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Filipovic
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Connecticut Medical School, 263 Farmington Ave., Farmington, CT 06030-3401, USA
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99
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Abstract
A decade ago, therapeutic strategies to remyelinate the CNS in diseases such as multiple sclerosis had much experimental appeal, but translation of laboratory success into clinical treatments appeared to be a long way off. Within the past 12 months, however, the first patients with multiple sclerosis have received intracerebral implants of autologous myelinating cells. Here we review the clinical and biological problems presented by multiple sclerosis disease processes, and the background to the development of myelin-repair strategies. We attempt to highlight those areas where difficulties have yet to be resolved, and draw on various experimental findings to speculate on how remyelinating therapies are likely to develop in the foreseeable future.
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100
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Akassoglou K, Yu WM, Akpinar P, Strickland S. Fibrin inhibits peripheral nerve remyelination by regulating Schwann cell differentiation. Neuron 2002; 33:861-75. [PMID: 11906694 DOI: 10.1016/s0896-6273(02)00617-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Remyelination is a critical step for functional nerve regeneration. Here we show that fibrin deposition in the peripheral nervous system after injury is a key regulator of remyelination. After sciatic nerve crush, fibrin is deposited and its clearance correlates with remyelination. Fibrin induces phosphorylation of ERK1/2 and production of p75 NGF low-affinity receptor in Schwann cells and maintains them in a nonmyelinating state, suppresses fibronectin production, and prevents synthesis of myelin proteins. In mice depleted of fibrin(ogen), remyelination of myelinated axons is accelerated due to the faster transition of the Schwann cells to a myelinating state. Regulation of fibrin clearance and/or deposition could be a key regulatory mechanism for Schwann differentiation after nerve damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katerina Akassoglou
- Laboratory of Neurobiology and Genetics, The Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, NY 10021, USA
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