Acute infection with Epstein–Barr virus is associated with atherogenic lipid changes

HDL-based therapeutics: A promising frontier in combating viral and bacterial infections

Low levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and impaired HDL functionality have been consistently associated with increased susceptibility to infection and its serious consequences. This has been attributed to the critical role of HDL in maintaining cellular lipid homeostasis, which is essential for the proper functioning of immune and structural cells. HDL, a multifunctional particle, exerts pleiotropic effects in host defense against pathogens. It functions as a natural nanoparticle, capable of sequestering and neutralizing potentially harmful substances like bacterial lipopolysaccharides. HDL possesses antiviral activity, preventing viruses from entering or fusing with host cells, thereby halting their replication cycle. Understanding the complex relationship between HDL and the immune system may reveal innovative targets for developing new treatments to combat infectious diseases and improve patient outcomes. This review aims to emphasize the role of HDL in influencing the course of bacterial and viral infections and its and its therapeutic potential.

The Impact of Acute EBV Infection on Changes in the Serum Proteome in Children-A Pilot Study

This study investigates the impact of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection on children's proteomes across different phases of the disease, utilising seventy-nine blood samples categorised into three groups: EBV-naive patients, acute infectious mononucleosis (IM) cases, and convalescents followed up for 12 months post-IM. The aim is to identify proteins influenced by EBV infection, shedding light on the chronic processes triggered by the virus. The results reveal thirty-nine proteins distinguishing between naive patients and those with IM, including actin, lumican, peroxiredoxin-2, fibulin-1, gelsolin, and alpha-2-macroglobulin, which are involved in immune responses, cell adhesion, and inflammation. Elevated oxidative stress markers like peroxiredoxin-2 in IM patients suggest potential links to EBV's induction of reactive oxygen species. Increased levels of apolipoproteins A-I, A-IV, C-IV, and M during IM imply associations with viral infection, while complement system proteins (C1q, C1r, and C8 gamma chain) are also elevated, reflecting their role in the immune response and viral clearance. This study's focus on children provides unique insights into EBV's impact on young populations, emphasising proteomics' role in uncovering protein associations and understanding the virus's long-term consequences. However, specific relationships between identified proteins and EBV infection require further investigation.

Understanding the role of membrane cholesterol upon Epstein Barr virus infection in astroglial cells

Background

EBV infection has long been postulated to trigger multiple sclerosis (MS) and anti-EBV antibodies showed a consistent presence in MS patients. Previous reports from our group have shown that the EBV infects different brain cells. Entry of the virus in neuronal cells is assisted by several host factors including membrane cholesterol. By using an inhibitor, methyl-β-cyclodextrin (MβCD), we evaluated the role of membrane cholesterol in EBV infection and pathogenesis.

Methodology

The membrane cholesterol depleted cells were infected with EBV and its latent genes expression were assessed. Further, EBV-mediated downstream signalling molecules namely STAT3, RIP, NF-kB and TNF-α levels was checked at protein level along with spatial (periphery and nucleus) and temporal changes in biomolecular fingerprints with Raman microspectroscopy (RS).

Results

Upon treatment with MβCD, lmp1 and lmp2a suggested significant downregulation compared to EBV infection. Downstream molecules like STAT3 and RIP, exhibited a decrease in protein levels temporally upon exposure to MβCD while NF-kB levels were found to be increased. Further, the intensity of the Raman spectra exhibited an increase in triglycerides and fatty acids in the cytoplasm of EBV-infected LN-229 cells compared to MβCD+EBV. Likewise, the Raman peak width of cholesterol, lipid and fatty acids were found to be reduced in EBV-infected samples indicates elevation in the cholesterol specific moieties. In contrast, an opposite pattern was observed in the nucleus. Moreover, the ingenuity pathway analysis revealed protein molecules such as VLDLR, MBP and APP that are associated with altered profile of cholesterol, fatty acids and triglycerides with infection-related CNS disorders.

Conclusion

Taken together, our results underline the important role of membrane cholesterol over EBV entry/pathogenesis in astroglia cells which further trigger/exacerbate virus-associated neuropathologies. These results likely to aid into the prognosis of neurological disease like MS.

Dyslipidemia and Inflammation as Hallmarks of Oxidative Stress in COVID-19: A Follow-Up Study

Recent works have demonstrated a significant reduction in cholesterol levels and increased oxidative stress in patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). The cause of this alteration is not well known. This study aimed to comprehensively evaluate their possible association during the evolution of COVID-19. This is an observational prospective study. The primary endpoint was to analyze the association between lipid peroxidation, lipid, and inflammatory profiles in COVID-19 patients. A multivariate regression analysis was employed. The secondary endpoint included the long-term follow-up of lipid profiles. COVID-19 patients presented significantly lower values in their lipid profile (total, low, and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol) with greater oxidative stress and inflammatory response compared to the healthy controls. Lipid peroxidation was the unique oxidative parameter with a significant association with the total cholesterol (OR: 0.982; 95% CI: 0.969-0.996; p = 0.012), IL1-RA (OR: 0.999; 95% CI: 0.998-0.999; p = 0.021) IL-6 (OR: 1.062; 95% CI: 1.017-1.110; p = 0.007), IL-7 (OR: 0.653; 95% CI: 0.433-0.986; p = 0.042) and IL-17 (OR: 1.098; 95% CI: 1.010-1.193; p = 0.028). Lipid abnormalities recovered after the initial insult during long-term follow-up (IQR 514 days); however, those with high LPO levels at hospital admission had, during long-term follow-up, an atherogenic lipid profile. Our study suggests that oxidative stress in COVID-19 is associated with derangements of the lipid profile and inflammation. Survivors experienced a recovery in their lipid profiles during long-term follow-up, but those with stronger oxidative responses had an atherogenic lipid profile.

High-density lipoproteins may play a crucial role in COVID-19

Background

Lipids play a central role in the virus life cycle and are a crucial target to develop antiviral therapeutics. Importantly, among the other lipoproteins, the ‘good cholesterol’ high-density lipoprotein (HDL) has been widely studied for its role in not only cardiovascular but several infectious diseases as well. Studies have suggested a role of serum lipids and lipoproteins including HDL, total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides (TG), and low-density lipoproteins (LDL) in several viral infections including COVID-19. This disease is currently a major public health problem and there is a need to explore the role of these host lipids/lipoproteins in virus pathogenesis.

Methodology

A total of 75 retrospective COVID-19 positive serum samples and 10 COVID-19 negative controls were studied for their lipid profiles including TC, HDL, LDL, and very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL), and TG.

Results

Systematic literature search on dyslipidemia status in India shows that low HDL is the most common dyslipidemia. In this cohort, 65% (49) of COVID-19 patients had severely low HDL levels whereas 35% (26) had moderately low HDL and none had normal HDL levels. On the other hand, ~ 96% of samples had normal TC (72) and LDL (72) levels. VLDL and TG levels were also variable. In the controls, 100% of samples had moderately low HDL but none severely low HDL levels.

Conclusion

HDL likely plays a crucial role in COVID-19 infection and outcomes. The causal relationships between HDL levels and COVID-19 need to be studied extensively for an understanding of disease pathogenesis and management.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12985-022-01865-4.

Comparative Account of Biomolecular Changes Post Epstein Barr Virus Infection of the Neuronal and Glial Cells Using Raman Microspectroscopy

Raman microspectroscopy is a vibrational spectroscopy technique used for investigating molecular fingerprints of a wide range of liquid or solid samples. The technique can be efficiently utilized to understand the virus-mediated cellular changes and could provide valuable insights into specific biomolecular alterations. The Epstein Barr virus (EBV) has been associated with various types of cancers as well as neurodegenerative diseases. However, EBV-mediated neurological ailments are yet underexplored in terms of biomolecular changes in neuronal and glial cells (astrocytes and microglia). In continuation of our earlier exploration of EBV-influenced glial cells, we tried to decipher biomolecular changes in EBV-infected neuronal cells using Raman microspectroscopy. Additionally, we compared the consecutive biomolecular changes observed in neuronal cells with both the glial cells. We observed that EBV infection gets differentially regulated in the neuronal cells, astrocytes, and microglia. The viral entry and initiation of infection-mediated cellular modulation could start as soon as 2 h post infection but may regulate a distinct biomolecular milieu in different time intervals. Similar to the early timespan, the 24-36 h interval could also be important for EBV to manipulate neuronal as well as glial cells as depicted from elevated biomolecular activities. At these time intervals, some common biomolecules such as proline, glucose, lactic acid, nucleotides, or cholesterol were observed in the cells. However, at these time intervals, some distinct biomolecules were also observed in each cell, such as collagen, lipid, and protein stretches in the neuronal nucleus (2-4 h); tyrosine and RNA in the astrocyte nucleus (2-4 h nucleus); and fatty acids in the microglia nucleus (24-36 h). The observed biomolecular entities could ultimately play pivotal roles in the viral usurpation of cells. We also provided insights into whether these biomolecular changes can be correlated to each other and mediate virus-associated manifestations which can be linked to neurological complications. Our study aids in the understanding of EBV-mediated biomolecular changes in the various compartments of the central nervous system.

Association of Lipid Levels With COVID-19 Infection, Disease Severity and Mortality: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Background

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) ranges from asymptomatic infection to severe illness. Cholesterol in the host cell plasma membrane plays an important role in the SARS-CoV-2 virus entry into cells. Serum lipids, especially low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), are in constant interaction with the lipid rafts in the host cell membranes and can modify the interaction of virus with host cells and the resultant disease severity. Recent studies on serum lipid levels and COVID-19 disease severity lack consistency.

Objectives

Our systematic review and meta-analysis compared the serum levels of total cholesterol (TC), LDL-C, HDL-C, and triglycerides (TG) between (1) COVID-19 patients vs. healthy controls; (2) severe vs. non-severe COVID-19 disease; (3) deceased vs. surviving COVID-19 patients.

Methods

PRISMA guidelines were followed. We included peer-reviewed articles on observational (case-control and cohort) studies from PubMed and Embase published from the database inception until September 1, 2021. We used random-effects meta-analysis for pooled mean-differences (pMD) in lipid levels (mg/dL) for the above groups.

Results

Among 441 articles identified, 29 articles (26 retrospective and 3 prospective cohorts), with an aggregate of 256,721 participants, were included. COVID-19 patients had lower TC (pMD-14.9, 95%CI-21.6 to -8.3) and HDL-C (pMD-6.9, 95%CI -10.2 to -3.7) levels (mg/dL). Severe COVID-19 patients had lower TC (pMD-10.4, 95%CI -18.7 to -2.2), LDL-C (pMD-4.4, 95%CI -8.4 to -0.42), and HDL-C (pMD-4.4, 95%CI -6.9 to -1.8) at admission compared to patients with non-severe disease. Deceased patients had lower TC (pMD-14.9, 95%CI -21.6 to -8.3), LDL-C (pMD-10.6, 95%CI -16.5 to -4.6) and HDL-C (pMD-2.5, 95%CI -3.9 to -1.0) at admission. TG levels did not differ based on COVID-19 severity or mortality. No publication bias was noted.

Conclusion

We demonstrated lower lipid levels in patients with COVID-19 infection and an association with disease severity and mortality. Their potential role in COVID-19 pathogenesis and their utility as prognostic factors require further investigation.

Transient hypertriglyceridemia: a common finding during Epstein-Barr virus-induced infectious mononucleosis

Background

Hypertriglyceridemia can occur in lymphoproliferative disorders. Infectious mononucleosis is a self-limiting, benign lymphoproliferative disorder. This study aimed to investigate the serum triglyceride concentrations and their change over time in patients with infectious mononucleosis.

Methods

We evaluated an adult patient with severe hypertriglyceridemia (>1000 mg/dL) during infectious mononucleosis and reviewed the records of 360 patients admitted to our hospital because of infectious mononucleosis (median age, 19 years; range, 15-87 years; 51.4% male). We compared the serum triglyceride concentrations with those of a control sample from the general population (n=75). A second triglyceride measurement, obtained during convalescence (median of 30 days after the initial determination), was available for 160 patients.

Results

The triglyceride concentrations in the acute phase (median: 156 mg/dL) were significantly higher than those of the controls (median, 76 mg/dL; P<0.001). A total of 194 (53.9%) patients presented with hypertriglyceridemia (>150 mg/dL), which was more common in the patients older than 30 years than in the younger patients (78.6% vs. 50.6%; P<0.001). A significant correlation (P<0.005) was observed between the triglyceride levels and white blood cell counts, total cholesterol levels, and liver damage markers. The triglyceride concentrations decreased during convalescence (P<0.001) and were lower than the initial measurement in 83.7% of the cases. Conversely, the total cholesterol concentrations during the acute phase were lower than those of the controls and increased during convalescence (P<0.001).

Conclusions

Patients with severe infectious mononucleosis frequently show mild, transient hypertriglyceridemia. Further studies are needed to elucidate the mechanisms underlying this finding.

Lipid profile as an indicator of COVID-19 severity: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) is a global pandemic. Studies reported dyslipidemia in patients with COVID-19. Herein, we conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis of published articles to evaluate the association of the lipid profile with the severity and mortality in COVID-19 patients.

Methods

PubMed/Medline, Europe PMC, and Google Scholar were searched for studies published between January 1, 2020 and January 13, 2021. Random or Fixed effects models were used to calculate the mean difference (MD) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Statistical heterogeneity was assessed using Cochran's Q test and I² statistics.

Results

This meta-analysis included 19 studies. Of which, 12 studies were categorized by severity, 04 studies by mortality, and 03 studies by both severity and mortality. Our findings revealed significantly decreased levels of total cholesterol (TC), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) in the severe group when compared with the non-severe group in a random effect model. Similarly, random effect model results demonstrated significantly lower levels of HDL-C and LDL-C in the non-survivor group when compared with the survivor group. The level of TC was also found to be decreased in the non-survivor group when compared to the survivor group in a fixed-effect model.

Conclusion

In conclusion, the lipid profile is associated with both the severity and mortality in COVID-19 patients. Hence, the lipid profile may be used for assessing the severity and prognosis of COVID-19.

Prospero registration number

CRD42021216316.

Persistence of Lipoproteins and Cholesterol Alterations after Sepsis: Implication for Atherosclerosis Progression

(1) Background: Sepsis is one of the most common critical care illnesses with increasing survivorship. The quality of life in sepsis survivors is adversely affected by several co-morbidities, including increased incidence of dementia, stroke, cardiac disease and at least temporary deterioration in cognitive dysfunction. One of the potential explanations for their progression is the persistence of lipid profile abnormalities induced during acute sepsis into recovery, resulting in acceleration of atherosclerosis. (2) Methods: This is a targeted review of the abnormalities in the long-term lipid profile abnormalities after sepsis; (3) Results: There is a well-established body of evidence demonstrating acute alteration in lipid profile (HDL-c ↓↓, LDL-C -c ↓↓). In contrast, a limited number of studies demonstrated depression of HDL-c levels with a concomitant increase in LDL-C -c in the wake of sepsis. VLDL-C -c and Lp(a) remained unaltered in few studies as well. Apolipoprotein A1 was altered in survivors suggesting abnormalities in lipoprotein metabolism concomitant to overall lipoprotein abnormalities. However, most of the studies were limited to a four-month follow-up and patient groups were relatively small. Only one study looked at the atherosclerosis progression in sepsis survivors using clinical correlates, demonstrating an acceleration of plaque formation in the aorta, and a large metanalysis suggested an increase in the risk of stroke or acute coronary event between 3% to 9% in sepsis survivors. (4) Conclusions: The limited evidence suggests an emergence and persistence of the proatherogenic lipid profile in sepsis survivors that potentially contributes, along with other factors, to the clinical sequel of atherosclerosis.

Prevalence and mortality of COVID-19 are associated with the L55M functional polymorphism of Paraoxonase 1

Introduction

Accumulating evidence recommends that infectious diseases including coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) are often associated with oxidative stress and inflammation. Paraoxonase 1 (PON1, OMIM: 168,820), a member of the paraoxonase gene family, has antioxidant properties. Enzyme activity of paraoxonase depends on a variety of influencing factors such as polymorphisms of PON1, ethnicity, gender, age, and a number of environmental variables. The PON1 has two common functional polymorphisms, namely, Q192R (rs662) and L55M (rs854560). The R192 and M55 alleles are associated with increase and decrease in enzyme activity, respectively.

Objective

The present study was conducted to investigate the possible association of rs662 and rs854560 polymorphisms with morbidity and mortality of COVID-19.

Methods

Data for the prevalence, mortality, and amount of accomplished diagnostic test (per 10⁶ people) on 25 November 2020 from 48 countries were included in the present study. The Human Development Index (HDI) was used as a potential confounding variable.

Results

The frequency of M55 was positively correlated with the prevalence (partial r = 0.487, df = 36, p = 0.002) and mortality of COVID-19 (partial r = 0.551, df = 36, p < 0.001), after adjustments for HDI and amount of the accomplished diagnostic test as possible confounders.

Conclusions

This means that countries with higher M55 frequency have higher prevalence and mortality of COVID-19.

U-Shaped Relationship of Low-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol With Risk of Severe COVID-19 From a Multicenter Pooled Analysis

Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) is a well-known risk factor for coronary heart disease but protects against infection and sepsis. We aimed to disclose the exact association between LDL-C and severe 2019 novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19). Baseline data were retrospectively collected for 601 non-severe COVID-19 patients from two centers in Guangzhou and one center in Shenzhen, and patients on admission were medically observed for at least 15 days to determine the final outcome, including the non-severe group (n = 460) and the severe group (severe and critical cases) (n = 141). Among 601 cases, 76 (12.65%) received lipid-lowering therapy; the proportion of patients taking lipid-lowering drugs in the severe group was higher than that in the non-severe group (22.7 vs. 9.6%). We found a U-shaped association between LDL-C level and risk of severe COVID-19 using restricted cubic splines. Using univariate logistic regression analysis, odds ratios for severe COVID-19 for patients with LDL-C ≤1.6 mmol/L (61.9 mg/dL) and above 3.4 mmol/L (131.4 mg/dL) were 2.29 (95% confidence interval 1.12–4.68; p = 0.023) and 2.02 (1.04–3.94; p = 0.039), respectively, compared to those with LDL-C of 2.81–3.40 mmol/L (108.6–131.4 mg/dL); following multifactorial adjustment, odds ratios were 2.61 (1.07–6.37; p = 0.035) and 2.36 (1.09–5.14; p = 0.030). Similar results were yielded using 0.3 and 0.5 mmol/L categories of LDL-C and sensitivity analyses. Both low and high LDL-C levels were significantly associated with higher risk of severe COVID-19. Although our findings do not necessarily imply causality, they suggest that clinicians should pay more attention to lipid-lowering therapy in COVID-19 patients to improve clinical prognosis.

Familial hypercholesterolemia and COVID-19: A menacing but treatable vasculopathic condition

SARS-CoV-2 infection continues to cause increased morbidity and mortality, and due to the slow pace of vaccination COVID-19 will probably remain a global burden to health systems for a long time. Unfortunately, the necessary prevention and treatment strategies of COVID-19 have led to restriction measures that are hampering the routine care of common chronic metabolic conditions like hypercholesterolemia. It is of particular concern that during the acute phase of COVID-19, the control of pre-existing metabolic diseases tends to get worse which again increases the risk for complications and a poor outcome in these patients. A significant contributor to these complications is endothelial dysfunction which is associated with COVID-19. This Commentary will discuss the impact of COVID-19 on endothelial function particularly in patients with familial hypercholesterolemia (FH), a metabolic inherited disease known to in itself adversely affect endothelial function. There should be no hesitation to continue with statin therapy in severe hypercholesterolemic patients with COVID-19. We argue that in FH patients with COVID-19 the clinicians need even consider intensifying statin therapy as well as the addition of other lipid-lowering agents, such as proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9(PCSK9) inhibitors. In contrast to statins, the PCSK9 inhibitors lower lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)] level, and, accordingly, these latter drugs need to be considered particularly in FH patients with an elevated level of Lp(a). This call applies to the in-hospital stay and also beyond. When considering that the vasculopathic effects of COVID-19 may persist, a long-term follow-up of individualized therapies in FH patients is warranted.

Familial hypercholesterolaemia and COVID-19: A two-hit scenario for endothelial dysfunction amenable to treatment

Patients with familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) are likely at increased risk for COVID-19 complications in the acute phase of the infection, and for a long time thereafter. Because in FH patients the level of low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) is elevated from birth and it correlates with the degree of systemic endothelial dysfunction, both heterozygous FH (HeFH) patients and, in particular, homozygous FH (HoFH) patients have a dysfunctional endothelium prone to further damage by the direct viral attack and the hyper-inflammatory reaction typical of severe COVID-19. Evidence to date shows the benefit of statin use in patients with COVID-19. In FH patients, the focus should therefore be on the effective lowering of LDL-C levels, the root cause of the expected excess vulnerability to COVID-19 infection in these patients. Moreover, the ongoing use of statins and other lipid-lowering therapies should be encouraged during the COVID pandemic to mitigate the risk of cardiovascular complications from COVID-19. For the reduction of the excess risk in FH patients with COVID-19, we advocate stringent adherence to the guideline determined LDL-C levels for FH patients, or maybe even to lower levels. Unfortunately, epidemiologic data are lacking on the severity of COVID-19 infections, as well as the number of acute cardiac events that have occurred in FH subjects during the COVID-19 pandemic. Such data need to be urgently gathered to learn how much the risk for, and the severity of COVID-19 in FH are increased.

Lipid metabolism changes in patients with severe COVID-19

Background

We investigated the dynamic changes in lipid profiles and their correlations with disease severity and clinical outcome in patients with severe COVID-19.

Methods

We retrospectively reviewed 519 severe COVID-19 patients with confirmed outcomes (discharged or deceased), admitted to the West Court of Union Hospital in Wuhan, China, between 29 January and 8 April 2020.

Results

Altogether, 424 severe COVID-19 patients, including 34 non-survivors and 390 survivors, were included in the final analyses. During hospitalization, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), total cholesterol (TC), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) and apolipoprotein A-I (apoA-I) showed an increasing trend in survivors, but showed a downward trend in non-survivors. The serum concentrations of HDL-C and apoA-I were inversely correlated with C-reactive protein (CRP), length of hospital stay of survivors, and disease severity scores. For in-hospital deaths, the areas under the receiver operating characteristic curves (AUCs) of the ratios of CRP/HDL-C and CRP/apoA-I at admission were 0.84 and 0.83, respectively. Moreover, patients with high ratios of CRP/HDL-C (＞77.39) or CRP/apoA-I (＞72.37) had higher mortality rates during hospitalization (log-rank p < 0.001). Logistic regression analysis demonstrated that hypertension, lactate dehydrogenase, SOFA score, and High CRP/HDL-C ratio were independent predictors of in-hospital mortality.

Conclusions

During severe COVID-19, HDL-C and apoA-I concentrations are dramatically decreased in non-survivors. Moreover, High CRP/HDL-C ratio is significantly associated with an increase in mortality and a poor prognosis.

Lipoprotein(a) and Its Potential Association with Thrombosis and Inflammation in COVID-19: a Testable Hypothesis

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

The COVID-19 pandemic has infected over > 11 million as of today people worldwide and is associated with significant cardiovascular manifestations, particularly in subjects with preexisting comorbidities and cardiovascular risk factors. Recently, a predisposition for arterial and venous thromboses has been reported in COVID-19 infection. We hypothesize that besides conventional risk factors, subjects with elevated lipoprotein(a) (Lp(a)) may have a particularly high risk of developing cardiovascular complications.

RECENT FINDINGS

The Lp(a) molecule has the propensity for inhibiting endogenous fibrinolysis through its apolipoprotein(a) component and for enhancing proinflammatory effects such as through its content of oxidized phospholipids. The LPA gene contains an interleukin-6 (IL-6) response element that may induce an acute phase-type increase in Lp(a) levels following a cytokine storm from COVID-19. Thus, subjects with either baseline elevated Lp(a) or those who have an increase following COVID-19 infection, or both, may be at very high risk of developing thromboses. Elevated Lp(a) may also lead to acute destabilization of preexisting but quiescent atherosclerotic plaques, which might induce acute myocardial infarction and stroke. Ongoing studies with IL-6 antagonists may be informative in understanding this relationship, and registries are being initiated to measure Lp(a) in subjects infected with COVID-19. If indeed an association is suggestive of being causal, consideration can be given to systematic testing of Lp(a) and prophylactic systemic anticoagulation in infected inpatients. Therapeutic lipid apheresis and pharmacotherapy for the reduction of Lp(a) levels may minimize thrombogenic potential and proinflammatory effects. We propose studies to test the hypothesis that Lp(a) may contribute to cardiovascular complications of COVID-19.

Diagnostic lipid changes in patients with visceral leishmaniasis

BACKGROUND

Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) has been associated with the increase in triglyceride (TG) levels and the decrease in high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) concentration. The aim of the study was to evaluate whether there is a diagnostic cut-off point in these lipid profile changes.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We included 100 patients with febrile infections. Analytically, 22 patients with VL, 18 patients with leptospirosis, 20 patients with Brucella melitensis, and 40 age- and sex-matched patients with fever and proven bacteremia (endocarditis and pyelonephritis). The lipid parameters were assessed for their diagnostic accuracy using logistic regression and receiver operating characteristic statistics.

RESULTS

It was observed that coexistence of HDL-C < 15 mg/dL and ΤG > 180 mg/dL had 100% sensitivity and 67.5% specificity for the confirmation of VL. The corresponding positive and negative predictive values were 59.4% and 100%, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Coexistence of high TGs and low HDL-C values may suggest VL infection in a febrile patient.

Lipid testing in infectious diseases: possible role in diagnosis and prognosis

INTRODUCTION

Acute infections lead to significant alterations in metabolic regulation including lipids and lipoproteins, which play a central role in the host immune response. In this regard, several studies have investigated the role of lipid levels as a marker of infection severity and prognosis.

SCOPE OF REVIEW

We review here the role of lipids in immune response and the potential mechanisms underneath. Moreover, we summarize studies on lipid and lipoprotein alterations in acute bacterial, viral and parasitic infections as well as their diagnostic and prognostic significance. Chronic infections (HIV, HBV, HCV) are also considered.

RESULTS

All lipid parameters have been found to be significantly dearranged during acute infection. Common lipid alterations in this setting include a decrease of total cholesterol levels and an increase in the concentration of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins, mainly very low-density lipoproteins. Also, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, apolipoprotein A1, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and apolipoprotein-B levels decrease. These lipid alterations may have prognostic and diagnostic role in certain infections.

CONCLUSION

Lipid testing may be of help to assess response to treatment in septic patients and those with various acute infections (such as pneumonia, leptospirosis and others). Diagnostically, new onset of altered lipid levels should prompt the clinician to test for underlying infection (such as leishmaniasis).

Evaluation of Lipid Profile Changes in Pediatric Patients with Acute Mononucleosis

BACKGROUND

Acute Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection could lead to atherogenic lipid profile changes in adults; while there is no evidence about the children with Infectious mononucleosis (IM). The aim of this study was to evaluate the lipid profile of the children in acute phase of mononucleosis and two months after the recovery.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

From 2010 through 2012, 36 children with IM aged 1-10 years were enrolled in a prospective cross-sectional study. Fasting serum total cholesterol, high density lipoprotein (HDL), low density lipoprotein (LDL), and triglyceride level were measured during acute phase of the disease and after 2 months of the recovery.

RESULTS

From 36 patients enrolled, 25 (69.4%) cases were male and the mean age of the patients was 4.1 ± 2.0 years. The mean of the total cholesterol level in the acute phase and 2 months after the recovery were149.5 ± 35.3 mg/dL and 145.7±30.6, respectively (P = 0.38). However, the serum level of HDL cholesterol in patients after 2 months of recovery was significantly increased (37.9 ± 9.3 mg/dL vs. 28.5 ± 10.6 mg/dL, P < 0.001). The mean value of serum LDL cholesterol was significantly reduced, two months after recovery (81.4 ± 19.5 mg/dL, vs. 92.6 ± 28.8 mg/dL, P = 0.009). Furthermore, the serum triglyceride level was significantly reduced after the recovery (108.7 ± 36.9 mg/dL) compared with the acute phase (163.8 ± 114.3 mg/dL) (P = 0.004).

CONCLUSION

EBV infection in children could change lipid profile which is partially restored 2 months after the recovery.

Multiple Infectious Agents and the Origins of Atherosclerotic Coronary Artery Disease

Although deaths due to atherosclerotic coronary artery disease (ACAD) have fallen dramatically during the past 50 years, ACAD remains as the leading cause of death in all continents, except Africa, where deaths due to infections are still dominant. Although food and nutrition have a proven role in atherosclerosis, the underlying causes of ACAD remain unknown. This is despite a century of intensive research dominated by investigations into the saturated fat hypothesis. In this review, it is hypothesized that the rise and fall in ACAD during the past 100 years is primarily due to the parallel rise and fall in the prevalence of coronary atheroma, the underlying disease. It is further hypothesized that infectious pathogens initiate atherosclerosis mainly during infancy and childhood. It is speculated that widespread use of antibiotics and vaccines against bacterial and viral infections may be the reason for the dramatic fall in coronary atheroma and ACAD during the past 50 years. The relevant evidence and a working hypothesis are included in this review.

Total antioxidant and total oxidant states, and serum paraoxonase-1 in neonatal sepsis

BACKGROUND

Paraoxonase-1 (PON-1) is an enzyme with a glycoprotein structure that depends on calcium and which is located in serum high-density lipoprotein (HDL). The aim of this study was to evaluate PON-1, and oxidant/antioxidant state, before and after treatment for neonatal sepsis, and to determine the usability of PON-1 in neonatal sepsis treatment.

METHODS

A total of 35 neonatal sepsis patients and 35 healthy controls were included in the study. Activity of PON-1, total oxidant state (TOS) and total antioxidant state (TAS) were measured and oxidative stress index (OSI) was calculated.

RESULTS

In the neonatal sepsis patients, pre-treatment TAS, TOS and OSI were significantly higher than the post-treatment levels (P < 0.0001, P < 0.0001 and P < 0.0001, respectively), and PON-1 was significantly lower (P < 0.0001). Similarly, pre-treatment TAS, TOS and OSI in the sepsis group were also significantly higher than in the control group (P < 0.0001, P < 0.0001 and P < 0.0001, respectively) and PON-1 was significantly lower (P < 0.0001). Post-treatment TAS in the sepsis group was significantly higher than in the control group (P = 0.009), whereas post-treatment TOS, OSI and PON-1 in the sepsis group were not significantly different to the control group (P = 0.078, P = 0.597 and P = 0.086, respectively).

CONCLUSION

Low serum PON-1 was found in neonatal sepsis. Serum PON-1 is thought to be a useful biomarker to evaluate the effectiveness of treatment and recovery in neonatal sepsis.

Visceral leishmaniasis is associated with marked changes in serum lipid profile

BACKGROUND

Infection is often accompanied by lipid profile alterations. The aim of this study was to evaluate the lipid profile changes in patients with visceral leishmaniasis (VL).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We included 15 patients [10 men, aged 50 (24-82) years old] with VL and 15 age- and sex-matched controls. The parameters estimated at diagnosis and 4 months after VL resolution were total cholesterol (TC), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), triglycerides (TGs), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), apolipoproteins (apo) A-Ι, B, E, C-II, C-III, lipoprotein (a) [Lp(a)], activities of lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 (Lp-PLA2), HDL-Lp-PLA2, PON1 (paraoxonase 1) and cholesterol ester transfer protein (CETP), cytokines (interleukins 1β and 6 and tumour necrosis factor α), as well as LDL subfraction profile.

RESULTS

Patients with VL at diagnosis had lower levels of TC, LDL-C, apoΒ and Lp(a), and higher TG and apoE concentrations compared with 4 months after VL resolution. The activities of Lp-PLA2, HDL-Lp-PLA2 and ΡΟΝ1 were reduced at diagnosis compared with post-treatment values. VL patients had decreased levels of both large and sdLDL-C at diagnosis; no effect on mean LDL particle size was observed. Patients with VL at diagnosis had decreased HDL-C and apoA-I concentrations; these increased 4 months after VL resolution, but remained lower compared with controls. The activities of HDL-Lp-PLA2 and PON1 remained lower in patients after VL resolution compared with controls.

CONCLUSIONS

Patients with VL exhibit increased TG levels and decreased cholesterol subclasses at diagnosis. HDL-C, apoA-I and associated enzymes remain lower 4 months after VL resolution compared with controls.

Interactions of serum cholesterol with anti-herpesvirus responses affect disease progression in clinically isolated syndromes

OBJECTIVES

To investigate whether anti-herpesvirus antibodies are associated with serum cholesterol profiles in clinically isolated syndromes (CIS).

METHODS

Pre-treatment serum samples from 118 high-risk CIS patients were analyzed for IgG antibodies against cytomegalovirus (anti-CMV), Epstein Barr virus (EBV) viral capsid antigen (VCA) and EBV nuclear antigen-1 (EBNA-1). A lipid profile consisting of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and total cholesterol (TC) was obtained. Clinical and MRI assessments were obtained at baseline, 6, 12, and 24 months after start of interferon-beta treatment.

RESULTS

The study included 118 CIS patients (77 females, 41 males, 65.3% female; mean age: 28.1±SD 8.1 years). Anti-EBV EBNA-1 antibody levels were associated with LDL-C (p=0.009) and TC (p=0.008) levels. Anti-CMV positivity status was associated with reduced time to relapse (p=0.006) and the greater number of relapses (p=0.009) in patients with high HDL-C. Anti-EBV VCA antibody levels were associated with greater number of new T2 lesions (p=0.002) and with increased brain atrophy (p<0.001) in patients with high LDL-C.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate that higher levels of anti-EBV EBNA-1 antibodies are associated with higher LDL-C and TC levels. Anti-CMV positive individuals have greater disease progression in the presence of higher HDL-C levels. Individuals with higher levels of anti-EBV VCA antibodies have greater progression on MRI measures in the presence of higher LDL-C.

Is there any relationship between Chlamydophila pneumoniae and coronary atherosclerosis among Iranians?

Background:

Atherosclerosis is a coronary heart disease, andis the most common cause of death in the industrialized world. Some studies suggested that atherosclerosis may be triggered by infectious agents, mostly Chlamydophila pneumoniae. However, the role of C. pneumoniae in the pathogenesis of coronary atherosclerosis is still controversial.

Objectives:

This study was performed to evaluate whether there is a significant association between coronary artery atherosclerosis and C. pneumoniae by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method.

Materials and Methods:

This case-control study was carried out on formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue biopsies of the coronary arteries obtained from 30 patients with coronary atherosclerosis and 30 subjects without atherosclerosis living in Northeast of Iran. All subjects' weight and height were determined, and the body mass index was calculated. We also reviewed the medical history and previous laboratory reports of patients. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) was extracted, and C. pneumonia DNA was amplified and detected using PCR assay.

Results:

The age of the patients in the study group was from 18 to 50 years, and the male to female ratio was 5:1. Only oneout of the 30 coronary tissue samples had positive PCR for C. pneumoniae (3.3%), while it was negative for patients in the control group.

Conclusions:

This study showed that C. pneumoniae infection is not strongly associated with coronary artery atherosclerosis in Northeast of Iran.

Associations of polymorphisms of rs693 and rs1042031 in apolipoprotein B gene with risk of breast cancer in Chinese

BACKGROUND

Lipid synthesis is an integrated result of genetic, epigenetic and environmental factors, and also can promote growth and survival of cancer cells. Apolipoprotein B plays a central role in lipid metabolism as the major protein component of very-low-density lipoprotein and low-density lipoprotein.

METHODS

We investigated the associations of polymorphisms of rs693 (-7673C>T) and rs1042031 (-12669 G>A) in the APOB gene with risk of breast cancer in 675 blood-unrelated Chinese patients with breast cancer and 712 healthy controls.

RESULTS

Polymorphisms of -12669 G>A and -7673C>T in the APOB gene were significantly associated with an increased risk of breast cancer (P = 0.000), especially for postmenopausal women (P = 0.000, 0.023). The positive associations still remained after further analysis of the two polymorphisms' distribution according to body mass index. However, no statistical associations were found between -12669 G>A and -7673C>T polymorphisms and other clinical characteristics, including tumor size, lymph node metastasis, histological grade, estrogen and progesterone receptor status and Her-2 status.

CONCLUSIONS

rs693 and rs1042031 polymorphisms in the APOB gene increased the risk of breast cancer in Chinese, and this role of the two polymorphisms in connection with breast cancer was not dependent on body mass index.

Paraoxonase and arylesterase activity and total oxidative/anti-oxidative status in patients with chronic adenotonsillitis

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to investigate serum paraoxonase, arylesterase activities along with determination of oxidative status via measurement of total oxidant status (TOS), total antioxidant status (TAS) and oxidative stress index (OSI) in children with recurrent adenotonsillitis during pre- and post-adenotonsillectomy period and to compare results with data from healthy subjects.

METHODS

We performed a prospective controlled trial on adenoidectomy and/or tonsillectomy patients. A total of 47 subjects, including 22 patients with recurrent adenotonsillitis and 25 healthy controls were enrolled in this study. Peripheral venous blood samples were taken from patients before adenotonsillectomy and a second sample was obtained in first month postoperatively. In the control group, blood samples from healthy volunteers were collected for one time only. Serum paraoxonase, arylesterase activities, TOS, TAS and OSI levels were measured.

RESULTS

Paraoxonase, arylesterase activity, TAS and TOS levels were significantly higher in preoperative group compared to control group (P<0.001, P=0.003, 0.003 and 0.005, respectively). However, OSI level was similar in preoperative group compared to control group (P=0.25). In the post-operative group, paraoxonase, arylesterase activities, TAS and OSI levels were lower as compared to preoperative group but differences were statistically insignificant (P=0.483, 0.265, 0.149 and 0.090, respectively). TOS level in post-operative group was significantly lower than the preoperative group (P<0.001). In the post-operative group, paraoxonase and arylesterase activities were significantly higher as compared to control group (P=0.004 and 0.02, respectively). TOS and OSI levels were significantly lower in post-operative group compared to control group (P=0.001 and 0.02, respectively). However, TAS was similar between post-operative and control groups (P=0.464).

CONCLUSIONS

Based on data obtained from this study, we may state that paraoxonase, arylesterase activities with TAS, TOS and OSI levels of patients with chronic adenotonsillitis shows alterations due to oxidant/antioxidant imbalance induced by frequent infections.

Leptospirosis is associated with markedly increased triglycerides and small dense low-density lipoprotein and decreased high-density lipoprotein

The objective of the present study was to evaluate the effects of acute infection with Leptospira interrogans on lipids, lipoproteins and associated enzymes. Fasting serum levels of total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), triglycerides (TG), apolipoproteins (apo) A-Ι, B, E, C-II, C-III and lipoprotein (a) [Lp(a)] were determined in patients with Leptospirosis on diagnosis and 4 months after recovery as well as in age- and sex-matched controls. Activities of cholesteryl-ester transfer protein (CETP) and lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A(2) (Lp-PLA(2)) as well as paraoxonase 1 (PON1) hydrolysing activity and levels of cytokines were determined. LDL subclass analysis was performed with Lipoprint LDL System. Eleven patients (10 men, mean age 49.5 ± 8.4 years) and 11 controls were included. TC, HDL-C, LDL-C, apoA-I, apoB and Lp(a) levels were lower at baseline, whereas TG and apoE levels were elevated compared with 4 months later. At baseline, higher levels of cytokines and cholesterol concentration of small dense LDL particles (sdLDL-C) were noticed, whereas LDL particle size was lower compared with follow-up. Activities of plasma Lp-PLA(2) and HDL-associated Lp-PLA(2) were lower at baseline compared with post treatment values, whereas PON1 activity was similar at baseline and 4 months later. 4 months after recovery, the levels of all lipid parameters evaluated did not differ compared with controls, except for HDL-C which remained lower. PON1 activity both at baseline and 4 months later was lower in patients compared with controls. Leptospirosis is associated with atherogenic changes of lipids, lipoproteins and associated enzymes.

Epstein-Barr and other viral mimicry of autoantigens, myelin and vitamin D-related proteins and of EIF2B, the cause of vanishing white matter disease: massive mimicry of multiple sclerosis relevant proteins by the Synechococcus phage

The Epstein-Barr virus expresses proteins containing numerous short consensi (identical pentapeptides at least, or longer gapped consensi) that are identical to those in 16 multiple sclerosis autoantigens or in the products of multiple sclerosis susceptibility genes. Other viruses implicated in multiple sclerosis also display such mimicry and the Synechococcus phage was identified as a novel and major contributor to this phenomenon. Cyanobacteria hosts of Synechococcus phage favor temperate climes, in line with multiple sclerosis distribution, and bacterial and phage ecology accords closely with multiple sclerosis epidemiology. Bovine, ovine or canine viral proteins were also identified as autoantigen homologues, in line with epidemiological data linking multiple sclerosis to cattle density, sheep contact and dog ownership. Viral proteins align with known autoantigens, other myelin and vitamin D-related proteins and the translation initiation factor EIF2B, which is implicated in vanishing white matter disease. These data suggest that the autoantigens in multiple sclerosis, which causes demyelination in animal models, may be generated by antibodies raised to viral protein homologues. Multiple autoantibodies may cause multiple sclerosis via protein knockdown and immune activation. Their selective removal may be of clinical benefit as already suggested by promising results using plasmapheresis or immunoadsorption in certain multiple sclerosis patients.

The effect of simvastatin alone versus simvastatin plus ezetimibe on the concentration of small dense low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in subjects with primary hypercholesterolemia

OBJECTIVE

To compare the effects of simvastatin alone versus simvastatin plus ezetimibe on small dense low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (sdLDL-C) concentration in subjects with primary hypercholesterolemia.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

Patients with LDL-C levels above those recommended by the National Cholesterol Education Program Adult Treatment Panel III were randomized to open-label simvastatin 40 mg (n = 50) or simvastatin/ezetimibe 10/10 mg as a fixed combination (n = 50) daily. LDL particle size (estimated by electrophoresis), sdLDL-C levels, and lipid profile were blindly assessed at baseline and 3 months.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION

clinicaltrials.gov NCT00932620.

RESULTS

Both simvastatin 40 mg and simvastatin/ezetimibe 10/10 mg decreased total cholesterol (-31% and -36%, respectively), LDL-C (-43% and -49%, respectively), triglycerides (-17% and -19%, respectively), non-high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (non-HDL-C; -40% and -46%, respectively), large LDL-C (-40 and -44%, respectively) and sdLDL-C levels (-42% and -46%, respectively, all p < 0.000 vs baseline) and increased LDL particle size (+0.5% and +0.7%, respectively, both p < 0.05 vs baseline). The changes in total cholesterol, LDL-C and non-HDL-C were greater in the simvastatin/ezetimibe group (all p < 0.05). Changes in triglycerides, large LDL-C, sdLDL-C levels and LDL particle size were similar in the two groups. In multivariate analysis, baseline sdLDL-C and triglyceride levels, but not the choice of treatment, were significantly and independently correlated with the changes in sdLDL-C levels.

CONCLUSION

The combination of simvastatin 10 mg plus ezetimibe 10 mg is similarly effective to simvastatin 40 mg in improving sdLDL-C concentration and LDL particle size in subjects with primary hypercholesterolemia.