Synthetic peptide vaccines: success at last

A review on the development of bacterial multi-epitope recombinant protein vaccines via reverse vaccinology

Bacterial vaccines play a crucial role in combating bacterial infectious diseases. Apart from the prevention of disease, bacterial vaccines also help to reduce the mortality rates in infected populations. Advancements in vaccine development technologies have addressed the constraints of traditional vaccine design, providing novel approaches for the development of next-generation vaccines. Advancements in reverse vaccinology, bioinformatics, and comparative proteomics have opened horizons in vaccine development. Specifically, the use of protein structural data in crafting multi-epitope vaccines (MEVs) to target pathogens has become an important research focus in vaccinology. In this review, we focused on describing the methodologies and tools for epitope vaccine development, along with recent progress in this field. Moreover, this article also discusses the challenges in epitope vaccine development, providing insights for the future development of bacterial multi-epitope genetically engineered vaccines.

Gold(III) Aryl Complexes as Reagents for Constructing Hybrid Peptide-Based Assemblies via Cysteine S-Arylation

Organometallic complexes have recently gained attention as competent bioconjugation reagents capable of introducing a diverse array of substrates to biomolecule substrates. Here, we detail the synthesis and characterization of an aminophosphine-supported Au(III) platform that provides rapid and convenient access to a wide array of peptide-based assemblies via cysteine S-arylation. This strategy results in the formation of robust C-S covalent linkages and is an attractive method for the modification of complex biomolecules due to the high functional group tolerance, chemoselectivity, and rapid reaction kinetics associated with these arylation reactions. This work expands upon existing metal-mediated cysteine arylation by introducing a class of air-stable organometallic complexes that serve as robust bioconjugation reagents enabling the synthesis of conjugates of higher structural complexity including macrocyclic stapled and bicyclic peptides as well as a peptide-functionalized multivalent hybrid nanocluster. This organometallic-based approach provides a convenient, one-step method of peptide functionalization and macrocyclization, and has the potential to contribute to efforts directed toward developing efficient synthetic strategies of building new and diverse hybrid peptide-based assemblies.

Selection of Specific Peptides for Coccidioides spp. Obtained from Antigenic Fractions through SDS-PAGE and Western Blot Methods by the Recognition of Sera from Patients with Coccidioidomycosis

Antigenic fractions of 100, 50, 37, and 28 kDa obtained through the SDS-PAGE method that were more frequently recognized by anti-Coccidioides antibodies in the sera of coccidioidomycosis patients were selected using western blotting. Subsequently, these bands were sequenced, and the obtained proteins were analysed by BLAST to choose peptides specific for Coccidioides spp. from among the shared aligned sequences of related fungi. A peptide specific for C. immitis was selected from the "GPI anchored serine-threonine rich protein OS C. immitis", while from the "uncharacterized protein of C. immitis", we selected a peptide for C. immitis and C. posadasii. These proteins arose from the 100 kDa antigenic fraction. From the protein "fatty acid amide hydrolase 1 of C. posadasii" that was identified from the 50 kDa antigenic fraction, a peptide was selected that recognized C. immitis and C. posadasii. In addition, the analysis of all the peptides (353) of each of the assembled proteins showed that only 35 had 100% identity with proteins of C. immitis and C. posadasii, one had 100% identity with only C. immitis, and one had 100% identity with only C. posadasii. These peptides can be used as diagnostic reagents, vaccines, and antifungals.

General and Facile Route to Isomerically Pure Tricyclic Peptides Based on Templated Tandem CLIPS/CuAAC Cyclizations

We report a one-pot ligation/cyclization technology for the rapid and clean conversion of linear peptides into tricyclic peptides that is based on using tetravalent scaffolds containing two benzyl bromide and two alkyne moieties. These react via CLIPS/CuAAC reactions with cysteines and azides in the peptide. Flexibility in the scaffolds is key to the formation of isomerically pure products as the flexible scaffolds T4₁ and T4₂ mostly promote the formation of single isomeric tricycles while the rigid scaffolds T4₃ and T4₄ do not yield clean products. There seems to be no limitation to the number and types of amino acids present as 18 canonical amino acids were successfully implemented. We also observed that azides at the peptide termini and cysteine residues in the center gave better results than compounds with the functional groups placed the other way round.

Immunogenicity of T7 bacteriophage nanoparticles displaying G-H loop of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV)

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious disease of cloven-hoofed animals that causes severe economic losses worldwide. The G-H loop of the FMDV VP1 structural protein is the major neutralizing antigenic site. However, a fully protective G-H loop peptide vaccine requires the addition of promiscuous Th sites from a source outside VP1. Thus, we demonstrated the potential of T7 bacteriophage based nanoparticles displaying a genetically fused G-H loop peptide (T7-GH) as a FMDV vaccine candidate. Recombinant T7-GH phage was constructed by inserting the G-H loop coding region into the T7 Select 415-1b vector. Purified T7-GH phage nanoparticles were analyzed by SDS-PAGE, Western blot and Dot-ELISA. Pigs seronegative for FMDV exposure were immunized with T7-GH nanoparticles along with the adjuvant Montanide ISA206, and two commercially available FMDV vaccines (InactVac and PepVac). Humoral and cellular immune responses, as well as protection against virulent homologous virus challenge were assessed following single dose immunization. Pigs immunized T7-GH developed comparable anti-VP1 antibody titers to PepVac, although lower LPBE titers than was induced by InactVac. Antigen specific lymphocyte proliferation was detected in T7-GH group similar to that of PepVac group, however, weaker than InactVac group. Pigs immunized with T7-GH developed a neutralizing antibody response stronger than PepVac, but weaker than InactVac. Furthermore, 80% (4/5) of T7-GH immunized pigs were protected from challenge with virulent homologous virus. These findings demonstrate that the T7-GH phage nanoparticles were effective in eliciting antigen specific immune responses in pigs, highlighting the value of such an approach in the research and development of FMDV vaccines.

Improved neutralising antibody response against foot-and-mouth-disease virus in mice inoculated with a multi-epitope peptide vaccine using polyinosinic and poly-cytidylic acid as an adjuvant

A peptide-based vaccine for foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) was designed. The peptide immunogen had a G-H loop domain optimised for immunogenicity and broad-spectrum antigenicity to different lineages of serotype-O FMD viruses (FMDVs). Polyinosinic and poly-cytidylic acid [poly (I:C)] was used as the adjuvant to overcome the low humoral antibody levels often observed in association with peptide-based vaccines. The multi-epitope peptide alone induced the secretion of a certain level of neutralising antibodies in mice. In contrast, co-administration of the multi-epitope peptide with poly (I:C) induced the secretion of a significantly higher level of neutralising antibodies (P<0.005). Indeed, the resultant level was slightly higher even than that induced by the inactivated vaccine (P>0.05). These initial results indicate that poly (I:C) is highly effective as an adjuvant for use with the FMDV multi-epitope peptide vaccine. This combination could yield a promising vaccine for the prevention and control of FMD. Further study is needed to evaluate the efficiency of this combination on animals susceptible naturally to FMDV.

Research in advance for FMD novel vaccines

Foot-and-Mouth Disease (FMD), as a major global animal disease, affects millions of animals worldwide and remains the main sanitary barrier to the international and national trade of animals and animal products. Inactivated vaccination is the most effective measure for prevention of FMD at present, but fail to induce long-term protection and content new requires for production of FMD vaccines. As a number of Researchers hope to obtain satisfactory novel vaccines by new bio-technology, novel vaccines have been studied for more than thirty years. Here reviews the latest research progress of new vaccines, summarizes some importance and raises several suggestions for the future of FMD vaccine.

Promising multiple-epitope recombinant vaccine against foot-and-mouth disease virus type O in swine

In order to develop a completely safe immunogen to replace the traditional inactivated vaccine, a tandem-repeat multiple-epitope recombinant vaccine against foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) virus (FMDV) type O was developed. It contained three copies each of residues 141 to 160 and 200 to 213 of VP1 of the O/China/99 strain of FMDV coupled with a swine immunoglobulin G heavy-chain constant region (scIgG). The data showed that the multiple-epitope recombinant vaccine elicited high titers of anti-FMDV specific antibodies in swine at 30 days postvaccination (dpv) and conferred complete protection against a challenge with 10³ 50% swine infective doses of the O/China/99 strain. The anti-FMDV specific antibody titers were not significantly different between the multiple-epitope recombinant vaccine and the traditional vaccine (t test, P > 0.05). The number of 50% pig protective doses was 6.47, which is higher than the number recommended by the World Organization for Animal Health. The multiple-epitope recombinant vaccine resulted in a duration of immunity of at least 6 months. We speculate that the multiple-epitope recombinant vaccine is a promising vaccine that may replace the traditional inactivated vaccine for the prevention and control of FMD in swine in the future.

Induction of protective immunity in swine by recombinant bamboo mosaic virus expressing foot-and-mouth disease virus epitopes

Background

Plant viruses can be employed as versatile vectors for the production of vaccines by expressing immunogenic epitopes on the surface of chimeric viral particles. Although several viruses, including tobacco mosaic virus, potato virus X and cowpea mosaic virus, have been developed as vectors, we aimed to develop a new viral vaccine delivery system, a bamboo mosaic virus (BaMV), that would carry larger transgene loads, and generate better immunity in the target animals with fewer adverse environmental effects.

Methods

We engineered the BaMV as a vaccine vector expressing the antigenic epitope(s) of the capsid protein VP1 of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV). The recombinant BaMV plasmid (pBVP1) was constructed by replacing DNA encoding the 35 N-terminal amino acid residues of the BaMV coat protein with that encoding 37 amino acid residues (T¹²⁸-N¹⁶⁴) of FMDV VP1.

Results

The pBVP1 was able to infect host plants and to generate a chimeric virion BVP1 expressing VP1 epitopes in its coat protein. Inoculation of swine with BVP1 virions resulted in the production of anti-FMDV neutralizing antibodies. Real-time PCR analysis of peripheral blood mononuclear cells from the BVP1-immunized swine revealed that they produced VP1-specific IFN-γ. Furthermore, all BVP1-immunized swine were protected against FMDV challenge.

Conclusion

Chimeric BaMV virions that express partial sequence of FMDV VP1 can effectively induce not only humoral and cell-mediated immune responses but also full protection against FMDV in target animals. This BaMV-based vector technology may be applied to other vaccines that require correct expression of antigens on chimeric viral particles.

Foot-and-mouth disease

Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is a highly contagious disease of cloven-hoofed animals. The disease was initially described in the 16th century and was the first animal pathogen identified as a virus. Recent FMD outbreaks in developed countries and their significant economic impact have increased the concern of governments worldwide. This review describes the reemergence of FMD in developed countries that had been disease free for many years and the effect that this has had on disease control strategies. The etiologic agent, FMD virus (FMDV), a member of the Picornaviridae family, is examined in detail at the genetic, structural, and biochemical levels and in terms of its antigenic diversity. The virus replication cycle, including virus-receptor interactions as well as unique aspects of virus translation and shutoff of host macromolecular synthesis, is discussed. This information has been the basis for the development of improved protocols to rapidly identify disease outbreaks, to differentiate vaccinated from infected animals, and to begin to identify and test novel vaccine candidates. Furthermore, this knowledge, coupled with the ability to manipulate FMDV genomes at the molecular level, has provided the framework for examination of disease pathogenesis and the development of a more complete understanding of the virus and host factors involved.

A synthetic peptide containing the consensus sequence of the G-H loop region of foot-and-mouth disease virus type-O VP1 and a promiscuous T-helper epitope induces peptide-specific antibodies but fails to protect cattle against viral challenge

A pilot study was carried out in cattle to determine the immunogenicity of a synthetic consensus peptide comprising the G-H loop region of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) type-O VP1 and a non-VP1 T-helper (Th) epitope. Cattle vaccinated intramuscularly either once (n = 5) or twice (n = 4) with 50 microg of the peptide preparation at a 21-day interval developed antibodies to the peptide as determined by ELISA with the exception of one steer that received a single dose. However, neutralizing antibody titers against FMDV type-O were modest and all animals presented with clinical FMD signs upon challenge 21 days after the last vaccination. In contrast, four of the five animals inoculated with an inactivated FMD type-O commercially prepared vaccine developed neutralizing antibodies and were fully protected against clinical disease following virus challenge 21 days post-vaccination (dpv). Nucleotide sequence comparison of the VP1 region between the challenge virus and RT-PCR products recovered from a lesion of the peptide-vaccinated animal with the highest neutralizing antibody titer 5 days post-challenge (dpc) showed no evidence for selection of a neutralization-resistant mutant. We conclude that although the synthetic peptide induced an antibody response in cattle, it failed to confer protection against FMDV challenge.

Effective synthetic peptide vaccine for foot-and-mouth disease in swine

We have designed a peptide-based vaccine for foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) effective in swine. The peptide immunogen has a G-H loop domain from the VP1 capsid protein of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) and a novel promiscuous T helper (Th) site for broad immunogenicity in multiple species. The G-H loop VP1 site was optimised for cross-reactivity to FMDV by the inclusion into the peptide of cyclic constraint and adjoining sequences. The incorporation of consensus residues into the hypervariable positions of the VP1 site provided for broad immunogenicity. The vaccine protected 20 out of 21 immunised pigs from infectious challenge by FMDV O1 Taiwan using peptide doses as low as 12.5 microg, and a mild adjuvant that caused no lesions. A safe chemically-defined product would have considerable advantages for vaccination against FMD.

Recent advances in the development of peptide vaccines for hepatitis B

The control of hepatitis B by vaccination is arguably one of medicine's greatest achievements in terms of protecting infants and adults at high risk of infection. Paradoxically, however, the existence of a large reservoir of chronically infected individuals will not diminish the risk of infection by those coming into close contact with such persons until universal infant immunisation is practised globally and vaccines are in place to ensure maximum efficacy in those with impaired immune responses, immunity is achieved with fewer doses, and immunisation as an adjunct to the antiviral treatment of chronic carriers is adopted. These imperatives have continued to stimulate research into vaccines based on chemically synthesised short peptides, and those systems best suited for their delivery. This review discusses the potential of synthetic peptide formulations as efficient inducers of both humoral and cellular immune responses against hepatitis B, and reviews recent advances in peptide delivery. Synthetic peptide and delivery systems technologies will, amongst others, be of paramount importance in the global fight for the eradication of hepatitis B in the 21st century.

Synthetic peptide vaccines: unexpected fulfillment of discarded hope?

In the early eighties it was realized that the ultimate vaccine would be a synthetic peptide. Major efforts were put into the development of a synthetic vaccine for foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) for which even today no alternative exists besides the classical vaccine based on inactivated virus. Despite impressive progress, a peptide vaccine that could match the classical vaccine with respect to efficacy (i.e. full protection of all animals after a single vaccination) has not materialized. This has led to the belief that synthetic vaccines were not possible. However, in the early nineties we developed a synthetic peptide vaccine for canine parvovirus that did match the classical vaccine based on inactivated virus (i.e. protected all animals). Based on the difference of FMDV (an RNA virus) and canine parvovirus (a DNA virus), we suggested that in the case of FMDV, more than one antigenic site should be used, instead of the single one used previously. In our opinion multiple sites are necessary to prevent the development of escape mutants of FMDV. Unfortunately, the additional sites of FMDV are highly discontinuous. Until recently it was impossible to reconstruct these sites in the form of synthetic peptides. In the past few years, new methods have been developed that allow recombination of such sites into synthetic molecules. If successfully applied to FMDV, synthetic peptide vaccines and many others may become feasible in the near future. Moreover, the ability to mimic complex discontinuous sites by synthetic peptides will have a major impact on the rapidly developing area of therapeutic vaccines.

Synthetic peptide-based vaccine and diagnostic system for effective control of FMD

We have designed synthetic peptides corresponding to two different regions of the genome of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV) that are effective as (a) a vaccine or (b) a diagnostic reagent which differentiates convalescent from vaccinated animals, respectively. The peptide vaccine is based on a sequence from the prominent G-H loop of VP1, one of the four capsid proteins. The sequence was optimized by the inclusion of a cyclic constraint and adjoining sequences, and broader immunogenicity was obtained by the incorporation of consensus residues at hypervariable positions. The peptide also included a promiscuous T-helper epitope for effective immunogenicity in outbred populations of large animals.The diagnostic reagent, a peptide based on non-structural (NS) protein 3B, is used in immuno-assays for the detection of antibodies. Antibodies to this NS protein are present in the sera of infected animals but not in the sera of vaccinated animals. The VP1 peptide can be used in complementary immuno-assays for confirmation of NS test results and to monitor for vaccination. This system for differential diagnosis is important to establish the disease-free status of a country.

The role of mass spectrometry in vaccine development

For the most part, vaccine development to date has been empiric. While sometimes successful, such a strategy is 'hit or miss', and fails to advance the basic science of vaccine development. Preferable would be tools that allow for a more directed development of vaccines at either the population or sub-population level. Characteristics of useful tools in vaccine development should include the ability to identify and characterize the spectrum of antigenic peptides presented by MHC molecules to which the immune system responds by the development of protective immune responses. In addition, because the explosion in human genomics allows the ability to understand MHC haplotypes at the population level, as well as an enhanced understanding of MHC binding motifs, new tools might further allow for an understanding of which vaccine antigens are capable of being bound and presented to the immune system by MHC molecules. New mass spectrometry technology fulfils these criteria, and may well lead to a revolution in the design of new vaccines. This paper will review the basics of mass spectrometry techniques as applied to the identification and characterization of vaccine peptide antigens, and discusses how these tools can be applied to vaccine development.

Mimotopes: realization of an unlikely concept

Theoretically it seems highly unlikely that relatively small peptides could mimic functionally discontinuous epitopes of antigens. Nevertheless various recent reports show this to be the case. Peptide mimics of protein-, polysaccharide- and DNA-epitopes have been shown to be able to replace the native epitope. Moreover, some of them are able to induce, when used in a vaccine, antibodies with the same activity as that of the antibody used as a template. These mimics, called mimotopes, can be used in vaccines and diagnostics and can be developed more or less systematically using solely antibodies and random, semi-random and dedicated peptide arrays or libraries. Furthermore, the mimotope concept which seems to have proven itself for antibody and antigen interaction can be applied equally well to many receptor ligand interactions and thus may form a new generic approach to the development of drugs. Ltd.

Structural features of a chimeric peptide inducing cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses in saline

Little information is available correlating the structural properties of peptides with their immunogenicity in terms of responses via cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs). The TT-NP6 chimeric peptide, consisting of two copies of a promiscuous T-helper epitope (T: residues 288-302 from the fusion protein of the measles virus) linked to the NP6 T-cytotoxic epitope (NP6: residues 52-60 from the nucleoprotein of measles virus) was able to induce virus-specific CTL responses in the absence of any adjuvant and hydrophobic component. The present work was undertaken to gain insight into structural features of the TT-NP6 peptide that may be important in optimizing the CTL immunogenicity of the peptide. Circular dichroism data, obtained in a buffer of physiological ionic strength and pH, strongly suggest a self-associated state for the peptide, which was confirmed by a sedimentation velocity experiment. However, helix association is accompanied by loss of overall helical content. Thermal-dependence studies show that the unfolding of self-associated alpha-helices is significantly more pronounced than the unfolding of isolated alpha-helices. Circular dichroism data, together with tryptic limited proteolysis, suggest the presence of a charged amino acid within the hydrophobic core. This study should provide a basis for engineering more effective immunogenic peptides against the measles virus by increasing the stability of the TT-NP6 peptide.

Parvovirus-like particles as vaccine vectors

A wide array of systems have been developed to improve "classic" vaccines. The use of small polypeptides able to elicit potent antibody and cytotoxic responses seems to have enormous potential in the design of safer vaccines. While peptide coupling to large soluble proteins such as keyhole limpet hemocyanin is the current method of choice for eliciting antibody responses and insertion in live viruses for cytotoxic T-lymphocyte responses, alternative cheaper and/or safer methods will clearly be required in the future. Virus-like particles constitute very immunogenic molecules that allow for covalent coupling of the epitopes of interest in a simple way. In this article, we detail the methodology employed for the preparation of efficient virus vectors as delivery systems. We used parvovirus as the model for the design of new vaccine vectors. Recently parvovirus-like particles have been engineered to express foreign polypeptides in certain positions, resulting in the production of large quantities of highly immunogenic peptides, and to induce strong antibody, helper-T-cell, and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte responses. We discuss the different alternatives and the necessary steps to carry out this process, placing special emphasis on the flow of decisions that need to be made during the project.

Molecular design versus empirical discovery in peptide-based vaccines. Coming to terms with fuzzy recognition sites and ill-defined structure-function relationships in immunology

In view of our increased understanding of the molecular basis of immunological recognition, it is commonly believed that it should be possible to apply molecular design strategies to the development of peptide-based vaccines. The stated aim is to transform the development of a vaccine from a trial and error empirical operation into a so-called rational, structure-based process. In the present review, it is argued that it is misleading to oppose rational and empirical approaches in vaccine research since both are needed in the practice of experimental science. Many reasons are given for the view that the molecular design of synthetic vaccines is not a realistic scientific enterprise. The capacity of a peptide to induce a protective immune response depends on many extrinsic factors and regulatory mechanisms of the recipient host which are not amenable to molecular design of the peptide immunogen. It seems safe to predict that the development of peptide-based vaccines will continue to be driven by empirical discovery rather than by so-called rational design.

Current paradoxes and changing paradigms in vaccinology

Other than the provision of clean water, food and sanitation, no other deliberate human intervention has prolonged the human life span as much as the provision of vaccines and the control of infectious disease. Since 1950, 25 vaccines have been licensed in the US, 15 of these for routine universal use in the population. On the horizon are vaccines not only to prevent infectious diseases, but also vaccines against cancer and a host of other human ills. Despite these public health and scientific accomplishments however, the manner in which we think about, develop and apply vaccines to the public health has common heuristic flaws which prevent realizing the full benefits of vaccines to society. This paper will discuss a number of current paradoxes and changing paradigms related to the field of vaccinology.

Structural properties of chimeric peptides containing a T-cell epitope linked to a fusion peptide and their importance for in vivo induction of cytotoxic T-cell responses

We have previously shown that when administered to mice without adjuvant, a chimeric peptide consisting of the fusion peptide F from measles virus protein linked at the C-terminus of a cytotoxic T-cell epitope from the M2 protein of respiratory syncytial virus efficiently primes for an major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class-I restricted cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) response. In this report, we demonstrated by microspectrofluorometry that the fusion-peptide moiety bound to the plasma membrane of living cells. When the fusion peptide was linked to the C-terminus of the CTL epitope, the chimeric peptide (M2-F) adopted a marked beta-sheet conformation. In contrast, when the fusion peptide was linked to the N-terminus of the T-cell epitope (F-M2), the chimeric peptide adopted an alpha-helical conformation in the presence of trifluoroethanol. The immunogenicity of the two chimeric peptides for class-I restricted CTL was also significantly different, the one adopting the alpha-helical conformation being more immunogenic. Probably due to its obvious conversion to an alpha-helical conformation, the F-M2 peptide could have a higher propensity to insert into membranes, as shown by microspectrofluorometry, with a resultant better immunogenicity than the M2-F peptide.

Localization of the regions on the C-terminal domain of the heavy chain of botulinum A recognized by T lymphocytes and by antibodies after immunization of mice with pentavalent toxoid

We have mapped the regions recognized by T and/or B cells (Abs) on the C-terminal domain (Hc) of the heavy chain of botulinum neurotoxin serotype A (BoNT/A) after immunization of two inbred mouse strains with pentavalent toxoid (BoNTs A, B, C, D and E). Using a set of synthetic overlapping peptides, encompassing the entire Hc domain (residues 855-1296), we demonstrated that T cells of Balb/c (H-2d) mice, primed with one injection of toxoid, recognized two major regions within residues 897-915 and 939-957. After multiple inoculations with toxoid, T cells of Balb/c expanded their recognition ability and responded very well to challenge with peptide 1261-1279 and moderately to stimulation with peptide 1149-1167. Unlike Balb/c T cells, those of toxoid-primed SJL (H-2s) mice exhibited a more complex profile and responded to challenge with a large number of overlapping peptides. After one toxoid injection, however, three peptides, 897-915, 939-957/953-971 overlap and 1051-1069, were the most potent T cells stimulators. After three toxoid injections, peptides 897-915 and 1051-1069 remained immunodominant while the third region was shifted upstream to 925-943/939-957 overlap. The immunodominant epitope within peptide 897-915 was recognized exclusively by T cells, since no Abs were detected against this region. The Ab binding profiles of the two mouse strains were quite similar, showing only small quantitative differences. Both, Balb/c and SJL anti-toxoid Abs displayed strong binding mainly to peptide 1177-1195, followed by peptides 869-887/883-901 overlap and 1275-1296. In addition, a significant amount of Balb/c anti-toxoid Abs was bound to peptide 1135-1153. Unlike Balb/c Abs, that interacted weakly with peptides 995-1013 and 1051-1069, the anti-toxoid Abs of SJL mice exhibited strong binding toward both peptides. The results showed that, in a given strain, the regions recognized by anti-toxoid Abs and T cells may coincide or may be uniquely B or T cell determinants.

A conserved sequence region of scorpion toxins rendered immunogenic induces broadly cross-reactive, neutralizing antibodies

Scorpion toxins constitute a family of proteins with a high degree of sequence diversity but a common mode of action. Neutralization of the toxic effects of scorpion stings by serotherapy is limited due to the various serotypes expressed by these proteins. We explored the possibility of raising antibodies to conserved parts of the toxins which could recognize several members of the family. We established the variability profile of a set of 25 scorpion toxin sequences, then evaluated systematically by peptide-scanning methods the antigenicity of one scorpion toxin. The most conserved regions were generally very poorly antigenic. One exception was the N-terminal region, which is both conserved and antigenic. Antibodies were raised in rabbits against an eight-residue synthetic peptide mimicking the N-terminal region. These peptide antibodies were cross-reactive with several scorpion toxins belonging to different serotypes and neutralized both the pharmacological effects (binding to rat brain synaptosomes) and the biological activity (toxicity in mice) of the parent toxin. The molecular model of the toxin indicates that antibody binding to residues 1-8 probably either masks some residue(s) of the N-terminus critical for the biological activity or overlaps with the epitope previously defined by neutralizing monoclonal antibody. These findings could open the way for new therapeutic strategies for the medical care of envenomations.

Immunogenicity of an aphthovirus chimera of the glycoprotein of vesicular stomatitis virus

An oligodeoxynucleotide coding for amino acids 139 through 149 of antigenic site A (ASA) of the VP1 capsid protein of the foot-and-mouth disease virus C3 serotype (FMDV C3) was inserted into three different in-frame sites of the vesicular stomatitis virus New Jersey serotype (VSV-NJ) glycoprotein (G) gene cDNA present in plasmid pKG97 under control of the bacteriophage T7 polymerase promoter. Transfection of these plasmids into CV1 cells coinfected with the T7 polymerase-expressing vaccinia virus recombinant vTF1-6,2 resulted in expression of chimeric proteins efficiently reactive with both anti-FMDV and anti-VSV G antibodies. However, in vitro translation of transcripts of these VSV-G/FMDV-ASA chimeric plasmids resulted in proteins that were recognized by anti-G serum but not by anti-FMDV serum, indicating a requirement for in vivo conformation to expose the ASA antigenic determinant. Insertion of DNA coding for a dimer of the ASA unidecapeptide between the VSV-NJ G gene region coding for amino acids 160 and 161 gave rise to a chimeric ASA-dimer protein designated GF2d, which reacted twice as strongly with anti-FMDV antibody as did chimeric proteins in which the ASA monomer was inserted in the same position or two other G-gene positions. For even greater expression of chimeric VSV-G/FMDV-ASA proteins, plasmid pGF2d and a deletion mutant p(delta)GF2d (G protein deleted of 324 C-terminal amino acids) were inserted into baculovirus vectors expressing chimeric proteins GF2d-bac and deltaGF2d-bac produced in Sf9 insect cells. Mice vaccinated with three booster injections of 30 microg each of partially purified GF2d-bac protein responded by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay with FMDV antibody titers of 1,000 units, and those injected with equivalent amounts of deltaGF2d-bac protein showed serum titers of up to 10,000 units. Particularly impressive were FMDV neutralizing antibody titers in serum of mice vaccinated with deltaGF2d-bac protein, which approached those in the sera of mice vaccinated with three 1-microg doses of native FMDV virions. Despite excellent reactivity with native FMDV, the anti-deltaGF2d-bac antibody present in vaccinated mouse serum showed no capacity to bind to sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)-denatured FMDV virions and only minimal reactivity with VP1 protein by Western blotting (immunoblotting) after SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. It was also shown in a competitive binding assay that a synthetic ASA unidecapeptide, up to concentrations of 200 microg/ml, was quite limited in its ability to inhibit binding of anti-deltaGF2-bac antibody to native FMDV virions. These results suggest that the chimeric VSV-G/FMDV-ASA proteins mimic the capacity of FMDV to raise and react with neutralizing antibodies to a restricted number of ASA conformations present on the surface of native FMDV particles.