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Zimakoff AC, Jensen A, Vittrup DM, Herlufsen EH, Sørensen JK, Malon M, Svensson J, Stensballe LG. Measles, mumps, and rubella vaccine at age 6 months and hospitalisation for infection before age 12 months: randomised controlled trial. BMJ 2023; 381:e072724. [PMID: 37286215 DOI: 10.1136/bmj-2022-072724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To test for potential non-specific effects of an additional, early measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine at age 5-7 months on risk of infection related hospitalisation before age 12 months. DESIGN Randomised, double blinded, placebo controlled trial. SETTING Denmark, a high income setting with low exposure to MMR. PARTICIPANTS 6540 Danish infants aged 5 to 7 months. INTERVENTIONS Infants were randomly allocated 1:1 to intramuscular injection with standard titre MMR vaccine (M-M-R VaxPro) or placebo (solvent only). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Hospitalisations for infection, defined as all hospital contacts of infants referred from primary care for hospital evaluation and with an infection diagnosed, analysed as recurrent events, from randomisation to 12 months of age. In secondary analyses implications of censoring for date of subsequent diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis, polio, Haemophilus influenzae type B, and immunisation with pneumococci conjugate vaccine (DTaP-IPV-Hib+PCV), potential effect modification by sex, prematurity (<37 weeks' gestation), season, and age at randomisation were tested, and the secondary outcomes of hospitalisations ≥12 hours and antibiotic use were evaluated. RESULTS 6536 infants were included in the intention-to-treat analysis. 3264 infants randomised to MMR vaccine experienced 786 hospitalisations for infection before age 12 months compared with 762 for the 3272 infants randomised to placebo. In the intention-to-treat analysis the rate of hospitalisations for infection did not differ between the MMR vaccine and placebo groups (hazard ratio 1.03, 95% confidence interval 0.91 to 1.18). For infants randomised to MMR vaccine compared with those randomised to placebo, the hazard ratio of hospitalisations for infection with a duration of at least 12 hours was 1.25 (0.88 to 1.77), and for prescriptions of antibiotics was 1.04 (0.88 to 1.23). No significant effect modifications were found by sex, prematurity, age at randomisation, or season. The estimate did not change when censoring at the date infants received DTaP-IPV-Hib+PCV after randomisation (1.02, 0.90 to 1.16). CONCLUSION Findings of this trial conducted in Denmark, a high income setting, do not support the hypothesis that live attenuated MMR vaccine administered early to infants aged 5-7 months decreases the rate of hospitalisations for non-targeted infection before age 12 months. TRIAL REGISTRATION EU Clinical Trials Registry EudraCT 2016-001901-18 and ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03780179.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Cathrine Zimakoff
- Department of Paediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Danish National University Hospital "Rigshospitalet," Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Andreas Jensen
- Department of Paediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Danish National University Hospital "Rigshospitalet," Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Dorthe Maria Vittrup
- Child and Adolescent Department, University Hospital Herlev, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Jesper Kiehn Sørensen
- Department of Paediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Danish National University Hospital "Rigshospitalet," Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Michelle Malon
- Department of Paediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Danish National University Hospital "Rigshospitalet," Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Jannet Svensson
- Child and Adolescent Department, University Hospital Herlev, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Lone Graff Stensballe
- Department of Paediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Danish National University Hospital "Rigshospitalet," Copenhagen, Denmark
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Chang WH. A review of vaccine effects on women in light of the COVID-19 pandemic. Taiwan J Obstet Gynecol 2020; 59:812-820. [PMID: 33218394 PMCID: PMC7486065 DOI: 10.1016/j.tjog.2020.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The pandemic situation triggered by the spread of COVID-19 has caused great harm worldwide. More than six million people have been infected, and more than 360,000 of them have died. This is the worst catastrophe suffered by mankind in recent history. In the face of this severe disaster, people all over the world are frightened of the prospect of facing an outbreak or an annual recurrence. However, the development of a vaccine will help control the impact of COVID-19. Women in particular have been more seriously affected by the pandemic. Since the pressure and physical load they suffer are often greater than what men endure, women are more threatened by COVID-19. Though women have a poorer quality of life and work and face worse economic conditions, they also tend to have better physiological immunity than men, which can ease the effect of COVID-19. The early development of a vaccine against COVID-19 is an important issue that must take into consideration women's better immune response to the virus along with the technique of hormone regulation. Relevant research has been conducted on female-specific vaccines in the past, and women's issues were considered during those clinical trials to ensure that complications and antibody responses were positive and effective in women. National policies should also propose good strategies for women to be vaccinated. This could improve consciousness, give women a better vaccination experience, enhance their willingness to vaccinate, and protect them from COVID-19 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Han Chang
- Department of Medicine, Mackay Medical College, New Taipei, Taiwan; Department of Emergency Medicine, Mackay Memorial Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan; Mackay Medicine, Nursing and Management College, Taipei, Taiwan; Institute of Mechatronic Engineering, National Taipei University of Technology, Taipei, Taiwan; Graduate Institute of Injury Prevention and Control, College of Public Health and Nutrition, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan; Department of Emergency, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan.
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Otero CE, Langel SN, Blasi M, Permar SR. Maternal antibody interference contributes to reduced rotavirus vaccine efficacy in developing countries. PLoS Pathog 2020; 16:e1009010. [PMID: 33211756 PMCID: PMC7676686 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Rotavirus (RV) vaccine efficacy is significantly reduced in lower- and middle-income countries (LMICs) compared to high-income countries. This review summarizes current research into the mechanisms behind this phenomenon, with a particular focus on the evidence that maternal antibody (matAb) interference is a contributing factor to this disparity. All RV vaccines currently in use are orally administered, live-attenuated virus vaccines that replicate in the infant gut, which leaves their efficacy potentially impacted by both placentally transferred immunoglobulin G (IgG) and mucosal IgA Abs conferred via breast milk. Observational studies of cohorts in LMICs demonstrated an inverse correlation between matAb titers, both in serum and breast milk, and infant responses to RV vaccination. However, a causal link between maternal humoral immunity and reduced RV vaccine efficacy in infants has yet to be definitively established, partially due to limitations in current animal models of RV disease. The characteristics of Abs mediating interference and the mechanism(s) involved have yet to be determined, and these may differ from mechanisms of matAb interference for parenterally administered vaccines due to the contribution of mucosal immunity conferred via breast milk. Increased vaccine doses and later age of vaccine administration have been strategies applied to overcome matAb interference, but these approaches are difficult to safely implement in the setting of RV vaccination in LMICs. Ultimately, the development of relevant animal models of matAb interference is needed to determine what alternative approaches or vaccine designs can safely and effectively overcome matAb interference of infant RV vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire E. Otero
- Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
- Department of Pathology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Stephanie N. Langel
- Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
- Department of Pediatrics, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Maria Blasi
- Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
- Department of Medicine, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Sallie R. Permar
- Duke Human Vaccine Institute, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
- Department of Pathology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
- Department of Pediatrics, Duke University Medical Center, Durham, North Carolina, United States of America
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4
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Nakayama T. Causal relationship between immunological responses and adverse reactions following vaccination. Vaccine 2019; 37:366-371. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2018.11.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2018] [Revised: 09/19/2018] [Accepted: 09/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Marescot L, Benhaiem S, Gimenez O, Hofer H, Lebreton J, Olarte‐Castillo XA, Kramer‐Schadt S, East ML. Social status mediates the fitness costs of infection with canine distemper virus in Serengeti spotted hyenas. Funct Ecol 2018; 32:1237-1250. [PMID: 32313354 PMCID: PMC7163977 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2435.13059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2016] [Accepted: 01/26/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The extent to which the fitness costs of infection are mediated by key life-history traits such as age or social status is still unclear. Within populations, individual heterogeneity in the outcome of infection is the result of two successive processes; the degree of contact with the pathogen (exposure) and the immune response to infection. In social mammals, because individuals holding high social status typically interact more frequently with group members, they should be more often in contact with infected individuals than those of low social status. However, when access to resources is determined by social status, individuals with a high social status are often better nourished, have a greater opportunity to allocate resources to immune processes and therefore should have a smaller chance of succumbing to infection than individuals with low social status.We investigated the risk and fitness costs of infection during a virulent epidemic of canine distemper virus (CDV) in a social carnivore, the spotted hyena, in the Serengeti National Park. We analysed two decades of detailed life-history data from 625 females and 816 males using a multi-event capture-mark-recapture model that accounts for uncertainty in the assignment of individual infection states.Cubs of mothers with a high social status had a lower probability of CDV infection and were more likely to survive infection than those with low social status. Subadult and adult females with high social status had a higher infection probability than those with low social status. Subadult females and pre-breeder males that had recovered from CDV infection had a lower survival than susceptible ones.Our study disentangles the relative importance of individual exposure and resource allocation to immune processes, demonstrates fitness costs of infection for juveniles, particularly for those with low social status, shows that patterns of infection can be driven by different mechanisms among juveniles and adults and establishes a negative relationship between infection and fitness in a free-ranging mammal. A http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1365-2435.13059/suppinfo is available for this article.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucile Marescot
- Department of Ecological DynamicsLeibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife ResearchBerlinGermany
| | - Sarah Benhaiem
- Department of Ecological DynamicsLeibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife ResearchBerlinGermany
| | - Olivier Gimenez
- CEFEUMR 5175CNRSUniversité de MontpellierUniversité Paul‐Valéry MontpellierEPHEMontpellier Cedex 5France
| | - Heribert Hofer
- Department of Ecological DynamicsLeibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife ResearchBerlinGermany
- Department of Veterinary MedicineFreie Universität BerlinBerlinGermany
- Department of Biology, Chemistry, PharmacyFreie Universität BerlinBerlinGermany
| | - Jean‐Dominique Lebreton
- CEFEUMR 5175CNRSUniversité de MontpellierUniversité Paul‐Valéry MontpellierEPHEMontpellier Cedex 5France
| | | | - Stephanie Kramer‐Schadt
- Department of Ecological DynamicsLeibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife ResearchBerlinGermany
| | - Marion L. East
- Department of Ecological DynamicsLeibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife ResearchBerlinGermany
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6
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Julik E, Reyes-del Valle J. Beyond vaccine dosage, genetic modifications to the current measles vaccine to overcome maternal passive immunity. Future Virol 2018. [DOI: 10.2217/fvl-2018-0007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Pediatric measles infections still cause an unacceptable rate of childhood mortality. Despite the availability of an efficient preventative vaccine, measles virus can spread among the population of even developed countries. The availability of a reverse genetic system for measles, based on recombinant virus recovery from cDNA, allows application of the principles of intelligent vaccine design. Using this system, we recently demonstrated that a version of the current attenuated measles virus strain genetically modified to express higher levels of the viral hemagglutinin protein, the major target of neutralizing antibodies, is more immunogenic and resists passive immunity with a better immunogenicity profile in a mouse model than the current measles vaccine. The significance and practicality of this development are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily Julik
- Institute for Molecular Virology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Jorge Reyes-del Valle
- Process Development Group, Virus & Gene Therapy, Merck KGaA, Carlsbad, CA 92009, USA
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7
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Abstract
Measles remains an important cause of child morbidity and mortality worldwide despite the availability of a safe and efficacious vaccine. The current measles virus (MeV) vaccine was developed empirically by attenuation of wild-type (WT) MeV by in vitro passage in human and chicken cells and licensed in 1963. Additional passages led to further attenuation and the successful vaccine strains in widespread use today. Attenuation is associated with decreased replication in lymphoid tissue, but the molecular basis for this restriction has not been identified. The immune response is age dependent, inhibited by maternal antibody (Ab) and involves induction of both Ab and T cell responses that resemble the responses to WT MeV infection, but are lower in magnitude. Protective immunity is correlated with levels of neutralizing Ab, but the actual immunologic determinants of protection are not known. Because measles is highly transmissible, control requires high levels of population immunity. Delivery of the two doses of vaccine needed to achieve >90% immunity is accomplished by routine immunization of infants at 9-15 months of age followed by a second dose delivered before school entry or by periodic mass vaccination campaigns. Because delivery by injection creates hurdles to sustained high coverage, there are efforts to deliver MeV vaccine by inhalation. In addition, the safety record for the vaccine combined with advances in reverse genetics for negative strand viruses has expanded proposed uses for recombinant versions of measles vaccine as vectors for immunization against other infections and as oncolytic agents for a variety of tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diane E Griffin
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health , Baltimore, Maryland
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8
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Edwards K, Creech C. Vaccine Development in Special Populations. HUMAN VACCINES 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-802302-0.00007-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Generation of a More Immunogenic Measles Vaccine by Increasing Its Hemagglutinin Expression. J Virol 2016; 90:5270-5279. [PMID: 26984727 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00348-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2016] [Accepted: 03/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Imported measles virus (MV) outbreaks are maintained by poor vaccine responders and unvaccinated people. A convenient but more immunogenic vaccination strategy would enhance vaccine performance, contributing to measles eradication efforts. We report here the generation of alternative pediatric vaccines against MV with increased expression of the H protein in the background of the current MV vaccine strain. We generated two recombinants: MVvac2-H2, with increased full-length H expression resulting in a 3-fold increase in H incorporation into virions, and MVvac2-Hsol, vectoring a truncated, soluble form of the H protein that is secreted into the supernatants of infected cells. Replication fitness was conserved despite the duplication of the H cistron for both vectors. The modification to the envelope of MVvac2-H2 conferred upon this virus a measurable level of resistance to in vitro neutralization by MV polyclonal immune sera without altering its thermostability. Most interestingly, both recombinant MVs with enhanced H expression were significantly more immunogenic than their parental strain in outbred mice, while MVvac2-H2 additionally proved more immunogenic after a single, human-range dose in genetically modified MV-susceptible mice. IMPORTANCE Measles incidence was reduced drastically following the introduction of attenuated vaccines, but progress toward the eradication of this virus has stalled, and MV still threatens unvaccinated populations. Due to the contributions of primary vaccine failures and too-young-to-be-vaccinated infants to this problem, more immunogenic measles vaccines are highly desirable. We generated two experimental MV vaccines based on a current vaccine's genome but with enriched production of the H protein, the main MV antigen in provoking immunity. One vaccine incorporated H at higher rates in the viral envelope, and the other secreted a soluble H protein from infected cells. The increased expression of H by these vectors improved neutralizing responses induced in two small-animal models of MV immunogenicity. The enhanced immunogenicity of these vectors, mainly from the MV that incorporates additional H, suggests their value as potential alternative pediatric MV vaccines.
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10
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Edwards KM. Maternal antibodies and infant immune responses to vaccines. Vaccine 2015; 33:6469-72. [PMID: 26256526 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2015.07.085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2015] [Revised: 07/15/2015] [Accepted: 07/17/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Infants are born with immature immune systems, making it difficult for them to effectively respond to the infectious pathogens encountered shortly after birth. Maternal antibody is actively transported across the placenta and serves to provide protection to the newborn during the first weeks to months of life. However, maternal antibody has been shown repeatedly to inhibit the immune responses of young children to vaccines. The mechanisms for this inhibition are presented and the impact on ultimate immune responses is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn M Edwards
- Sarah H. Sell and Cornelius Vanderbilt Chair in Pediatrics, Vanderbilt Vaccine Research Program, Department of Pediatrics, Vanderbilt University, 21st Avenue South, S 2323 MCN, Nashville, TN 37232, United States.
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11
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Niewiesk S. Maternal antibodies: clinical significance, mechanism of interference with immune responses, and possible vaccination strategies. Front Immunol 2014; 5:446. [PMID: 25278941 PMCID: PMC4165321 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2014.00446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 317] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2014] [Accepted: 09/01/2014] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Neonates have an immature immune system, which cannot adequately protect against infectious diseases. Early in life, immune protection is accomplished by maternal antibodies transferred from mother to offspring. However, decaying maternal antibodies inhibit vaccination as is exemplified by the inhibition of seroconversion after measles vaccination. This phenomenon has been described in both human and veterinary medicine and is independent of the type of vaccine being used. This review will discuss the use of animal models for vaccine research. I will review clinical solutions for inhibition of vaccination by maternal antibodies, and the testing and development of potentially effective vaccines. These are based on new mechanistic insight about the inhibitory mechanism of maternal antibodies. Maternal antibodies inhibit the generation of antibodies whereas the T cell response is usually unaffected. B cell inhibition is mediated through a cross-link between B cell receptor (BCR) with the Fcγ-receptor IIB by a vaccine-antibody complex. In animal experiments, this inhibition can be partially overcome by injection of a vaccine-specific monoclonal IgM antibody. IgM stimulates the B cell directly through cross-linking the BCR via complement protein C3d and antigen to the complement receptor 2 (CR2) signaling complex. In addition, it was shown that interferon alpha binds to the CD21 chain of CR2 as well as the interferon receptor and that this dual receptor usage drives B cell responses in the presence of maternal antibodies. In lieu of immunizing the infant, the concept of maternal immunization as a strategy to protect neonates has been proposed. This approach would still not solve the question of how to immunize in the presence of maternal antibodies but would defer the time of infection to an age where infection might not have such a detrimental outcome as in neonates. I will review successful examples and potential challenges of implementing this concept.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Niewiesk
- Department of Veterinary Biosciences, The Ohio State University , Columbus, OH , USA
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Garenne M. Demographic evidence of sex differences in vulnerability to infectious diseases. J Infect Dis 2014; 211:331-2. [PMID: 25114159 PMCID: PMC4279781 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiu448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Michel Garenne
- Unité d'Epidémiologie des Maladies Emergentes, Institut Pasteur UMI Résiliences, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, Paris, France Medical Research Council/Wits Rural Public Health and Health Transitions Research Unit (Agincourt), School of Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
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Kim D, Niewiesk S. Sidestepping maternal antibody: a lesson from measles virus vaccination. Expert Rev Clin Immunol 2014; 7:557-9. [DOI: 10.1586/eci.11.48] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Poor immune responses of newborn rhesus macaques to measles virus DNA vaccines expressing the hemagglutinin and fusion glycoproteins. CLINICAL AND VACCINE IMMUNOLOGY : CVI 2012; 20:205-10. [PMID: 23239799 DOI: 10.1128/cvi.00394-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
A vaccine that would protect young infants against measles could facilitate elimination efforts and decrease morbidity and mortality in developing countries. However, immaturity of the immune system is an important obstacle to the development of such a vaccine. In this study, DNA vaccines expressing the measles virus (MeV) hemagglutinin (H) protein or H and fusion (F) proteins, previously shown to protect juvenile macaques, were used to immunize groups of 4 newborn rhesus macaques. Monkeys were inoculated intradermally with 200 μg of each DNA at birth and at 10 months of age. As controls, 2 newborn macaques were similarly vaccinated with DNA encoding the influenza virus H5, and 4 received one dose of the current live attenuated MeV vaccine (LAV) intramuscularly. All monkeys were monitored for development of MeV-specific neutralizing and binding IgG antibody and cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) responses. These responses were poor compared to the responses induced by LAV. At 18 months of age, all monkeys were challenged intratracheally with a wild-type strain of MeV. Monkeys that received the DNA vaccine encoding H and F, but not H alone, were primed for an MeV-specific CD8(+) CTL response but not for production of antibody. LAV-vaccinated monkeys were protected from rash and viremia, while DNA-vaccinated monkeys developed rashes, similar to control monkeys, but had 10-fold lower levels of viremia. We conclude that vaccination of infant macaques with DNA encoding MeV H and F provided only partial protection from MeV infection.
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Abstract
Measles is a highly contagious disease caused by measles virus and is one of the most devastating infectious diseases of man--measles was responsible for millions of deaths annually worldwide before the introduction of the measles vaccines. Remarkable progress in reducing the number of people dying from measles has been made through measles vaccination, with an estimated 164,000 deaths attributed to measles in 2008. This achievement attests to the enormous importance of measles vaccination to public health. However, this progress is threatened by failure to maintain high levels of measles vaccine coverage. Recent measles outbreaks in sub-Saharan Africa, Europe, and the USA show the ease with which measles virus can re-enter communities if high levels of population immunity are not sustained. The major challenges for continued measles control and eventual eradication will be logistical, financial, and the garnering of sufficient political will. These challenges need to be met to ensure that future generations of children do not die of measles.
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Affiliation(s)
- William J Moss
- Department of Epidemiology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA.
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Karp CL, Mahanty S. Approach to the Patient with HIV and Coinfecting Tropical Infectious Diseases. TROPICAL INFECTIOUS DISEASES: PRINCIPLES, PATHOGENS AND PRACTICE 2011. [PMCID: PMC7150329 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-7020-3935-5.00139-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Pan CH, Greer CE, Hauer D, Legg HS, Lee EY, Bergen MJ, Lau B, Adams RJ, Polo JM, Griffin DE. A chimeric alphavirus replicon particle vaccine expressing the hemagglutinin and fusion proteins protects juvenile and infant rhesus macaques from measles. J Virol 2010; 84:3798-807. [PMID: 20130066 PMCID: PMC2849488 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01566-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2009] [Accepted: 12/21/2009] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Measles remains a major cause of child mortality, in part due to an inability to vaccinate young infants with the current live attenuated virus vaccine (LAV). To explore new approaches to infant vaccination, chimeric Venezuelan equine encephalitis/Sindbis virus (VEE/SIN) replicon particles were used to express the hemagglutinin (H) and fusion (F) proteins of measles virus (MV). Juvenile rhesus macaques vaccinated intradermally with a single dose of VEE/SIN expressing H or H and F proteins (VEE/SIN-H or VEE/SIN-H+F, respectively) developed high titers of MV-specific neutralizing antibody and gamma-interferon (IFN-gamma)-producing T cells. Infant macaques vaccinated with two doses of VEE/SIN-H+F also developed neutralizing antibody and IFN-gamma-producing T cells. Control animals were vaccinated with LAV or with a formalin-inactivated measles vaccine (FIMV). Neutralizing antibody remained above the protective level for more than 1 year after vaccination with VEE/SIN-H, VEE/SIN-H+F, or LAV. When challenged with wild-type MV 12 to 17 months after vaccination, all vaccinated juvenile and infant monkeys vaccinated with VEE/SIN-H, VEE/SIN-H+F, and LAV were protected from rash and viremia, while FIMV-vaccinated monkeys were not. Antibody was boosted by challenge in all groups. T-cell responses to challenge were biphasic, with peaks at 7 to 25 days and at 90 to 110 days in all groups, except for the LAV group. Recrudescent T-cell activity coincided with the presence of MV RNA in peripheral blood mononuclear cells. We conclude that VEE/SIN expressing H or H and F induces durable immune responses that protect from measles and offers a promising new approach for measles vaccination. The viral and immunological factors associated with long-term control of MV replication require further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chien-Hsiung Pan
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21218, Novartis Vaccines and Diagnostics, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
| | - Catherine E. Greer
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21218, Novartis Vaccines and Diagnostics, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
| | - Debra Hauer
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21218, Novartis Vaccines and Diagnostics, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
| | - Harold S. Legg
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21218, Novartis Vaccines and Diagnostics, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
| | - Eun-Young Lee
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21218, Novartis Vaccines and Diagnostics, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
| | - M. Jeff Bergen
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21218, Novartis Vaccines and Diagnostics, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
| | - Brandyn Lau
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21218, Novartis Vaccines and Diagnostics, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
| | - Robert J. Adams
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21218, Novartis Vaccines and Diagnostics, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
| | - John M. Polo
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21218, Novartis Vaccines and Diagnostics, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
| | - Diane E. Griffin
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, Department of Molecular and Comparative Pathobiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21218, Novartis Vaccines and Diagnostics, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139
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de Vries RD, Stittelaar KJ, Osterhaus ADME, de Swart RL. Measles vaccination: new strategies and formulations. Expert Rev Vaccines 2008; 7:1215-23. [PMID: 18844595 DOI: 10.1586/14760584.7.8.1215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Measles is a highly contagious viral disease. With 1 million deaths reported in 1996, measles was the leading cause of vaccine-preventable deaths. However, in recent years, significant progress has been made in measles control, reducing deaths attributed to measles to 454,000 in 2004 and 242,000 in 2006. The main strategy behind this reduction has been the improvement of vaccination coverage and implementation of a second opportunity for immunization with the live-attenuated measles vaccine. The Measles Initiative, a partnership between the American Red Cross, CDC, UNICEF, WHO and UN Foundation, has had a significant role in this achievement. Here, we provide an overview of old and new vaccination strategies, and discuss changes in the route of administration of the existing live-attenuated vaccine, the development of new-generation nonreplicating measles virus vaccine candidates and attempts to use recombinant measles virus as a vector for vaccination against other pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rory D de Vries
- Department of Virology, Erasmus MC, PO Box 2040, 3000 CA, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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Abstract
Isolation of measles virus in tissue culture by Enders and colleagues in the 1960s led to the development of the first measles vaccines. An inactivated vaccine provided only short-term protection and induced poor T cell responses and antibody that did not undergo affinity maturation. The response to this vaccine primed for atypical measles, a more severe form of measles, and was withdrawn. A live attenuated virus vaccine has been highly successful in protection from measles and in elimination of endemic measles virus transmission with the use of two doses. This vaccine is administered by injection between 9 and 15 months of age. Measles control would be facilitated if infants could be immunized at a younger age, if the vaccine were thermostable, and if delivery did not require a needle and syringe. To these ends, new vaccines are under development using macaques as an animal model and various combinations of the H, F, and N viral proteins. Promising studies have been reported using DNA vaccines, subunit vaccines, and virus-vectored vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- D E Griffin
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, 615 N. Wolfe St. Rm E5132 Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.
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21
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Pan CH, Jimenez GS, Nair N, Wei Q, Adams RJ, Polack FP, Rolland A, Vilalta A, Griffin DE. Use of Vaxfectin adjuvant with DNA vaccine encoding the measles virus hemagglutinin and fusion proteins protects juvenile and infant rhesus macaques against measles virus. CLINICAL AND VACCINE IMMUNOLOGY : CVI 2008; 15:1214-21. [PMID: 18524884 PMCID: PMC2519314 DOI: 10.1128/cvi.00120-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2008] [Revised: 05/06/2008] [Accepted: 05/21/2008] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
A measles virus vaccine for infants under 6 months of age would help control measles. DNA vaccines hold promise, but none has provided full protection from challenge. Codon-optimized plasmid DNAs encoding the measles virus hemagglutinin and fusion glycoproteins were formulated with the cationic lipid-based adjuvant Vaxfectin. In mice, antibody and gamma interferon (IFN-gamma) production were increased by two- to threefold. In macaques, juveniles vaccinated at 0 and 28 days with 500 microg of DNA intradermally or with 1 mg intramuscularly developed sustained neutralizing antibody and H- and F-specific IFN-gamma responses. Infant monkeys developed sustained neutralizing antibody and T cells secreting IFN-gamma and interleukin-4. Twelve to 15 months after vaccination, vaccinated monkeys were protected from an intratracheal challenge: viremia was undetectable by cocultivation and rashes did not appear, while two naïve monkeys developed viremia and rashes. The use of Vaxfectin-formulated DNA is a promising approach to the development of a measles vaccine for young infants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chien-Hsiung Pan
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, 615 N. Wolfe St., Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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22
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Klein MI, Bergel E, Gibbons L, Coviello S, Bauer G, Benitez A, Serra ME, Delgado MF, Melendi GA, Rodríguez S, Kleeberger SR, Polack FP. Differential gender response to respiratory infections and to the protective effect of breast milk in preterm infants. Pediatrics 2008; 121:e1510-6. [PMID: 18519454 PMCID: PMC2631928 DOI: 10.1542/peds.2007-1757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The protective role of breastfeeding against severe acute lung disease in infants is well established, but its mechanism is unclear. Most hypotheses assume that breastfeeding confers similar passive protection to every infant; however, a few observations have suggested that the benefits of breast milk against severe lung disease may differ according to gender. The objective of this study was to determine whether the effect of breastfeeding on susceptibility to severe acute lung disease among infants at high risk is different for girls and boys. METHODS A cohort was analyzed prospectively by use of 2 different strategies: (1) predictors of first episode of rehospitalization by univariate and multivariate analyses using robust Poisson regression and (2) mean number of rehospitalizations between groups using multiple regression negative binomial models. RESULTS A total of 119 high-risk, very low birth weight infants were enrolled. Breast milk protected girls but not boys against severe acute lung disease. The interaction between breastfeeding and gender was clinically and statistically significant, even after adjustment for variables that can affect severity of acute lung disease. Disease was most severe in formula-fed girls (versus formula-fed boys). CONCLUSIONS Breastfeeding decreased the risk for severe acute lung disease in girls but not in boys. These findings suggest that breast milk protection is not universally conferred by passive transfer of humoral immunity (which should be gender indifferent), show that respiratory symptoms may be amenable to nonspecific modulation, and identify nonbreastfed preterm infant girls as an at-risk group for severe acute lung disease.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Eduardo Bergel
- Instituto de Efectividad Clinica y Sanitaria, Buenos Aires, Argentina, United Nations Development Programme/United Nations Population Fund/World Health Organization/World Bank Special Programme of Research, Development and Research Training in Human Reproduction, Department of Reproductive Health and Research, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Luz Gibbons
- Instituto de Efectividad Clinica y Sanitaria, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | | | - Gabriela Bauer
- High Risk Clinics, Hospital de Pediatria Juan P. Garrahan, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Alicia Benitez
- High Risk Clinics, Maternidad Sarda, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | | | | | - Guillermina A. Melendi
- Fundacion INFANT, Buenos Aires, Argentina, Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Susana Rodríguez
- High Risk Clinics, Hospital de Pediatria Juan P. Garrahan, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Steven R. Kleeberger
- National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, National Institutes of Health, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina
| | - Fernando P. Polack
- Fundacion INFANT, Buenos Aires, Argentina, Department of Pediatrics, School of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, Departments of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, International Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland
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Dose-dependent protection against or exacerbation of disease by a polylactide glycolide microparticle-adsorbed, alphavirus-based measles virus DNA vaccine in rhesus macaques. CLINICAL AND VACCINE IMMUNOLOGY : CVI 2008; 15:697-706. [PMID: 18287579 DOI: 10.1128/cvi.00045-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Measles remains an important cause of vaccine-preventable child mortality. Development of a low-cost, heat-stable vaccine for infants under the age of 6 months could improve measles control by facilitating delivery at the time of other vaccines and by closing a window of susceptibility prior to immunization at 9 months of age. DNA vaccines hold promise for development, but achieving protective levels of antibody has been difficult and there is an incomplete understanding of protective immunity. In the current study, we evaluated the use of a layered alphavirus DNA/RNA vector encoding measles virus H (SINCP-H) adsorbed onto polylactide glycolide (PLG) microparticles. In mice, antibody and T-cell responses to PLG-formulated DNA were substantially improved compared to those to naked DNA. Rhesus macaques received two doses of PLG/SINCP-H delivered either intramuscularly (0.5 mg) or intradermally (0.5 or 0.1 mg). Antibody and T-cell responses were induced but not sustained. On challenge, the intramuscularly vaccinated monkeys did not develop rashes and had lower viremias than vector-treated control monkeys. Monkeys vaccinated with the same dose intradermally developed rashes and viremia. Monkeys vaccinated intradermally with the low dose developed more severe rashes, with histopathologic evidence of syncytia and intense dermal and epidermal inflammation, eosinophilia, and higher viremia compared to vector-treated control monkeys. Protection after challenge correlated with gamma interferon-producing T cells and with early production of high-avidity antibody that bound wild-type H protein. We conclude that PLG/SINCP-H is most efficacious when delivered intramuscularly but does not provide an advantage over standard DNA vaccines for protection against measles.
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Measles vaccine. Vaccines (Basel) 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-1-4160-3611-1.50022-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] Open
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HIV-infected children living in Central Africa have low persistence of antibodies to vaccines used in the Expanded Program on Immunization. PLoS One 2007; 2:e1260. [PMID: 18060056 PMCID: PMC2093997 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0001260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2007] [Accepted: 10/27/2007] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The Expanded Program on Immunization (EPI) is the most cost-effective measures to control vaccine-preventable diseases. Currently, the EPI schedule is similar for HIV-infected children; the introduction of antiretroviral therapy (ART) should considerably prolong their life expectancy. Methods and Principal Findings To evaluate the persistence of antibodies to the EPI vaccines in HIV-infected and HIV-exposed uninfected children who previously received these vaccines in routine clinical practice, we conducted a cross-sectional study of children, aged 18 to 36 months, born to HIV-infected mothers and living in Central Africa. We tested blood samples for antibodies to the combined diphtheria, tetanus, and whole-cell pertussis (DTwP), the measles and the oral polio (OPV) vaccines. We enrolled 51 HIV-infected children of whom 33 were receiving ART, and 78 HIV-uninfected children born to HIV-infected women. A lower proportion of HIV-infected children than uninfected children had antibodies to the tested antigens with the exception of the OPV types 1 and 2. This difference was substantial for the measles vaccine (20% of the HIV-infected children and 56% of the HIV-exposed uninfected children, p<0.0001). We observed a high risk of low antibody levels for all EPI vaccines, except OPV types 1 and 2, in HIV-infected children with severe immunodeficiency (CD4+ T cells <25%). Conclusions and Significance Children were examined at a time when their antibody concentrations to EPI vaccines would have still not undergone significant decay. However, we showed that the antibody concentrations were lowered in HIV-infected children. Moreover, antibody concentration after a single dose of the measles vaccine was substantially lower than expected, particularly low in HIV-infected children with low CD4+ T cell counts. This study supports the need for a second dose of the measles vaccine and for a booster dose of the DTwP and OPV vaccines to maintain the antibody concentrations in HIV-infected and HIV-exposed uninfected children.
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Deen JL, Clemens JD. Issues in the design and implementation of vaccine trials in less developed countries. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2006; 5:932-40. [PMID: 17080029 DOI: 10.1038/nrd2159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
There is a growing need for vaccine trials in developing countries. This need arises from the fact that some vaccines do not perform as well in developing as in industrialized country populations and because some newly developed candidates target diseases found only in less-developed countries. Here we discuss several key issues in the design and implementation of vaccine trials in less-developed countries. These include the phasing of vaccine trials on safety, immunogenicity and efficacy to achieve licensure; the recent use of trials to obtain other information crucial to the ultimate deployment of vaccines (such as immunological correlates of protection, indirect vaccine effects, and practical information on the feasibility, costs and acceptability of vaccine introduction); and several ethical issues that have arisen in connection with trials done in developing countries.
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Oh S, Stegman B, Pendleton CD, Ota MO, Pan CH, Griffin DE, Burke DS, Berzofsky JA. Protective immunity provided by HLA-A2 epitopes for fusion and hemagglutinin proteins of measles virus. Virology 2006; 352:390-9. [PMID: 16781760 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2006.04.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2006] [Revised: 03/23/2006] [Accepted: 04/28/2006] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Natural infection and vaccination with a live-attenuated measles virus (MV) induce CD8(+) T-cell-mediated immune responses that may play a central role in controlling MV infection. In this study, we show that newly identified human HLA-A2 epitopes from MV hemagglutinin (H) and fusion (F) proteins induced protective immunity in HLA-A2 transgenic mice challenged with recombinant vaccinia viruses expressing F or H protein. HLA-A2 epitopes were predicted and synthesized. Five and four peptides from H and F, respectively, bound to HLA-A2 molecules in a T2-binding assay, and four from H and two from F could induce peptide-specific CD8+ T cell responses in HLA-A2 transgenic mice. Further experiments proved that three peptides from H (H9-567, H10-250, and H10-516) and one from F protein (F9-57) were endogenously processed and presented on HLA-A2 molecules. All peptides tested in this study are common to 5 different strains of MV including Edmonston. In both A2K(b) and HHD-2 mice, the identified peptide epitopes induced protective immunity against recombinant vaccinia viruses expressing H or F. Because F and H proteins induce neutralizing antibodies, they are major components of new vaccine strategies, and therefore data from this study will contribute to the development of new vaccines against MV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- SangKon Oh
- Vaccine Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bldg. 10-Rm 6B-09, NIH, Bethesda, MD 20892-1578, USA.
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Elguero E, Simondon KB, Vaugelade J, Marra A, Simondon F. Non-specific effects of vaccination on child survival? A prospective study in Senegal. Trop Med Int Health 2005; 10:956-60. [PMID: 16185229 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2005.01479.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Several studies have shown an association between vaccination and child mortality in developing countries. The present paper examines this issue using data from a Senegalese rural area which has been monitored from 1983 to the present. METHODS We analysed two birth cohorts, comprising 7796 and 3573 persons who had received either BCG and DTP (diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis) simultaneously or neither of these vaccines, and who had been followed from birth to 2 years of age. The association between vaccinations and mortality was assessed by Cox proportional hazards model. RESULTS Mortality ratios for recipients of the BCG/DTP combination were 0.59 (95% CI: 0.46-0.74) for the first cohort and 0.70 (0.50-0.97) for the second cohort. Mortality ratios for measles vaccine recipients were 0.98 (0.75-1.27) for the first cohort and 0.87 (0.57-1.30) for the second cohort. CONCLUSIONS The BCG/DTP combination was associated with a reduction in mortality whereas measles vaccination was not associated with mortality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Elguero
- Epidémiologie et Prévention, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, Montpellier, France.
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30
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Pan CH, Valsamakis A, Colella T, Nair N, Adams RJ, Polack FP, Greer CE, Perri S, Polo JM, Griffin DE. Modulation of disease, T cell responses, and measles virus clearance in monkeys vaccinated with H-encoding alphavirus replicon particles. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005; 102:11581-8. [PMID: 16037211 PMCID: PMC1187989 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0504592102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Measles remains a major worldwide problem partly because of difficulties with vaccination of young infants. New vaccine strategies need to be safe and to provide sustained protective immunity. We have developed Sindbis virus replicon particles that express the measles virus (MV) hemagglutinin (SIN-H) or fusion (SIN-F) proteins. In mice, SIN-H induced high-titered, dose-dependent, MV-neutralizing antibody after a single vaccination. SIN-F, or SIN-H and SIN-F combined, induced somewhat lower responses. To assess protective efficacy, juvenile macaques were vaccinated with a single dose of 10(6) or 10(8) SIN-H particles and infant macaques with two doses of 10(8) particles. A dose of 10(8) particles induced sustained levels of high-titered, MV-neutralizing antibody and IFN-gamma-producing memory T cells, and most monkeys were protected from rash when challenged with wild-type MV 18 months later. After challenge, there was a biphasic appearance of H- and F-specific IFN-gamma-secreting CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in vaccinated monkeys, with peaks approximately 1 and 3-4 months after challenge. Viremia was cleared within 14 days, but MV RNA was detectable for 4-5 months. These studies suggest that complete clearance of MV after infection is a prolonged, phased, and complex process influenced by prior vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chien-Hsiung Pan
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, The Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
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Abstract
This review summarizes the general parameters of cell- and antibody-mediated immune protection and the basic mechanisms responsible for what we call immunological memory. From this basis, the various successes and difficulties of vaccines are evaluated with respect to the role of antigen in maintaining protective immunity. Based on the fact that in humans during the first 12-48 months maternal antibodies from milk and serum protect against classical acute childhood and other infections, the concept is developed that maternal antibodies attenuate most infections of babies and infants and turn them into effective vaccines. If this "natural vaccination" under passive protective conditions does not occur, acute childhood diseases may be severe, unless infants are actively vaccinated with conventional vaccines early enough, i.e., in synchronization with the immune system's maturation. Although vaccines are available against the classical childhood diseases, they are not available for many seemingly milder childhood infections such as gastrointestinal and respiratory infections; these may eventually trigger immunopathological diseases. These changing balances between humans and infections caused by changes in nursing habits but also in hygiene levels may well be involved in changing disease patterns including increased frequencies of certain autoimmune and degenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rolf M Zinkernagel
- Institute for Experimental Immunology, University Hospital, Zurich CH-8091, Switzerland.
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Differences in female-male mortality after high-titre measles vaccine and association with subsequent vaccination with diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis and inactivated poliovirus: reanalysis of West African studies. Lancet 2003; 361:2183-8. [PMID: 12842371 DOI: 10.1016/s0140-6736(03)13771-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 162] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Females given high-titre measles vaccine (HTMV) have high mortality; diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis (DTP) vaccination might be associated with increased female mortality. We aimed to assess whether DTP or inactivated poliovirus (IPV) administered after HTMV was associated with increased female-male mortality ratio. METHODS In three trials from West Africa, 2000 children were randomised to HTMV or control vaccine at 4-5 months of age; a second vaccination was given at age 9-10 months (standard measles vaccine). Children in high-titre groups were given IPV or DTP-IPV. Another 944 children received HTMV as routine vaccination in Senegal. FINDINGS When we compared high-titre and control groups, no difference in mortality between the first and the second vaccination was noted. After the second vaccination, the female-male mortality ratio was 1.84 (95% CI 1.19-2.84) in children in the high-titre groups who received DTP-IPV or IPV, and 0.59 (0.34-1.04) in controls who received standard measles vaccine (p=0.007). Children who received HTMV but no additional DTP-IPV or IPV had a female-male mortality ratio of 0.83 (0.41-1.67). This ratio was 2.22 (1.04-4.71) for children who received DTP-IPV after routine HTMV and 1.00 (0.68-1.47) for those who did not. When we combined the results from all trials, the female-male mortality ratio was 1.93 (1.33-2.81) for those who received DTP or IPV after HTMV, and 0.96 (0.69-1.34) for those who did not (p=0.006). INTERPRETATION A change in sequence of vaccinations, rather than HTMV itself, may have been the cause of increased female mortality in these trials.
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Pasetti MF, Barry EM, Losonsky G, Singh M, Medina-Moreno SM, Polo JM, Ulmer J, Robinson H, Sztein MB, Levine MM. Attenuated Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi and Shigella flexneri 2a strains mucosally deliver DNA vaccines encoding measles virus hemagglutinin, inducing specific immune responses and protection in cotton rats. J Virol 2003; 77:5209-17. [PMID: 12692223 PMCID: PMC153971 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.77.9.5209-5217.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Measles remains a leading cause of child mortality in developing countries. Residual maternal measles antibodies and immunologic immaturity dampen immunogenicity of the current vaccine in young infants. Because cotton rat respiratory tract is susceptible to measles virus (MV) replication after intranasal (i.n.) challenge, this model can be used to assess the efficacy of MV vaccines. Pursuing a new measles vaccine strategy that might be effective in young infants, we used attenuated Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi CVD 908-htrA and Shigella flexneri 2a CVD 1208 vaccines to deliver mucosally to cotton rats eukaryotic expression plasmid pGA3-mH and Sindbis virus-based DNA replicon pMSIN-H encoding MV hemagglutinin (H). The initial i.n. dose-response with bacterial vectors alone identified a well-tolerated dosage (1 x 10(9) to 7 x 10(9) CFU) and a volume (20 micro l) that elicited strong antivector immune responses. Animals immunized i.n. on days 0, 28, and 76 with bacterial vectors carrying DNA plasmids encoding MV H or immunized parenterally with these naked DNA vaccine plasmids developed MV plaque reduction neutralizing antibodies and proliferative responses against MV antigens. In a subsequent experiment of identical design, cotton rats were challenged with wild-type MV 1 month after the third dose of vaccine or placebo. MV titers were significantly reduced in lung tissue of animals immunized with MV DNA vaccines delivered either via bacterial live vectors or parenterally. Since attenuated serovar Typhi and S. flexneri can deliver measles DNA vaccines mucosally in cotton rats, inducing measles immune responses (including neutralizing antibodies) and protection, boosting strategies can now be evaluated in animals primed with MV DNA vaccines.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antibodies, Viral/blood
- Antigens, Viral/genetics
- Antigens, Viral/immunology
- Disease Models, Animal
- Genetic Vectors
- Hemagglutinins, Viral/genetics
- Hemagglutinins, Viral/immunology
- Immunity, Mucosal
- Measles/immunology
- Measles/prevention & control
- Measles Vaccine/administration & dosage
- Measles Vaccine/genetics
- Measles Vaccine/immunology
- Neutralization Tests
- Salmonella typhi/genetics
- Salmonella typhi/immunology
- Shigella flexneri/genetics
- Shigella flexneri/immunology
- Sigmodontinae
- Vaccines, Attenuated/administration & dosage
- Vaccines, Attenuated/immunology
- Vaccines, DNA/administration & dosage
- Vaccines, DNA/immunology
- Viral Plaque Assay
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcela F Pasetti
- Center for Vaccine Development, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore 21201, USA
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Hilleman MR. Overview of the needs and realities for developing new and improved vaccines in the 21st century. Intervirology 2003; 45:199-211. [PMID: 12566702 DOI: 10.1159/000067911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The science of present day vaccinology is based on the pioneering discoveries of the late 18th and late 19th centuries and the technologic breakthroughs of the past 60 years. The driving force for the development of new vaccines resides in technologic feasibility, public need and economic incentive for translating the basic knowledge into a product. Past efforts by government to define which particular vaccines to develop were mostly irrelevant to the realistic choices which were made. There is a vast array of viral, bacterial, parasitic and fungal disease agents against which preventative vaccines may be developed, and to this may be added cancer and certain amyloidoses such as Alzheimer's and 'mad cow' diseases. The proven past for vaccines has relied on live, killed, protein and polysaccharide antigens plus the single example of recombinant-expressed hepatitis B vaccine. The validity of redirection of vaccinology to exploration of simplified vaccines such as recombinant vectored and DNA preparations and reductionist vaccines based on peptides of contrived epitope composition remains to be proved. Reductionism imposes vastly increased complexity and difficulty on vaccine development and might not be capable of achievement. The challenge in the 21st century will involve new and uncertain pathways toward worthwhile accomplishments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maurice R Hilleman
- Merck Institute for Vaccinology, Merck & Co., Inc., West Point, Pa 19486, USA.
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Moss WJ, Polack FP. Immune responses to measles and measles vaccine: challenges for measles control. Viral Immunol 2002; 14:297-309. [PMID: 11792060 DOI: 10.1089/08828240152716556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Most strategies for reducing global measles morbidity and mortality and eliminating measles are based on the ability to enhance immune responses to measles virus. Challenges to measles elimination and eradication are based in part on the need to sustain high levels of population immunity to interrupt transmission of measles virus. We review aspects of the immunology of measles and measles vaccination with the aim of demonstrating how knowledge of the immune responses is essential to furthering the goals of reducing measles morbidity and mortality and the elimination of measles. Better understanding of the mechanisms of immune suppression after measles, the potential for alternative vaccination strategies to induce immunity in young infants, and the immunologic basis of atypical measles, increased mortality after high-titer measles vaccine, and waning immunity will lead to improved strategies for measles control and elimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- W J Moss
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland,USA
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Libman MD, Ibrahim SA, Omer MIA, Adlan IA, Bellavance F, Hoskins E, Bertley F, Ward B. No evidence for short or long term morbidity after increased titer measles vaccination in Sudan. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2002; 21:112-9. [PMID: 11840077 DOI: 10.1097/00006454-200202000-00006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Increased mortality rates have been reported after high titer measles [>10(5.0) plaque-forming units (PFU)] vaccination in several large studies in the developing world. An increased titer measles vaccine study conducted in Sudan included a prolonged prospective evaluation of childhood morbidity after vaccination. METHODS Five hundred ten children (170 per group) were randomized to receive 1 of 3 regimens at 5 and 9 months of age: (1) meningococcal vaccine, then standard titer (50% tissue culture-infective dose, 103.8) Schwarz measles vaccine; (2) increased titer (10(4.7) PFU) Edmonston-Zagreb measles vaccine followed by meningococcal vaccine; and (3) increased titer (10(4.7) PFU) Connaught vaccine followed by standard titer Schwarz measles vaccine. RESULTS Health workers collected information at 31,582 semi-monthly and monthly visits during 5 years. No increase in infant mortality was observed, but the statistical power was limited. There were 13, 13 and 10 deaths in the Schwarz, Edmonston-Zagreb and Connaught groups, respectively. There were no differences in duration or incidence of illness between groups at any time during the 5-year follow-up, with comparisons stratified by age and sex. Statistical power for each pairwise comparison was good, with at least 80% power to detect a difference of 1 day per month of illness and a 12% difference in the proportion of visits with an illness recorded. CONCLUSIONS We were unable to document increased morbidity in recipients of the increased titer measles vaccines used in this study. These data do not support the hypothesis that increased mortality after increased titer vaccine exposure is the result of increased and cumulative morbidity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael D Libman
- Microbiology Department, Montreal General Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Michael
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37
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Hilleman MR. Current overview of the pathogenesis and prophylaxis of measles with focus on practical implications. Vaccine 2001; 20:651-65. [PMID: 11738730 DOI: 10.1016/s0264-410x(01)00384-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Measles is one of the most important diseases of mankind, which is so highly contagious and evokes such persistent immunity that the virus cannot be sustained in a population of less than about 500,000 persons. The first of the licensed live virus vaccines against measles was developed empirically and was approved in 1963. It provides high level and lasting immunity and is a paradigm for solving major medical problems without really understanding them. In spite of means for control by prophylactic immunization, research on measles infection continues to be part of the effort to understand the pathogenesis of many different viruses, which may have important similarities and differences and provide important insights. Measles, usually, is spontaneously reversible and is a prime model for understanding virus-induced immunodeficiency disease (AIDS) which is rarely reversible. Much has been learned of basic immunology and vaccinology in measles through observation of the inappropriate use of vaccines of appropriate composition, and through inappropriate host response to measles vaccines of inappropriate composition. This review provides a current overview of selected highlights of measles, the virus, its immunopathogenesis, and its control by use of live virus vaccine which may lead to elimination of the disease and eventually to eradication of the virus.
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Affiliation(s)
- M R Hilleman
- Merck Institute for Vaccinology, 770 Sumneytown Pike, West Point, PA 19486, USA.
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Nakayama T, Komase K, Uzuka R, Hoshi A, Okafuji T. Leucine at position 278 of the AIK-C measles virus vaccine strain fusion protein is responsible for reduced syncytium formation. J Gen Virol 2001; 82:2143-2150. [PMID: 11514723 DOI: 10.1099/0022-1317-82-9-2143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The live measles virus (MV) vaccine strain AIK-C was attenuated from the wild-type strain Edmonston by plaque purification at 33 degrees C. Strain AIK-C grew well at 33 degrees C with a mixture of small-and medium-sized plaques in Vero cells, but did not grow well at 40 degrees C. To investigate fusion inducibility, expression plasmids for the fusion (F) and haemagglutinin (H) protein regions of MV strains AIK-C (pAIK-F01 and pAIK-H) and Edmonston (pEdm-F and pEdm-H) were constructed. pEdm-F induced extensive cell fusion in B95a and Vero cells under the control of T7 RNA polymerase, whereas a sharp reduction in syncytium formation was observed when pAIK-F01 was used. Six amino acid differences were determined between pAIK-F01 and pEdm-F. Direct sequencing showed that the seed strain AIK-C contained either Leu or Phe at position 278 of the F protein. Experiments using recombinant F protein plasmids demonstrated that those with Leu at position 278 induced poor syncytium formation, while those with Phe at position 278 (Edmonston type) induced extensive cell fusion. Replacement of Phe with Leu at position 278 of pEdm-F reduced fusion-inducing capability. A full-length infectious clone of AIK-C with Leu at position 278 of the F protein was constructed. The rescued virus produced small plaques in Vero cells. However, the same rescued virus with Phe at position 278 produced large plaques. It was concluded that Leu at position 278 of the F protein of the MV vaccine strain AIK-C is responsible for the formation of small plaques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tetsuo Nakayama
- Department of Virology, Center for Basic Research1, and Division of Research and Development, Research Center for Biologicals2, The Kitasato Institute, 5-9-1 Shirokane, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8642, Japan
| | - Katsuhiro Komase
- Department of Virology, Center for Basic Research1, and Division of Research and Development, Research Center for Biologicals2, The Kitasato Institute, 5-9-1 Shirokane, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8642, Japan
| | - Rina Uzuka
- Department of Pediatrics, Tokyo Medical University, 6-7-1 Nishishinjyuku, Shinjyuku-ku, Tokyo 160-0023, Japan3
| | - Akiyoshi Hoshi
- Department of Pediatrics, Tokyo Medical University, 6-7-1 Nishishinjyuku, Shinjyuku-ku, Tokyo 160-0023, Japan3
| | - Takao Okafuji
- Department of Virology, Center for Basic Research1, and Division of Research and Development, Research Center for Biologicals2, The Kitasato Institute, 5-9-1 Shirokane, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8642, Japan
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Kovarik J, Gaillard M, Martinez X, Bozzotti P, Lambert PH, Wild TF, Siegrist CA. Induction of adult-like antibody, Th1, and CTL responses to measles hemagglutinin by early life murine immunization with an attenuated vaccinia-derived NYVAC(K1L) viral vector. Virology 2001; 285:12-20. [PMID: 11414801 DOI: 10.1006/viro.2001.0945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Although initially developed in adult animals, novel viral vectors expressing recombinant measles antigens must eventually prove their success in the early life setting, where the efficacy of the currently used live-attenuated measles virus vaccine is limited. The immunological requirements for vaccine candidates include the generation of protective antibody responses as well as the induction of Th1 and cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL) responses, which is challenging in the neonatal setting. Here, we report that young BALB/c mice immunized with a single dose of a vaccinia-based NYVAC(K1L) vector generate adult-like antihemagglutinin (HA) antibody responses as well as adult-like Th1 and CTL responses. Despite this strong immunogenicity in early life, antibody responses (but not T-cell responses) to a single dose of NYVAC(K1L)-HA remained susceptible to inhibition by preexisting measles antibodies, calling for use of prime-boost strategies. NYVAC(K1L)-HA is the first attenuated live viral vector demonstrated as capable of inducing adult-like antibody, Th1, and CTL responses against measles in an early life murine immunization model, a capacity previously only reported for measles DNA vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Kovarik
- World Health Organization Collaborating Centre for Neonatal Vaccinology, University of Geneva Medical School, Geneva, Switzerland.
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40
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Huang Z, Dry I, Webster D, Strugnell R, Wesselingh S. Plant-derived measles virus hemagglutinin protein induces neutralizing antibodies in mice. Vaccine 2001; 19:2163-71. [PMID: 11228389 DOI: 10.1016/s0264-410x(00)00390-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Measles remains a significant problem in both the developed and developing world, and new measles vaccination strategies need to be developed. This paper examines the strategy of utilizing transgenic plants expressing a measles antigen for the development of an oral sub-unit measles vaccine. A 1.8 kb fragment encompassing the coding region of the measles virus hemagglutinin (H) protein was cloned into a plant expression cassette. Three different expression constructs were tested: pBinH (H gene alone), pBinH/KDEL (addition of a C-terminal endoplasmic reticulum-retention sequence SEKDEL) and pBinSP/H/KDEL (further addition of an authentic N-terminal plant signal peptide). The highest levels of recombinant H protein production were observed in plants transformed with pBinH/KDEL. Mice inoculated intraperitoneally with transgenic plant derived recombinant H protein produced serum anti-H protein antibodies that neutralized the measles virus (MV) in vitro. Mice gavaged with transgenic tobacco leaf extracts also developed serum H protein-specific antibodies with neutralizing activity against MV in vitro. These results indicate that the plant-derived measles H protein is immunogenic when administered orally and that, with further development, oral vaccination utilizing transgenic plants may become a viable approach to measles vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z Huang
- Infectious Diseases Unit, Alfred Hospital, Monash University, Commercial Road, Vic. 3181, Prahran, Australia
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41
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Zinkernagel RM, LaMarre A, Ciurea A, Hunziker L, Ochsenbein AF, McCoy KD, Fehr T, Bachmann MF, Kalinke U, Hengartner H. Neutralizing antiviral antibody responses. Adv Immunol 2001; 79:1-53. [PMID: 11680006 PMCID: PMC7130890 DOI: 10.1016/s0065-2776(01)79001-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Neutralizing antibodies are evolutionarily important effectors of immunity against viruses. Their evaluation has revealed a number of basic insights into specificity, rules of reactivity (tolerance), and memory—namely, (1) Specificity of neutralizing antibodies is defined by their capacity to distinguish between virus serotypes; (2) B cell reactivity is determined by antigen structure, concentration, and time of availability in secondary lymphoid organs; and (3) B cell memory is provided by elevated protective antibody titers in serum that are depending on antigen stimulation. These perhaps slightly overstated rules are simple, correlate with in vivo evidence as well as clinical observations, and appear to largely demystify many speculations about antibodies and B cell physiology. The chapter also considers successful vaccines and compares them with those infectious diseases where efficient protective vaccines are lacking, it is striking to note that all successful vaccines induce high levels of neutralizing antibodies (nAbs) that are both necessary and sufficient to protect the host from disease. Successful vaccination against infectious diseases such as tuberculosis, leprosy, or HIV would require induction of additional long-lasting T cell responses to control infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- R M Zinkernagel
- Institute of Experimental Immunology, Department of Pathology, University Hospital, CH-8091 Zürich, Switzerland
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42
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Abstract
This article reviews some of the issues involved in evaluating vaccines in humans. Vaccine trials are required for licensure and are essential for demonstrating a vaccine's safety and protective efficacy. The formal framework of phase I, II, and III trials is described, with particular emphasis on the choice of hypotheses, trial design, and biases that arise in the context of vaccine trials. However, some aspects of a vaccine's performance cannot be evaluated in clinical trials owing to their relatively small size. Thus, vaccine evaluation must continue after licensure, for example, to evaluate the vaccine with respect to rare reactions, duration of protection, and ecological effects. The article reviews some of the methods commonly used for post-licensure studies of vaccine efficacy and safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- C P Farrington
- Department of Statistics, Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes MK7 6AA, England.
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43
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Marie JC, Kehren J, Trescol-Biémont MC, Evlashev A, Valentin H, Walzer T, Tedone R, Loveland B, Nicolas JF, Rabourdin-Combe C, Horvat B. Mechanism of measles virus-induced suppression of inflammatory immune responses. Immunity 2001; 14:69-79. [PMID: 11163231 DOI: 10.1016/s1074-7613(01)00090-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Measles virus (MV) causes profound immunosuppression, resulting in high infant mortality. The mechanisms are poorly understood, largely due to the lack of a suitable animal model. Here, we report that particular MV proteins, in the absence of MV replication, could generate a systemic immunosuppression in mice through two pathways: (1) via MV-nucleoprotein and its receptor FcgammaR on dendritic cells; and (2) via virus envelope glycoproteins and the MV-hemagglutinin cellular receptor, CD46. The effects comprise reduced hypersensitivity responses associated with impaired function of dendritic cells, decreased production of IL-12, and the loss of antigen-specific T cell proliferation. These results introduce a novel model for testing the immunosuppressive potential of anti-measles vaccines and reveal a specific mechanism of MV-induced modulation of inflammatory reactions.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antigen-Presenting Cells/immunology
- Antigens, CD/genetics
- Antigens, CD/immunology
- CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes/cytology
- CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/cytology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- Cell Division
- Dendritic Cells/immunology
- Dermatitis, Contact/immunology
- Dinitrofluorobenzene/immunology
- Disease Models, Animal
- Hemagglutinins, Viral/immunology
- Hemocyanins/immunology
- Hypersensitivity, Delayed/chemically induced
- Hypersensitivity, Delayed/immunology
- Immunosuppressive Agents/immunology
- Interleukin-12/biosynthesis
- Lymph Nodes/immunology
- Measles virus/immunology
- Membrane Cofactor Protein
- Membrane Glycoproteins/genetics
- Membrane Glycoproteins/immunology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Transgenic
- Nucleocapsid Proteins
- Nucleoproteins/immunology
- Receptors, IgG/immunology
- Ultraviolet Rays
- Viral Fusion Proteins/immunology
- Viral Proteins/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- J C Marie
- INSERM U503, CERVI, Immunobiologie Fondamentale et Clinique, 69365, Lyon, France
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44
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Welter J, Taylor J, Tartaglia J, Paoletti E, Stephensen CB. Vaccination against canine distemper virus infection in infant ferrets with and without maternal antibody protection, using recombinant attenuated poxvirus vaccines. J Virol 2000; 74:6358-67. [PMID: 10864646 PMCID: PMC112142 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.74.14.6358-6367.2000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Canine distemper virus (CDV) infection of ferrets is clinically and immunologically similar to measles, making this a useful model for the human disease. The model was used to determine if parenteral or mucosal immunization of infant ferrets at 3 and 6 weeks of age with attenuated vaccinia virus (NYVAC) or canarypox virus (ALVAC) vaccine strains expressing the CDV hemagglutinin (H) and fusion (F) protein genes (NYVAC-HF and ALVAC-HF) would induce serum neutralizing antibody and protect against challenge infection at 12 weeks of age. Ferrets without maternal antibody that were vaccinated parenterally with NYVAC-HF (n = 5) or ALVAC-HF (n = 4) developed significant neutralizing titers (log(10) inverse mean titer +/- standard deviation of 2.30 +/- 0.12 and 2.20 +/- 0.34, respectively) by the day of challenge, and all survived with no clinical or virologic evidence of infection. Ferrets without maternal antibody that were vaccinated intranasally (i.n.) developed lower neutralizing titers, with NYVAC-HF producing higher titers at challenge (1.11 +/- 0.57 versus 0.40 +/- 0.37, P = 0.02) and a better survival rate (6/7 versus 0/5, P = 0.008) than ALVAC-HF. Ferrets with maternal antibody that were vaccinated parenterally with NYVAC-HF (n = 7) and ALVAC-HF (n = 7) developed significantly higher antibody titers (1.64 +/- 0. 54 and 1.28 +/- 0.40, respectively) than did ferrets immunized with an attenuated CDV vaccine (0.46 +/- 0.59; n = 7) or the recombinant vectors expressing rabies glycoprotein (RG) (0.19 +/- 0.32; n = 8, P = 7 x 10(-6)). The NYVAC vaccine also protected against weight loss, and both the NYVAC and attenuated CDV vaccines protected against the development of some clinical signs of infection, although survival in each of the three vaccine groups was low (one of seven) and not significantly different from the RG controls (none of eight). Combined i.n.-parenteral immunization of ferrets with maternal antibody using NYVAC-HF (n = 9) produced higher titers (1.63 +/- 0. 25) than did i.n. immunization with NYVAC-HF (0.88 +/- 0.36; n = 9) and ALVAC-HF (0.61 +/- 0.43; n = 9, P = 3 x 10(-7)), and survival was also significantly better in the i.n.-parenteral group (3 of 9) than in the other HF-vaccinated animals (none of 18) or in controls immunized with RG (none of 5) (P = 0.0374). Multiple routes were not tested with the ALVAC vaccine. The results suggest that infant ferrets are less responsive to i.n. vaccination than are older ferrets and raises questions about the appropriateness of this route of immunization in infant ferrets or infants of other species.
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MESH Headings
- Administration, Intranasal
- Age Factors
- Animals
- Animals, Newborn
- Avipoxvirus
- Body Weight
- Disease Models, Animal
- Distemper/prevention & control
- Dogs
- Ferrets
- Humans
- Immunity, Maternally-Acquired
- Injections, Intramuscular
- Injections, Subcutaneous
- Leukopenia/prevention & control
- Measles/prevention & control
- RNA, Viral/blood
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Vaccination
- Vaccines, Attenuated/administration & dosage
- Vaccines, Attenuated/immunology
- Vaccines, Synthetic/administration & dosage
- Vaccines, Synthetic/immunology
- Vaccinia virus
- Viral Vaccines/administration & dosage
- Viral Vaccines/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- J Welter
- Department of Comparative Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama 35294, USA
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45
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Polack FP, Lee SH, Permar S, Manyara E, Nousari HG, Jeng Y, Mustafa F, Valsamakis A, Adams RJ, Robinson HL, Griffin DE. Successful DNA immunization against measles: neutralizing antibody against either the hemagglutinin or fusion glycoprotein protects rhesus macaques without evidence of atypical measles. Nat Med 2000; 6:776-81. [PMID: 10888926 DOI: 10.1038/77506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Measles remains a principal cause of worldwide mortality, in part because young infants cannot be immunized effectively. Development of new vaccines has been hindered by previous experience with a formalin-inactivated vaccine that predisposed to a severe form of disease (atypical measles). Here we have developed and tested potential DNA vaccines for immunogenicity, efficacy and safety in a rhesus macaque model of measles. DNA protected from challenge with wild-type measles virus. Protection correlated with levels of neutralizing antibody and not with cytotoxic T lymphocyte activity. There was no evidence in any group, including those receiving hemagglutinin-encoding DNA alone, of 'priming' for atypical measles.
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Affiliation(s)
- F P Polack
- W. Harry Feinstone Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University School of Hygiene and Public Health, 615 N. Wolfe Street, Baltimore, Maryland 21205, USA
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46
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El Kasmi KC, Deroo S, Theisen DM, Brons NH, Muller CP. Crossreactivity of mimotopes and peptide homologues of a sequential epitope with a monoclonal antibody does not predict crossreactive immunogenicity. Vaccine 1999; 18:284-90. [PMID: 10506653 DOI: 10.1016/s0264-410x(99)00199-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The sequence H236-256 of the measles virus (MV) hemagglutinin (H) contains the sequential epitope of the neutralizing and protective monoclonal antibody (mAb) BH129 with the minimal epitope E(245)L-QL(249). Using this mAb, we have recently developed 7mer mimotopes binding up to 135x better than the corresponding 7mer epitope H244-250. In this study, we combined T cell epitopes (TCE) with either highly crossreactive 7mer mimotopes, 13mer mimotopes or less crossreactive MV-derived B cell epitopes (BCE). Antigenicity of these TBB, TTB and TTBB peptides was determined with BH129 in a competition ELISA against MV. We found that chimeric peptides including mimotopes were up to 80x better binders to the mAb than peptides containing the original BCEs. All peptides irrespective of their antigenicity were used for immunization to compare their virus- crossreactive immunogenicity. Unexpectedly, none of the highly antigenic mimotope-based peptides induced MV-crossreactive antibodies. In contrast, a number of peptides with the viral BCE sequence that did not bind to the mAb, induced MV-crossreactive and even neutralizing antibodies. This report describes a striking example of disparity between antigenicity and crossreactive immunogenicity and casts considerable doubt on the predictive value of antigenicity in immunogenicity studies, considerably complicating the selection of potential vaccine candidates.
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Affiliation(s)
- K C El Kasmi
- Laboratoire National de Santé, P. O. Box 1102, L-1011, Luxembourg, Luxembourg
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47
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Polack FP, Auwaerter PG, Lee SH, Nousari HC, Valsamakis A, Leiferman KM, Diwan A, Adams RJ, Griffin DE. Production of atypical measles in rhesus macaques: evidence for disease mediated by immune complex formation and eosinophils in the presence of fusion-inhibiting antibody. Nat Med 1999; 5:629-34. [PMID: 10371500 DOI: 10.1038/9473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The severe disease atypical measles occurred when individuals immunized with a poorly protective inactivated vaccine contracted measles, and was postulated to be due to a lack of fusion-inhibiting antibodies. Here, rhesus macaques immunized with formalin-inactivated measles vaccine developed transient neutralizing and fusion-inhibiting antibodies, but no cytotoxic T-cell response. Subsequent infection with measles virus caused an atypical rash and pneumonitis, accompanied by immune complex deposition and an increase in eosinophils. Fusion-inhibiting antibody appeared earlier in these monkeys than in non-immunized monkeys. These data indicate that atypical measles results from previous priming for a nonprotective type 2 CD4 T-cell response rather than from lack of functional antibody against the fusion protein.
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Affiliation(s)
- F P Polack
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins University School of Hygiene and Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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48
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Nanan R, Chittka B, Hadam M, Kreth HW. Measles virus infection causes transient depletion of activated T cells from peripheral circulation. J Clin Virol 1999; 12:201-10. [PMID: 10382817 DOI: 10.1016/s1386-6532(99)00002-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Natural measles virus infection as well as vaccination with attenuated measles virus induce temporary immunosuppression, which is responsible for part of the morbidity and mortality associated with measles. The underlying molecular mechanisms are not known. Recently, in vitro studies have revealed a marked increase of LFA-1 expression of lymphocytes in the presence of infectious measles virus. OBJECTIVES In order to further investigate immune dysfunction in measles we analyzed the expression of leukocyte function-associated antigen 1 (LFA-1) on ex vivo derived circulating human T cells. STUDY DESIGN Expression of LFA-1 was measured by flow cytometry using monoclonal antibodies directed against CD11a and CD18. LFA-1 expression was followed in the course of infection in four adult seronegative vaccinees and in four patients with natural measles. RESULTS There was a remarkable loss of LFA-1-bright cells during natural measles and after measles vaccination. The number of LFA-1-bright cells reached a minimum on day 7-14 after vaccination, and at the onset of rash during natural measles infection, and approached normal levels within 3-5 weeks. CONCLUSION It is suggested that measles virus infection interferes with lymphocyte trafficking and reallocation. Disruption of recirculation and random homing of lymphocytes might contribute to the immunosuppression, which is characteristic for measles virus infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Nanan
- Universitäts-Kinderklinik Würzburg, Germany.
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49
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Abstract
The development of an attenuated measles virus vaccine gave us a tool to combat a disease which has ravaged the child population throughout the centuries. Three decades later the vaccine has shown its qualities and its problems. Using this vaccine the WHO have decided on a measles eradication policy. This article discusses some of the issues which are being addressed and possible solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- T F Wild
- Unité INSERM 404 Immunity and Vaccination, Bâtiment Ex-Institut Pasteur de Lyon, France.
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50
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Welter J, Taylor J, Tartaglia J, Paoletti E, Stephensen CB. Mucosal vaccination with recombinant poxvirus vaccines protects ferrets against symptomatic CDV infection. Vaccine 1999; 17:308-18. [PMID: 9987168 DOI: 10.1016/s0264-410x(98)00211-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Canine distemper virus (CDV) infection of ferrets causes a disease characterized by fever, erythema, conjunctivitis and leukocytopenia, similar clinically to measles except for the fatal neurologic sequelae of CDV. We vaccinated juvenile ferrets twice at 4-week intervals by the intranasal or intraduodenal route with attenuated vaccinia (NYVAC) or canarypox virus (ALVAC) constructs containing the CDV hemagglutinin and fusion genes. Controls were vaccinated with the same vectors expressing rabies glycoprotein. Animals were challenged intranasally 4 weeks after the second vaccination with virulent CDV. Body weights, white blood cell (WBC) counts and temperatures were monitored and ferrets were observed daily for clinical signs of infection. WBCs were assayed for the presence of viral RNA by RT-PCR. Intranasally vaccinated animals survived challenge with no virologic or clinical evidence of infection. Vaccination by the intraduodenal route did not provide complete protection. All control animals developed typical distemper. Ferrets can be effectively protected against distemper by mucosal vaccination with poxvirus vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Welter
- Department of Comparative Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham 35294-0019, USA
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