Immunomodulatory activities of polysaccharides from Ganoderma on immune effector cells

Structure characterization and rheological properties of novel polysaccharides extracted from mango seed kernel, and their effects on immunomodulation and human gut microbiota

Mango seed kernel polysaccharides (MSKP) were investigated for their structural characteristics, rheological properties, immunomodulatory effects, and potential benefits for gut health. The molecular weight of extracted MSKP was 4.2 × 104 Da. The primary monosaccharide in MSKP was found to be xylose, which accounted for 25.74 mol% of the total. Fucose, 22.65 mol%, rhamnose, 12.72 mol%, mannose, 11.87 mol%, ribose, 9.21 mol%, glucose, 7.87 mol%, arabinose, 6.11 mol%, and galactose, 3.81 mol%. The proposed structure of MSKP is →4) β -d-Xyl(1 → 4)α-d-Glc(1 → 4) α -d-Gal(1 → 6)β-d-Rib(1 → 3)β-d-Ara(1 → 6)α-d-Glc(1 → 2)β-d-Fuc(1 → 6)α-d-Rha(1→. MSKP solutions exhibited shear-thinning behavior, where viscosity decreased with increasing shear rates. Using an advanced extraction technique, MSKP was shown to enhance immune responses by stimulating nitric oxide production, acid phosphatase activity, and phagocytosis in RAW 264.7 murine cells. Importantly, simulated digestive tests indicated MSKP's resilience, showing no changes in molecular weight, monosaccharide content, or reducing sugar levels, suggesting it could reach the large intestine intact. This resilience promotes the increase of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) in the gut, highlighting MSKP's potential as a functional food for supporting gut health and preventing disease.

Physicochemical, antioxidant, gastrointestinal digestion and probiotic growth promoting properties of water and alkali extracted polysaccharides from Schizophyllum commune

BACKGROUND

Schizophyllum commune is a traditional edible and medicinal mushroom that has been successfully artificially cultivated in China. Polysaccharides from S. commune have attracted much attention because of their bioactivity. The present study aimed to investigate the physicochemical, gastrointestinal digestion and probiotic growth promoting properties of water extracted polysaccharides (WSP) and alkali extracted polysaccharides (WSP) from S. commune.

RESULTS

The extraction rates and the total sugar contents of WSP and ASP were 11.97% and 14.36% and 57.71 g kg-1 and 52.34 g kg-1, respectively. The main monosaccharides of WSP are glucose and mannose, whereas glucose, mannose and galacturonic acid are the main monosaccharides of ASP. Although the molecular weight of WSP is greater than that of ASP, both WSP and ASP show the typical absorption peaks of polysaccharides and a triple helix structure. WSP shows a coarse granular microstructure, whereas ASP presents a dense porous microstructure. Moreover, WSP shows typical Newtonian fluid behavior, whereas ASP exhibits typical non-Newtonian fluid behavior. WSP presents better thermal stability and antioxidant properties than that of ASP. Both WSP and ASP have good hydrolysis resistance in vitro simulated digestion, but ASP shows better hydrolysis resistance. Both WSP and ASP can promote the growth of probiotic, but the promoting growth effect depends on the strain of the probiotic.

CONCLUSION

In sum, WSP shows better physicochemical properties, but ASP has more potential to be an excellent prebiotic. © 2025 Society of Chemical Industry.

Sulfated modification of polysaccharides from Sophora flavescens: Impact on antioxidant, antitumor, and immunomodulatory activities

Three polysaccharides, namely SHC, SFH, and SFA, were extracted from Sophora sophora under various conditions. A single-factor experimental design was employed to investigate the influence of reaction solvent, sulfating reagent ratio, reaction time, and temperature on the yield of sulfated products, the degree of sulfate group substitution, and their inhibitory effects on HepG2 cell proliferation. Three sulfated derivatives, SHCS, SFHS, and SFAS, were synthesized and confirmed through Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy, Ultraviolet Spectroscopy, and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy. Among these, SFHS exhibited the highest degree of substitution (DS) at 1.22, followed by SFAS at 0.97 and SFCS at 0.56. In vitro analyses revealed that sulfated modification significantly enhanced free radical scavenging activity, tumor cell growth inhibition, and immune response enhancement. Specifically, SFHS exhibited scavenging activities against DPPH, hydroxyl, and superoxide anion free radicals with rates of 69.8 % ± 6.1 %, 50.4 % ± 4.2 %, and 58.5 % ± 5.1 %, respectively, at 5 mg/mL. Furthermore, it inhibited the proliferation of HepG2 cells by 51.9 % ± 5.6 % at 400 μg/mL and HeLa cells by 43.7 % ± 1.8 % at 800 μg/mL. At 800 μg/mL, SFHS treatment resulted in a phagocytosis rate of neutral red by RAW264.7 macrophages, which was 246.6 % ± 13.9 % relative to the control group, while nitric oxide production was measured at 237.6 % ± 6.2 %. These results suggest that sulfation can enhance the biological functions of polysaccharides derived from S. flavescens, indicating potential applications in functional foods and pharmaceuticals.

Innovative submerged directed fermentation: Producing high molecular weight polysaccharides from Ganoderma lucidum

Polysaccharides from Ganoderma lucidum (GLPs) exhibit unique bioactivity, but traditional cultivation yields low quantities and unstable quality, limiting their research and application. This study highlights how submerged fermentation processes enable the directed acquisition of structurally defined high molecular weight (MW) bioactive intracellular polysaccharides (IPS). The results showed that inoculation amount and fermentation scales had a significant effect on the content of high MW IPS. In the fermentor, by lowering the initial glucose concentration combined with fed-batch fermentation, the high MW IPS content was improved. The monosaccharide composition indicated that the high MW IPS obtained from different fermentation scales exhibited stability. This polysaccharide, which is a β-glucan with a β-1,3-Glcp backbone and β-1-Glcp attached at the O-6 position, demonstrated immunostimulatory effects in vitro. Overall, the consistent quality of GLPs during submerged fermentation underscores the feasibility of industrial-scale production, presenting a significant advancement over traditional cultivation methods and promising for biotechnological applications.

Ginsenosides modulate immunity via TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB pathway and gut microbiota

BACKGROUND

Ginsenosides, the primary active compounds in Panax ginseng C. A. Mey., are well known for their potent immunomodulatory effects. However, their precise mechanisms, particularly concerning the "intestinal-metabolism-immune axis", have yet to be fully elucidated.

PURPOSE

This study aims to investigate how ginsenosides protect immune function through the regulation of the gut-metabolism-immune axis.

STUDY DESIGN

A CTX-induced immunodeficient mouse model was established to assess the effects of ginsenosides on immune function, gut microbiota, and metabolic pathways.

METHODS

The immune organ indices (spleen and thymus), levels of immune cytokines (TNF-α, IFN-γ, IL-6, IL-1β), and immunoglobulins (IgM, IgA) were assessed. Intestinal microbial diversity was analyzed using 16S rRNA sequencing, and metabolomics was employed to identify disruptions in amino acid and lipid metabolic pathways. Spearman correlation analysis and Western blotting were conducted to explore the involvement of the TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling pathway.

RESULTS

Ginsenosides significantly restored immune organ indices and enhanced cytokines and immunoglobulins. 16S rRNA sequencing revealed an increase in probiotic levels and a reduction in potentially harmful bacteria, thereby enhancing intestinal microbiota diversity. Metabolomics analysis showed that ginsenosides ameliorated CTX-induced metabolic disorders and stimulated the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) and bile acids. Western blot analysis confirmed the upregulation of TLR4, MyD88, and NF-κB p-p65 expression.

CONCLUSION

This study systematically elucidates the mechanism by which ginsenosides enhance immune function by regulating gut microbiota, restoring metabolic balance, and activating the TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling pathway. These findings provide a molecular foundation for the potential use of ginsenosides in the prevention and treatment of immune-related diseases.

Unveiling triterpenoid superiority in a newly developed Ganoderma lucidum variety through untargeted metabolomics approach

The fruiting bodies of Ganoderma lucidum are renowned for their therapeutic properties, primarily due to their triterpenoid content. Variability in G. lucidum strains may influence the composition and abundance of triterpenoids. In this study, we explored the triterpenoid superiority in a newly developed G. lucidum strain (GL_V2) obtained through mutation breeding, and compared it to a widely cultivated strain (GL_V1). GL_V2 exhibited a 1.4-fold increase in total triterpenoid content and higher DPPH radical scavenging activity compared to GL_V1, while polysaccharide levels remained consistent. Using UPLC-Q-Orbitrap-MS and chemometric analyses, we identified 589 metabolites, including 86 triterpenoids. Multivariate statistical analyses revealed clear differences in overall metabolite profiles and triterpenoid compositions between the two strains. OPLS-DA identified 56 triterpenoids as key distinguishing markers with VIP values above 1.0. Notably, GL_V2 exhibited increased levels of seven ganoderic acids, two ganoderiols, three ganolucidic acids, and two ganosporelactones, while GL_V1 showed higher concentrations of six lucidenic acids. These results highlight the superior triterpenoid composition of GL_V2 and its potential for developing more potent G. lucidum-derived products. This study offers valuable insights into varietal differences in triterpenoid profiles and their implications for the cultivation and therapeutic use of G. lucidum. Additionally, the findings of this study suggest that GL_V2 holds significant potential for the development of more effective nutraceutical and pharmaceutical products derived from G. lucidum.

Prospects of Corn (Zea mays L.) Polysaccharides: Structural Features, Bioactivities, and Applications

Over the past few years, the identification and study of bioactive and health-promoting new ingredients from natural sources have garnered significant interest. Corn has increasingly come into focus due to its substantial nutritional and medicinal benefits. Research studies have shown that corn polysaccharide exhibits antitumor, antioxidative, hepatoprotective, renoprotective, hypoglycemic, immunomodulatory, and various other beneficial effects. Furthermore, variations in extraction materials and methods can result in differences in the structural and biological properties of corn polysaccharides. This article reviews the latest advancements in the extraction and purification techniques, structural characteristics, biological activities, structural modifications, and toxicological assessments of corn polysaccharides. The aim is to furnish evidence that supports the further development of corn polysaccharides as therapeutic agents and functional food ingredients.

Tetrastigma hemsleyanum polysaccharide protects against "two-hit" induced severe pneumonia via TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway

Severe pneumonia, frequently accompanied by cytokine storms, stands as a perilous respiratory condition with alarmingly high mortality rates. Tetrastigma hemsleyanum polysaccharide (THP), a pivotal constituent derived from Tetrastigma hemsleyanum Diels et Gilg (TH), has demonstrated efficacy in treating lung inflammation. However, its precise efficacy and underlying mechanisms in the context of severe pneumonia remain elusive. Our research aims to elucidate THP's protective effects in a "two-hit" severe pneumonia model. Our observations indicate that THP administration markedly shields the lungs from injury, reduces pulmonary apoptosis, balances the formation of immune thrombus and alleviates oxidative stress in pneumonia-induced mice. Furthermore, THP significantly decreases the levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines, suggesting its robust anti-inflammatory capabilities. Notably, THP also plays a crucial role in normalizing gut microbiota imbalance, which is vital in the pathogenesis of severe pneumonia. Metabolomic analysis further validates THP's restorative effects on plasma metabolites, indicating its involvement in regulating energy metabolism and immune homeostasis. Mechanistically, THP targets the TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway, a core mediator of inflammation, thereby dampening the inflammatory cascade. In summary, our findings underscore that THP, through its multifaceted actions targeting inflammation, oxidative stress, immune thrombus formation, gut microbiota regulation, and metabolic modulation, emerges as a promising therapeutic approach for severe pneumonia. This study provides invaluable insights into the potential applications of natural polysaccharides in treating severe pneumonia and highlights the significance of the TLR4/NF-κB pathway in the disease's progression.

What Are "Lingzhi Wang" or "Zhu Lingzhi"? Notes on Ganoderma (Ganodermataceae, Polyporales) Species Characterized by Diminutive Pilei and Gracile Stipes from Hainan Island, Tropical China

Species of Ganoderma (Ganodermataceae, Polyporales) have been extensively utilized in traditional Chinese medicine for over two millennia, owing to their remarkable medicinal properties and diverse chemical constituents. Hainan Island, located in tropical China, harbors a rich diversity of Ganoderma species. Among these, certain varieties referred to as "Lingzhi Wang" or "Zhu Lingzhi" by indigenous communities are distinguished by their diminutive pilei and slender stipes. Despite their traditional recognition, these species have been subject to morphological confusion. In this study, specimens labeled as "Lingzhi Wang" or "Zhu Lingzhi" were subjected to comprehensive morphological examinations and molecular phylogenetic analyses. The findings reveal that the Ganoderma species characterized by small pilei and gracile stipes encompass at least five distinct species. Among these, two are new to science: G. baisuzhenii and G. shennongii. The remaining three species, G. bambusicola, G. flexipes, and G. subflexipes, have been previously described. Taxonomically, G. bambusicola was reported for the first time on the Chinese mainland. This study provides a clearer taxonomic framework for these medicinally significant fungi.

Three polysaccharides from Roughhaired Holly Root with immune-enhancing activity via activation of TLR receptor

In this study, we isolated three acidic polysaccharide components (IAPS-1, IAPS-2, and IAPS-3) from Rough-haired Holly (Ilex asprella) roots and systematically evaluated their immunomodulatory activity in murine macrophages. The polysaccharides were structurally characterized using integrated chromatographic and spectroscopic techniques. Subsequent bioactivity screening revealed that IAPS-1 demonstrated stronger immunomodulatory effects compared to IAPS-2 and IAPS-3. Mechanistically, in vitro experiments showed that IAPS-1 significantly upregulated TLR4-mediated expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines in RAW 264.7 macrophages. Furthermore, in cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppressed mice, IAPS-1 administration restored immune organ indices and elevated serum levels of critical inflammatory mediators. Collectively, our findings identify IAPS-1 as a well-defined composition polysaccharide with immunomodulatory activity via TLR4 signaling, highlighting its potential as a therapeutic candidate for immune dysfunction.

Polysaccharides with Arabinose: Key Players in Reducing Chronic Inflammation and Enhancing Immune Health in Aging

Aging is associated with a decline in physiological performance leading to increased inflammation and impaired immune function. Polysaccharides (PLs) found in plants, fruits, and fungi are emerging as potential targets for therapeutic intervention, but little is known about their effects on chronic inflammation and aging. This review aims to highlight the current advances related to the use of PLs, with the presence of arabinose, to attenuate oxidative stress and chronic and acute inflammation, and their immunomodulatory effects associated with antioxidant status in monocytes, macrophages, and neutrophil infiltration, and leukocyte rolling adhesion in neutrophils. In addition, recent studies have shown the importance of investigating the 'major' monosaccharide, such as arabinose, present in several of these polysaccharides, and with described effects on gut microbiome, glucose, inflammation, allergy, cancer cell proliferation, neuromodulation, and metabolic stress. Perspectives and opportunities for further investigation are provided. By promoting a balanced immune response and reducing inflammation, PLs with arabinose or even arabinose per se may alleviate the immune dysregulation and inflammation seen in the elderly, therefore providing a promising strategy to mitigate a variety of diseases.

Evaluation of in vitro pharmacological activities of medicinal mushrooms in the context of dry eye disease

Introduction

Ethnic groups worldwide use mushrooms, particularly polypores (a group of fungi with woody fruiting bodies), to manage inflammatory conditions. In this study, the in vitro anti-inflammatory potential and mycochemical composition of six polypore extracts derived from the fruit bodies of Fomes fomentarius (L.) Fr. (FF), Ganoderma lucidum (Fr.) P. Karst. (GL), Ganoderma tsugae Murrill (GT), Gloeophyllum odoratum (Wulfen) Imazeki (GO), Laricifomes officinalis (Vill.) Kotl. and Pouzar (LO), and the sclerotium of Inonotus obliquus (Fr.) Pilát (IO) were analyzed for their relevance to treat dry eye disease (DED).

Methods

Ethanolic extracts of the fungal materials were prepared and chemically characterized by UHPLC-ELSD/MS and TLC analyses before investigating the extracts' cytotoxic, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and lipid-stimulating properties. Radical scavenging and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) assays were carried out in UVB-exposed human corneal epithelial (HCE-T) and immortalized human meibomian gland epithelial (IHMGEC) cells to evaluate antioxidant capacities. To examine the influence of the extracts of the inflammatory processes, associated with DED, a secretion assay for pro-inflammatory cytokines was conducted in UVB-exposed HCE-T and LPS-stimulated monocytic THP-1 cells. The lipid droplets secreted by IHMGECs were analyzed to determine the extracts' lipid-stimulating properties.

Results

Extracts of GT, GL, GO, and IO found to have high radical scavenging abilities. They significantly reduced intracellular ROS in UVB-exposed HCE-T and iHMGEC cells. GO and GL extracts inhibited cytokine secretion in HCE-T cells even at low concentrations. All tested extracts significantly inhibited the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IP10, IL-6, IL-8, and α) in LPS-stimulated monocytic THP-1 cells.

Conclusion

Several extracts of the investigated fungal materials exhibit multifaceted pharmacological in vitro activities. Due to low cytotoxic activity on HCE-T, iHMGEC, and THP-1 cells, extracts from GL and GO are particularly pertinent to the treatment of DED, even at low concentrations.

Structure-function insights of natural Ganoderma polysaccharides: advances in biosynthesis and functional food applications

Ganoderma polysaccharides (GPs), derived from various species of the Ganoderma genus, exhibit diverse bioactivities, including immune modulation, anti-tumor effects, and gut microbiota regulation. These properties position GPs as dual-purpose agents for medicinal and functional food development. This review comprehensively explores the structural complexity of six key GPs and their specific mechanisms of action, such as TLR signaling in immune modulation, apoptosis pathways in anti-tumor activity, and their prebiotic effects on gut microbiota. Additionally, the structure-activity relationships (SARs) of GPs are highlighted to elucidate their biological efficacy. Advances in green extraction techniques, including ultrasonic-assisted and enzymatic methods, are discussed for their roles in enhancing yield and aligning with sustainable production principles. Furthermore, the review addresses biotechnological innovations in polysaccharide biosynthesis, improving production efficiency and making large-scale production feasible. These insights, combined with ongoing research into their bioactivity, provide a solid foundation for developing health-promoting functional food products that incorporate GPs. Furthermore, future research directions are suggested to optimize biosynthesis pathways and fully harness the health benefits of these polysaccharides.

A glucomannan from defatted Ganoderma lucidum spores: structural characterization and immunomodulatory activity via activating TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling pathway

Ganoderma lucidum spores are tiny mature germ cells ejected from the abaxial side of the pileus and were responsible for multiple pharmacological properties. The defatted G. lucidum spores are the byproducts after the extraction of G. lucidum spores oil by supercritical fluid extraction technology, which have not been given sufficient attention. In order to fully utilize the resources of G. lucidum spores, a glucomannan (SGL90-1, 6.4 kDa) was isolated from the defatted G. lucidum spores. SGL90-1 was composed of mannose, glucose, galactose, and fucose in a molar ratio of 23.9:28.7:9.0:1.0. The backbone of SGL90-1 was consisted of →2,4)-α-D-Manp-(1→, →6)-β-D-Manp-(1→, →2,6)-α-D-Manp-(1→, →2)-α-D-Glcp-(1→, and →3,6)-β-D-Glcp-(1→ with seven side chains, and terminated with β-D-Manp-(1→, β-D-Glcp-(1→, α-L-Fucp-(1→, and β-D-Galf-(1→. Moreover, SGL90-1 could significantly elevate the phagocytic capability of RAW264.7 macrophages and promote the levels of nitric oxide (NO), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), and interlrukin-6 (IL-6) through activating the TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling pathway. Collectively, these findings demonstrated the potential of SGL90-1 as a natural functional food with strong immune-enhancing effect.

Evolutionary research trends of polysaccharides from Polygonatum genus: A comprehensive review of its isolation, structure, health benefits, and applications

Polygonatum sibiricum, valued both as a medicinal and nutritional plant, has long been recognized for its health benefits. Increasing evidence highlights its polysaccharides (PSPs) as key components. As research into the structural characteristics and biological activity of PSPs continues to grow, there is rising interest in developing functional foods that harness their therapeutic potential. However, existing studies on PSPs remain fragmented, lacking a comprehensive framework for their application in functional food development and drug delivery. This review aims to fill that gap by systematically summarizing the purification, structural characterization, and diverse biological activities of PSPs. We also explore the significant potential of these polysaccharides in functional food development and their promising applications as natural, eco-friendly drug carriers. Furthermore, we address the key challenges and limitations in this field, offering insights into future research trends and opportunities for advancing PSPs in areas such as sustainable materials, functional foods, and therapeutic innovations.

Anti-inflammatory effect of polysaccharides from Sambucus williamsii Hance roots in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages and acute lung injury in mice

This study aimed to investigate the structural characterization of polysaccharide from Sambucus williamsii Hance roots (SWH1-1) and its effects on inflammation and acute lung injury (ALI). Results showed that SWH1-1 had a molecular weight of 10,040 Da and primarily consisted of arabinose, galactose, glucose and mannose. Its main backbone was composed of →6)-α-D-Glcp-(1→, →6)-α-D-Man-(1→, and →6)-β-D-Galp-(1→. Besides, SWH1-1 could alleviate nitric oxide (NO), tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) contents in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-treated RAW 264.7 cells. In mice experiment, SWH1-1 alleviated LPS-induced lung injury by reversing lung histological changes, inhibiting apoptosis, and reducing myeloperoxidase (MPO) levels. SWH1-1 also reduced TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β values in vivo. SWH1-1 reduced oxidative stress by upregulating superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione (GSH) and downregulating malondialdehyde (MDA) contents. Moreover, SWH1-1 inhibited the activation of the Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)/nuclear factor κB (NF-κB)/mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway in LPS-injured lung tissues. The results of RAW264.7 cell experiments further verified that SWH1-1 inhibited TLR4/NF-κB/MAPK pathway. Our research displayed that SWH1-1 improved LPS-induced ALI by alleviating inflammation, oxidative stress and TLR4/NF-κB/MAPK pathway. These results suggest that SWH1-1 is a potential anti-inflammatory candidate for the treatment of LPS-induced acute lung injury.

Hydrothermal treatment of yeast cell wall generates potent anti-proliferative agents targeting MCF7 breast cancer cells effectively even under culture conditions separated by a plastic wall

Traditionally, the yeast cell wall (YCW) has limited applications because of its low solubility. To overcome this, a novel method was developed using a hydrothermal reaction to enhance its solubility and decrease its viscosity; this resulted in the production of a soluble form of YCW, known as the YCW treated with hydrothermal reaction (YCW-H), with broader chemical composition. However, the biological impact of YCW-H is unclear, excluding its reported plant growth-promotion by effectively regulating soil microspheres. This study investigated the potential of YCW-H to inhibit MCF-7 breast cancer cell proliferation. YCW-H demonstrated significant anti-proliferative effects on MCF7 cells, reducing cell growth by 58.7% ± 6.9 even when physically separated from the cells by a plastic wall. The observation suggests the presence of a diffusible factor against cell proliferation in YCW-H, a phenomenon not observed in the presence of untreated YCW. Reactive carbon species (RCS) generated during the hydrothermal treatment of YCW could be responsible for the effect. The addition of Fe(III) ions into YCW-H further amplified RCS production and elevated its inhibitory activity by about 10% across the plastic barrier. Radical adduct concentration of H2O in a tube which was incubated in YCW-H was 0.47 μmol/L, indicating that radicals migrated into the water through the plastic wall. The concentration of radical adducts in H2O in a tube exposed to YCW-H with Fe(III) ions further increased to 0.51 μmol/L, indicating that the growth inhibition was correlated with the increased RCS levels. Furthermore, flow cytometry analysis revealed the cytotoxic effects of YCW-H, indicating YCW-H is applicable to cancer therapy. Therefore, the findings highlight the pivotal role of RCS in the YCW-H anti-cancer activity, suggesting its potential as a promising candidate for the development of novel medical devices for cancer treatment.

Effect of Ganoderma lucidum water extract on flavor volatiles and quality characteristics of set-type yogurt

This study investigated the effects of several concentrations of Ganoderma lucidum water extract (GLWE) (0, 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 %) on set-type yogurt's flavor volatiles as well as the physicochemical, textural, and antioxidant activities of the yogurt during storage. The HS-SPME-GC-MS investigation found that adding GLWE increased the amount of flavor volatiles in yogurt, which improved the quality of flavor volatiles produced by the yogurt. The yogurt's water holding capacity, syneresis, color, and texture all showed optimum values at a 0.5 % GLWE concentration, and its total number of flavor volatiles reached 43. To sum up, the incorporation of GLWE at a 0.5 % concentration promotes the development of superior flavor volatiles in yogurt and enhances its qualitative attributes in contrast to the control group.

Extraction, purification, structural characterization, biological activity, mechanism of action and application of polysaccharides from Ganoderma lucidum: A review

Ganoderma lucidum is a traditional tonic medicine in China, known as the "fairy grass" and "spiritual grass". It contains various chemical components, such as polysaccharides, triterpenoids, alkaloids, nucleosides, sterols, and acid compounds, which have the effects of tonifying qi and calming the mind, stopping cough and asthma, and are used to treat restlessness, lung deficiency cough and asthma, fatigue and shortness of breath, and lack of appetite. Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides (GLPs) are one of the main bioactive ingredients and are widely used in traditional Chinese medicine and traditional medicine fields. They have shown good medicinal value in enhancing immunity, inhibiting tumor cell growth, delaying aging, lowering blood sugar, lowering blood lipids, protecting the heart, anti-radiation, anti-fatigue, and other aspects. This article reviews the research progress on the extraction and purification, structural characteristics, pharmacological activity, and mechanisms of GLPs, as well as their applications in industries such as medicine, food, and daily chemical products. The aim is to provide theoretical basis for the treatment of traditional Chinese medicine compound preparations and lay the foundation for the potential value development of Ganoderma lucidum products.

Evaluation of Two Different Treatments for Larch Logs as Substrates to Cultivate Ganoderma tsugae in the Forest

Larch wood, a prevalent cultivation medium for Ganoderma tsugae, has yet to be scrutinized concerning the differential impacts of sterilized and non-sterilized substrates on the growth and development of this fungus. Our present investigation sought to elucidate these effects in a forest-like environment. After larch wood segments were sun-dried, they were divided into two groups; one group was bagged and autoclaved, while the other group was bagged without any treatment. Subsequently, all segments were inoculated with the G. tsugae strain HLXL1 and ensconced under the canopy of a Pinus koraiensis forest, thereby approximating the conditions of natural growth. Wild G. tsugae was used as the control. Data on agronomic traits, production days, fruiting body yield, and effective constituent content were analyzed. The results indicated no significant differences between sterilized and non-sterilized substrates in terms of agronomic traits. However, the mineral content and bioactive compounds in G. tsugae fruiting bodies significantly differed across various growth stages. The outcomes were optimal for non-sterilized substrates, followed by sterilized substrates, while the wild strains were markedly less effective than the cultivated ones.

Comparative analysis of multifaceted properties of Agaricus bisporus and Ganoderma lucidum macro-fungi powder: Techno-functional and structural characterization, mineral uptake, and photocatalytic activity

Macro-fungi are recognized for food, medicinal, and environmental applications, therefore, the study focuses on multifaceted nutritional, techno-functional, and bioremediation-related uses of Agaricus bisporus and Ganoderma lucidum powders. Herein, A. bisporus exhibited 11.43 % significantly higher protein content, whereas, G. lucidum exhibited 63.55 % higher fiber content. For both mushrooms, spherical porous and fibrous interconnected structural morphology was observed, which led to distinguishing crystallinity and techno-functional properties. G. lucidum demonstrated 75.89 % higher iron, and 19.22 % higher zinc bioavailability while A. bisporus displayed 45.36 % higher calcium bioavailability. G. lucidum absorbed significantly higher zinc and calcium during cellular uptake, while A. bisporus revealed higher iron uptake. Both macro-fungi enhanced iron storage, with G. lucidum achieving 28.68 ± 0.61 ng ferritin/mg cell protein. A. bisporus degraded 88.69 ± 0.12 % Malachite Green while G. lucidum degraded 90.51 ± 0.19 %, maintaining efficiency in both sunlight and UV light. The research indicates that these matrices may serve as valuable nutritional sources and potential substitutes for additives.

Mitigating Oxidative Stress and Promoting Cellular Longevity with Mushroom Extracts

Oxidative stress can disrupt the body's ability to fight harmful free radicals, leading to premature aging and various health complications. This study investigated the antioxidant and anti-aging properties of four medicinal and edible mushrooms: Ganoderma lucidum, Hericium erinaceus, Pleurotus ostreatus, and Agaricus bisporus. The antioxidant activity of mushroom extracts was evaluated using (DPPH-ABTS-Reducing power). The anti-aging effects were assessed using Human Skin Fibroblasts (HSF) cells subjected to D-galactose-induced aging (30 g/L/72 h) and treated with mushroom extracts (0.03-0.25 mg/mL/72 h). The results demonstrated that all mushrooms have significant antioxidant and anti-aging properties, with low concentrations of extracts (0.03 mg/mL) effectively promoting cell proliferation at an 87% rate in the Agaricus bisporus extract, enhancing cell cycle progression by reducing the arrested cells in the G0/G1 phase to 75%, and promoting DNA synthesis in S phase by more than 16.36% in the Hericium erinaceus extract. Additionally, the extracts reduced DNA damage and Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) levels, protecting cells from oxidative stress and potentially contributing to anti-aging effects. The mushrooms also exhibited immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory effects by upregulating the IL-2, IL-4, and downregulating IL-6 expression, indicating their potential to promote general health. These findings suggest the potential of mushroom extracts as natural agents for reducing the negative effects of aging while promoting cellular health. Further research is required to explore the specific bioactive compounds responsible for these beneficial effects and to evaluate their efficacy in vivo.

Ganoderma Lucidum polysaccharide peptide (GL-PP2): A potential therapeutic agent against sepsis-induced organ injury by modulating Nrf2/NF-κB pathways

Sepsis, characterized by a severe immune response to infection, remains a leading cause of mortality, with few effective strategies to prevent organ damage. Targeting inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis is crucial for improving outcomes and advancing sepsis management. We investigated the protective effects of Ganoderma Lucidum Polysaccharide Peptide 2 (GL-PP2) against sepsis-induced organ damage, focusing on immune regulation and kidney protection. In a murine sepsis model, mice received intraperitoneal injection of GL-PP2 (25, 50, 100 mg/kg) for seven days, with dexamethasone (5 mg/kg) as a positive control. Sepsis was induced by intraperitoneal lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 10 mg/kg), followed by histological, biochemical, molecular, and network pharmacology analyses to evaluate kidney and spleen damage. Results demonstrated that GL-PP2 mitigates LPS-induced kidney and spleen damage, preserving tissue integrity and improving renal function markers (blood creatinine, urea nitrogen). GL-PP2 also lowers pro-inflammatory cytokines, boosts antioxidant enzymes, and modulates the Nrf2/NF-κB pathways, highlighting its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. Additionally, it reduces apoptosis by regulating Bax, cleaved caspase-3, and Bcl-2 expression. These findings indicate that GL-PP2 is a promising sepsis therapy candidate, as it targets inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis, reducing organ injury. By modulating key pathways, GL-PP2 could improve clinical outcomes, warranting further study.

Immunostimulatory activity of sea buckthorn polysaccharides via TLR2/4-mediated MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways in vitro and in vivo

SP0.1-1, derived from Sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.), has been discovered to exhibit unique antioxidant activity. In this study, we investigated the immunomodulatory activity and mechanisms of SP0.1-1 on macrophage RAW 264.7 cells in vitro and immunosuppressive mice induced by cyclophosphamide in vivo. The results indicated SP0.1-1 strengthened the immune functions via promoting the proliferation of RAW264.7 cells and phagocytic activity, along with stimulating the release of NO, ROS and cytokines including TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β and IFN-γ. Western blot and molecular docking analysis demonstrated that SP0.1-1 attached to the prime receptors TLR2 and TLR4 in RAW264.7 cells, and triggered the activation of MyD88-mediated MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways, thereby exerting the immune response in RAW264.7 cells. However, the intervention of specific inhibitors against TLR2, TLR4, JNK, ERK, p38 and NF-κB blocked the TLR-mediated MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways and downregulated the levels of NO and the aforementioned cytokines, thus suppressing the activation of macrophages. Therefore, it can be speculated that SP0.1-1 activated the macrophages principally via the TLR2/4-MyD88-mediated MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathways. Additionally, SP0.1-1 could protect against the cyclophosphamide-induced immunosuppression in mice, manifested by the improvement of body weight, immune organ indices, phagocytic index, and the relievement of spleen damage, along with the enhancement of cytokines TNF-α, IL-6, IFN-γ and immunoglobulin IgG and IgM. These findings will shed light on the molecular mechanism of SP0.1-1 on the immunoregulatory effect, and lay the foundation for exploiting a potential immunostimulatory agent of SP0.1-1.

Anti-depression molecular mechanism elucidation of the phytochemicals in edible flower of Hemerocallis citrina Baroni

The edible flower of Hemerocallis citrina Baroni, commonly known as "Huang Huacai" in China, has anti-depressant effects. However, targets and molecular mechanisms of Hemerocallis citrina Baroni edible flowers (HEF) in depression treatment are still unclear. The potential anti-depression targets in HEF were identified by the intersecting results from typical drug databases. The network construction and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) and Gene Ontology (GO) enrichment analysis were carried out for core targets. The molecular docking was conducted to predict the binding affinity between the active components and the central targets. The intersecting results indicated that there were 24 active components in HEF, with 449 anti-depression targets identified. After screening through degree centrality (DC), betweenness centrality (BC), and closeness centrality (CC), 166 core targets were determined. Tumor protein 53 (TP53) and interleukin 6 (IL-6) had the highest degree values. The results of GO enrichment analysis associated with anti-depression revealed that the biological processes were negative regulation of osteoclast differentiation and positive regulation of phosphorus metabolic process. KEGG enrichment analysis results revealed that pathways, such as the phosphatidylinositol 3‑kinase-protein kinase B (PI3K-Akt) signaling pathway and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway, were primarily associated with anti-depression. Molecular docking results indicated that the top 10 active ingredients in HEF could bind to the central targets. This study applied network pharmacology to unveil the potential anti-depressive mechanisms of HEF, providing a theoretical basis for further exploration of the effective components in H. citrina edible flower parts.

Separation, purification, structure characterization, and immune activity of a polysaccharide from Alocasia cucullata obtained by freeze-thaw treatment

In this study, ACP-1, a water-soluble polysaccharide was isolated from the roots of Alocasia cucullata (AC) using freeze-thaw treatment (FTT). Structural characterization revealed ACP-1 (2.10×105 Da) to be a homogeneous heteropolysaccharide primarily consisting of glucose, galactose, and arabinose, and a trace of fucose, rhamnose, and glucuronic acid. Methylation analysis and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy revealed that the backbone of ACP-1 consisted of →[3)-β-D-Galp-(1]4→3,6)-β-D-Glcp-(1→3,6)-β-D-Glcp-(1→, with a branch at C-3. In vitro experiments demonstrated that ACP-1 significantly enhanced the proliferation and phagocytosis of RAW264.7 cells, upregulated the expression of co-stimulatory molecules (CD80 and CD86), and activated RAW264.7 cells via the nuclear factor kappa-B signal transduction pathway, resulting in nitric monoxide release and the secretion of the cytokines tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, and IL-6. Overall, ACP-1 shows potential as a novel immunostimulant.

Bioactive polysaccharides mediate ferroptosis to modulate tumor immunotherapy

Polysaccharides from diverse origins exhibit notable bioactivities, particularly their capacity to exert antitumor and immune-enhancing effects. Concurrently, ferroptosis emerges as a distinctive form of regulated cell death characterized by iron-dependent lipid peroxidation, potentially influencing the demise of specific tumor cells and organismal homeostasis. Recent scholarly attention has increasingly focused on utilizing polysaccharides to modulate tumor cell ferroptosis and manipulate cellular immune responses. This article provides an in-depth analysis of contemporary research concerning using polysaccharides to augment antitumor immunity and combat malignancies. Central to our discourse is examining the pivotal role of polysaccharides in mediating ferroptosis, bolstering immune surveillance, and elucidating the interplay between polysaccharides and antitumor immunity. Furthermore, a comprehensive synthesis of the multifaceted roles of polysaccharides in antitumor and immunomodulatory contexts is provided. Recent advances in understanding how polysaccharides enhance immune function by inducing ferroptosis cell death are explained. Lastly, unresolved inquiries are outlined, and potential avenues for future research are proposed, focusing on the translational applications of polysaccharides in antitumor immunotherapy.

The Addition of Hot Water Extract of Juncao-Substrate Ganoderma lucidum Residue to Diets Enhances Growth Performance, Immune Function, and Intestinal Health in Broilers

The purpose of this experiment was to investigate the effects of Hot Water Extract of Juncao-substrate Ganoderma lucidum Residue (HWE-JGLR) on the immune function and intestinal health of yellow-feather broilers. In an animal feeding experiment, 288 male yellow-feather broilers (1 day old) were randomly allocated to four treatment groups with six replicates of 12 birds each. The control (CON) group was fed a basal diet. HJ-1, HJ-2, and HJ-3 were fed a basal diet supplemented with 0.25%, 0.50%, and 1.00% HWE-JGLR, respectively. The feeding trial lasted for 63 d. The results showed increased ADFI (p = 0.033) and ADG (p = 0.045) of broilers in HJ-3, compared with the CON group. Moreover, higher contents of serum IL-4 and IL-10 and gene expression of IL-4 and IL-10 in jejunum mucosa and lower contents of serum IL-1β and gene expression of IL-1β in jejunum mucosa in HJ-3 were observed (p < 0.05). Additionally, the jejunal mucosal gene expression of Claudin-1 and ZO-1 in HJ-2 and HJ-3 was higher than that in the CON group (p < 0.05). As for the microbial community, compared with the CON group, the ACE index, Shannon index, and Shannoneven index of cecal microorganisms in HJ-2 and HJ-3 were elevated (p < 0.05). PCoA analysis showed that the cecal microbial structure of broilers in HJ-2 and HJ-3 was different from the CON group (p < 0.05). In contrast with the CON group, the broilers in HJ-2 and HJ-3 possessed more abundant Desulfobacterota at the phylum level and unclassified Lachnospiraceae, norank Clostridia vadinBB60 group and Blautia spp. at the genus level, while Turicibacter spp. and Romboutsia spp. were less (p < 0.05). In conclusion, dietary supplementation with HWE-JGLR can improve growth performance, enhance body immunity and intestinal development, and maintain the cecum microflora balance of yellow-feather broilers.

Revealing the exceptional antioxidant activity of phosphorylated polysaccharides from medicinal Abrus cantoniensis Hance

Abrus cantoniensis Polysaccharides (ACP) exhibit antioxidant activity and immune-regulatory functions. Abrus cantoniensis Hance widely distributed in the Guangdong and Guangxi regions of China. In this study, this research investigated the impact of phosphorylation modification on the biological activity of ACP, aiming to provide theoretical insights for its development. This research modified ACP through phosphorylation and evaluated changes in its in vitro antioxidant capacity, including free radical scavenging and resistance to cellular oxidative damage. Additionally, this research administered both native ACP and phosphorylated ACP (P-ACP) to mice to assess their protective effects against acute ethanol-induced oxidative injury. This research explored whether these effects were mediated through the Keap1-Nrf2 signaling pathway and their influence on gut microbiota. Results revealed that phosphorylation significantly enhanced ACP's antioxidant capacity and protective effects (p < 0.05). P-ACP improved mice resistance to acute oxidative injury, mitigating the adverse effects of 50 % ethanol (p < 0.05). Moreover, both ACP and P-ACP are involved in modulating the expression of the Keap1-Nrf2 signaling pathway and, to some extent, alter the composition of the gut microbiota in mice. In summary, phosphorylation modification effectively enhances ACP's antioxidant capacity and provides better protection against acute oxidative injury in mice.

Investigating immune-modulatory function of α-glucopyranose-rich compound polysaccharides by MC38-N4/OT-I co-culture system

The potential antitumor function of polysaccharides is well accepted, it is unclear whether polysaccharides have immunoregulatory effect on CD8+ T lymphocyte cells to attack tumor cells. To evaluate the CD8+ T function enhancing role of polysaccharide compounds, the MC38-N4/OT-I co-culture system was established. The synergistic and complementary immune effect of α-glucopyranose-rich compound polysaccharides can be achieved by manipulating the antigen-specific T-cell expansion capacity and efficacy. This study was designed to investigate the antitumor-enhancement activity of a α-glucopyranose-rich compound polysaccharides by determining the activation of CD8+ T cells in a co-culture system. Compared to the control group (42.5 % ± 0.72 %), the specific α-glucopyranose-rich compound polysaccharides, comprising Agaricus blazei Murill, Grifola frondosa and Pericarpium Citri Reticulatae, demonstrated a significant decrease (20.4 % ± 1.23 %, p < 0.05) in the survival rate of MC38-N4 cells in the co-culture system. Additionally, the α-glucopyranose-rich compound polysaccharides resulted in a substantial increase (p < 0.01) in the proportion of CD8+ T cells and CD62L+ central memory T cells, which is a less differentiated T cell subset with high immune activity. Collectively, we reported that specific polysaccharide combination, which remodel the function of cytotoxic T cells and provided a basis for improving immune functions by using the specific types of polysaccharides.

Review of polysaccharides from Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.: Extraction, purification, structural characteristics, health benefits, structural-activity relationships and applications

Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. (C. morifolium), as a traditional ornamental plant, it has multiple values, including edible, economic, nutritional and even medicinal values, which is used as herbal medicine and a new food resource in the world. Polysaccharides are one of the main bioactive components in C. morifolium, which have various health benefits such as improving functional constipation, improving colitis, anti-glycosylation, antioxidant, anti-angiogenesis, immunomodulation, prebiotic, and α-glucosidase inhibitory activities. This paper describes the extraction, purification, structural characteristics, health benefits, structural-activity relationships, applications, and analyses the shortcomings of the major relevant studies exist on C. morifolium polysaccharides. In addition, the potential mechanisms of the health benefits of C. morifolium polysaccharides were summarized. This study can provide reference and direction for further research and development of C. morifolium polysaccharides.

Immunomodulatory Mechanisms of Tea Leaf Polysaccharide in Mice with Cyclophosphamide-Induced Immunosuppression Based on Gut Flora and Metabolomics

Tea polysaccharides (TPSs) are receiving increasing attention because of their diverse pharmacological and biological activities. Here, we explored the immunoregulatory mechanisms of TPSs from fresh tea leaves in a mouse model of cyclophosphamide (CTX)-induced immunosuppression in terms of gut microbiota and metabolites. We observed that TPSs significantly increased the body weight and alleviated CTX-induced thymus atrophy in the immunosuppressed mice; they also increased the plasma levels of immunoglobulins A and M, interleukin (IL) 1β, IL-6, inducible nitric oxide synthase, and tumor necrosis factor α. Furthermore, we conducted 16S rDNA sequencing of cecal contents, resulting in the acquisition of 5008 high-quality bacterial 16S rDNA gene reads from the sequencing of mouse fecal samples. By analyzing the data, we found that TPSs regulated the gut microbiota structure and diversity and alleviated the CTX-induced dysregulation of gut microbiota. The colonic contents of mice were subjected to analysis using the UPLC-Q-TOF/MS/MS technique for the purpose of untargeted metabolomics. In the course of our metabolite identification analysis, we identified a total of 2685 metabolites in positive ion mode and 1655 metabolites in negative ion mode. The analysis of these metabolites indicated that TPSs improved CTX-induced metabolic disorders by regulating the levels of metabolites related to tryptophan, arginine, and proline metabolism. In conclusion, TPSs can alleviate CTX-induced immunosuppression by regulating the structural composition of gut microbiota, indicating the applicability of TPSs as novel innate immune modulators in health foods or medicines.

New insights into signaling pathways of cancer prevention effects of polysaccharides from edible and medicinal mushrooms

BACKGROUND

Despite extensive efforts, empirical techniques have yielded limited progress in finding effective anticancer medications, with chemotherapy drugs often associated with drug resistance and serious side effects. Thus, there is a pressing need for novel agents with minimal adverse effects. Natural substances, widely used in treating various illnesses, including cancer, offer promising alternatives. Among these, mushrooms, rich in low molecular weight secondary metabolites, polysaccharides, and polysaccharide-protein complexes, have gained attention for their potential anticancer properties.

RESULTS

Mushroom polysaccharides have been found to impede oncogenesis and tumor metastasis by directly inhibiting tumor cell growth and indirectly enhancing immune system functions. These polysaccharides engage with numerous cell signaling pathways that influence cancer development and progression. They affect pathways that control cell survival, growth, and differentiation, and they also play a role in adjusting the tumor immune microenvironment.

CONCLUSION

This review highlights the potential of mushroom polysaccharides as promising anticancer agents due to their ability to modulate cell signaling pathways crucial for cancer development. Understanding the mechanisms underlying their effects on these pathways is essential for harnessing their therapeutic potential and developing novel strategies for cancer treatment.

A Review of Ganoderma lucidum Polysaccharide: Preparations, Structures, Physicochemical Properties and Application

Ganoderma lucidum (GL) is a kind of edible fungus with various functions and a precious medicinal material with a long history. Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharide (GLP) is one of the main bioactive substances in GL, with anti-tumor, anti-oxidation, anti-cancer, and other biological activities. GLP is closely related to human health, and the research on GLP is getting deeper. This paper reviewed the extraction and purification methods of GLP, the relationship between structure and activity, and the qualitative and quantitative methods. This review provides solutions for the analysis and application of GLP. At the same time, some new methods for extraction, purification and analysis of GLP, the relationship between advanced structures and activity, and future applications of and research into GLP were emphasized. As a kind of bioactive macromolecule, GLP has unique functional properties. Through the comprehensive summary of the extraction, purification, and analysis of GLP and its future prospects, we hope that this review can provide valuable reference for the further study of GLP.

Tetrastigma hemsleyanum polysaccharide ameliorates cytokine storm syndrome via the IFN-γ-JAK2/STAT pathway

Acute lung injury (ALI)/acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is an disease characterized by pulmonary edema and widespread inflammation, leading to a notably high mortality rate. The dysregulation of both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory systems, results in cytokine storm (CS), is intricately associated with the development of ALI/ARDS. Tetrastigma hemsleyanum polysaccharide (THP) exerts remarkable anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects against the disease, although its precise role in pathogenesis remains unclear. In the present study, an ALI/ARDS model was established using bacterial lipopolysaccharides. THP administration via aerosol inhalation significantly mitigated lung injury, reduced the number of inflammatory cells, and ameliorated glycerophospholipid metabolism. Furthermore, specific CS-related pathways were investigated by examining the synergy between tumor necrosis factor-α and interferon-γ used to establish CS models. The results indicated that THP effectively decreased inflammatory damage and cell death. The RNA sequencing revealed the involvement of the Janus kinase (JAK) 2-signal transducers and activators of transcription (STAT) signaling pathway in exerting the mentioned effects. Additionally, THP inhibited the activation of the JAK-STAT pathway, thereby alleviating the CS both in vivo and in vitro. Overall, THP exhibited marked therapeutic potential against ALI/ARDS and CS, primarily by targeting the IFN-γ-JAK2/STAT signaling pathway.

Triterpenes from antler-shaped fruiting body of Ganoderma lucidum and their hepatoprotective activities

Seven previously undescribed triterpenes (1-7), as well as one triterpene (8) previously described as a synthetic product, were isolated from the antler-shaped fruiting body of Ganoderma lucidum. Their structures were established based on comprehensive spectroscopy analysis. At a concentration of 10 μM, (24E)-3-oxo-15α-acetoxy-lanosta-7,9(11),24-trien-26-al (3) and (24R,25S)-3-oxo-lanosta-7,9(11)-dien-25-ethoxyl-24,26-diol (5) provided significant protection against acetaminophen-induced necrosis in human HepG2 liver cancer cells, and the cell survival rates were 69.7 and 76.1% respectively, similar to that of the positive control (glutathione, 72.1%). Based on the present results, these compounds could be potential hepatoprotective agents.

Characterization and biological activities of polysaccharides extracted from Auricularia auricula with different extraction methods

Polysaccharides derived from Auricularia auricula exhibit diverse biological activities and hold significant potential for commercial utilization as functional food ingredients. In this investigation, polysaccharides from A. auricula were obtained using six extraction techniques (ammonium oxalate solution extraction, sodium hydroxide solution extraction, hot water extraction, pectinase and cellulase-assisted extraction, ultrasonic-assisted extraction, and microwave-assisted extraction). Subsequently, a comprehensive comparison was conducted to evaluate their physicochemical properties and biological functionalities. The ammonium oxalate solution extraction method yielded a higher extraction rate (11.76%) and polysaccharide content (84.12%), as well as a higher uronic acid content (10.13%). Although the six Auricularia polysaccharides had different molecular weight distributions, monosaccharide molar ratios, similar monosaccharide compositions, and characteristic functional groups of polysaccharides, they exhibited different surface morphology. In vitro assays showed that polysaccharides extracted by ammonium oxalate solution possessed good scavenging ability against DPPH free radical, hydroxyl free radical and superoxide anion free radical as well as reduction power of iron ion. At the same time, both polysaccharides extracted by ammonium oxalate solution and sodium hydroxide solution promoted NO production in mouse macrophages along with the secretion of cytokines TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6. These results indicated significant differences in the structure and characteristics among Auricularia polysaccharides prepared by various extraction methods, which may be related to the variety or origin of A. auricula; furthermore, their bioactivities varied accordingly in vitro assays where the ammonium oxalate solution extraction method was found more beneficial for obtaining high-quality bioactive Auricularia polysaccharides.

Improvement of Echinacea purpurea and Ganoderma lucidum Extracts with Cell Model on Influenza A/B Infection

Since 2019, COVID-19 has been raging around the world. Respiratory viral infectious diseases such as influenza and respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infection are also prevalent, with influenza having the ability to cause seasonal pandemics. While vaccines and antiviral drugs are available to prevent and treat disease, herbal extracts would be another option. This study investigated the inhibitory effects of extracts of Echinacea purpurea (EP) and Ganoderma lucidum (G. lucidum) and the advanced G. lucidum drink (AG) on influenza A/B viruses. To determine whether EP and G. lucidum extracts enhance cell immunity and thus prevent virus infection or act to directly suppress viruses, cell survival and hemagglutination (HA) assays were used in this study. Cells were treated with samples at different concentrations (each sample concentration was tested from the highest non-cytotoxic concentration) and incubated with influenza A/B for 24 h, with the results showing that both G. lucidum and EP extracts and mixtures exhibited the ability to enhance cell survival against viruses. In the HA assay, AG and EP extract showed good inhibitory effect on influenza A/B viruses. All of the samples demonstrated an improvement of the mitochondrial membrane potential and improved resistance to influenza A/B virus infection. EP and G. lucidum extracts at noncytotoxic concentrations increased cell viability, but only AG and EP extract directly decreased influenza virus titers. In conclusion, results indicate the ability of EP and G. lucidum extract to prevent viruses from entering cells by improving cell viability and mitochondrial dysfunction and EP extract showed direct inhibition on viruses and prevented viral infection at post-infection strategy.

Exploring the Mechanism of Asiatic Acid against Atherosclerosis Based on Molecular Docking, Molecular Dynamics, and Experimental Verification

Asiatic acid (AA) is a pentacyclic triterpene derived from the traditional medicine Centella asiatica. It is known for its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and lipid-regulating properties. Though previous studies have suggested its potential therapeutic benefits for atherosclerosis, its pharmacological mechanism is unclear. The objective of this study was to investigate the molecular mechanism of AA in the treatment of atherosclerosis. Therefore, network pharmacology was employed to uncover the mechanism by which AA acts as an anti-atherosclerotic agent. Furthermore, molecular docking, molecular dynamics (MD) simulation, and in vitro experiments were performed to elucidate the mechanism of AA's anti-atherosclerotic effects. Molecular docking analysis demonstrated a strong affinity between AA and PPARγ. Further MD simulations demonstrated the favorable stability of AA-PPARγ protein complexes. In vitro experiments demonstrated that AA can dose-dependently inhibit the expression of inflammatory factors induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in RAW264.7 cells. This effect may be mediated through the PPARγ/NF-κB signaling pathway. This research underscores anti-inflammation as a crucial biological process in AA treatments for atherosclerosis, with PPARγ potentially serving as a key target.

Structural Elucidation and Anti-Tumor Activity of a Polysaccharide (CP2-S) from Cordyceps militaris Fruit Bodies

A polysaccharide (CP2-S), consisting of glucose with a weight average molecular weight of 5.9 × 106, was purified from the fruit bodies of Cordyceps militaris. In this work, the corresponding structure and anti-tumor activity in vivo were investigated. Methylation and NMR analysis revealed that CP2-S was composed of a →4)-α-D-Glcp-(1→ backbone with partial substitution occurring at O-6 by T-linked α-D-Glcp in every ten residues, which has not been reported in previous reports. In vivo anti-tumor experiments showed that CP2-S could inhibit the growth of Lewis lung carcinoma in mice. Tumor inhibition rates were 17.8%, 24.5%, and 29.5% at dosages of 12.5, 50, and 100 mg/kg/d, respectively. Compared with the cisplatin group, mice treated with CP2-S exhibited a significant increase in spleen index (increased 22.7-42.4%) and thymus index (increased 47.7-36.8%). Additionally, serum levels of IgM and IgG in tumor-bearing mice increased by approximately 6.11~10.75-folds and 1.31~1.38-folds, respectively. These findings prove that CP2-S significantly inhibited the growth of Lewis lung carcinoma through immune-enhancing activity in mice.

A review of the fungal polysaccharides as natural biopolymers: Current applications and future perspective

As a unique natural resource, fungi are a sustainable source of lipids, polysaccharides, vitamins, proteins, and other nutrients. As a result, they have beneficial medicinal and nutritional properties. Polysaccharides are among the most significant bioactive components found in fungi. Increasing research has revealed that fungal polysaccharides (FPS) contain a variety of bioactivities, including antitumor, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, cardioprotective, and anti-aging properties. However, the exact knowledge about FPS and their applications related to their future possibilities must be thoroughly examined to enhance a better understanding of this sustainable biopolymer source. Therefore, FPS' biological applications and their role in the food and feed industry, agriculture, and cosmetics applications were all discussed in this work. In addition, this review highlighted the mode of action of FPS on human diseases by regulating gut microbiota and discussed the mechanism of FPS as antioxidants in the living cell. The structure-activity connections of FPS were also highlighted and explored. Moreover, future perspectives were listed to pave the way for future studies of FPS applications. Hence, this study can be a scientific foundation for future FPS research and industrial applications.

A structure-functionality insight into the bioactivity of microbial polysaccharides toward biomedical applications: A review

Microbial polysaccharides (MPs) are biopolymers secreted by microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi during their metabolic processes. Compared to polysaccharides derived from plants and animals, MPs have advantages such as wide sources, high production efficiency, and less susceptibility to natural environmental influences. The most attractive feature of MPs lies in their diverse biological activities, such as antioxidative, anti-tumor, antibacterial, and immunomodulatory activities, which have demonstrated immense potential for applications in functional foods, cosmetics, and biomedicine. These bioactivities are precisely regulated by their sophisticated molecular structure. However, the mechanisms underlying this precise regulation are not yet fully understood and continue to evolve. This article presents a comprehensive review of the most representative species of MPs, including their fermentation and purification processes and their biomedical applications in recent years. In particular, this work presents an in-depth analysis into the structure-activity relationships of MPs across multiple molecular levels. Additionally, this review discusses the challenges and prospects of investigating the structure-activity relationships, providing valuable insights into the broad and high-value utilization of MPs.

Structure and antitumor activity of a polysaccharide from Rosa roxburghii

It is well known that Rosa roxburghii, as a homology of both medicine and food, is rich in polysaccharides. To discover bioactive macromolecules for combating cancer, the polysaccharides in R. roxburghii were investigated, leading to the purification of a polysaccharide (RRTP80-1). RRTP80-1 was measured to have an average molecular weight of 8.65 × 103 g/mol. Monosaccharide composition analysis revealed that RRTP80-1 was formed from three types of monosaccharides including arabinose, glucose, and galactose. Methylation and GC-MS analysis suggested that the backbone of RRTP80-1 consisted of →5)-α-l-Araf-(1→, →6)-α-d-Glcp-(1→, →2,5)-α-l-Araf-(1→, →4,6)-β-d-Galp-(1→, and →3)-α-l-Araf-(1→, with branch chains composed of α-l-Araf-(1→. In vivo studies indicated that RRTP80-1 exhibited inhibitory activity against the growth and proliferation of neoplasms in the zebrafish tumor xenograft model by suppressing angiogenesis. Additionally, RRTP80-1 was found to upregulate reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO) production levels in zebrafish models. All these studies suggest that RRTP80-1 activates the immune system to inhibit tumors. The potential role of the newly discovered homogeneous polysaccharide RRTP80-1 in cancer treatment was preliminarily clarified in this study.

Selective impact of three homogenous polysaccharides with different structural characteristics from Grifola frondosa on human gut microbial composition and the structure-activity relationship

Natural polysaccharides interact with gut microbes to enhance human well-being. Grifola frondosa is a polysaccharides-rich edible and medicinal mushroom. The prebiotic potential of G. frondosa polysaccharides has been explored in recent years, however, the relationship between their various structural features and prebiotic activities is poorly understood. In this study, three homogenous polysaccharides GFP10, GFP21 and GFP22 having different molecular weights (Mw), monosaccharide compositions and glycosidic linkages were purified from G. frondosa, and their effects on intestinal microbial composition were compared. GFP10 was a fucomannogalactan with an Mw of 23.0 kDa, and it selectively inhibited Enterobacter, while GFP21 was a fucomannogalactoglucan with an Mw of 18.6 kDa, and it stimulated Catenibacterium. GFP22 was a 4.9 kDa mannoglucan that selectively inhibited Klebsiella and boosted Bifidobacterium, Catenibacterium and Phascolarctobacterium, and prominently promoted the production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs). The selective modulation of gut microbiota by polysaccharides was structure-dependent. A relatively lower Mw and a high proportion of glycosidic linkages like T-Glcp, 1,3-Glcp, 1,3,6-Glcp and 1,4-Glcp might be more easily utilized to produce SCFAs and beneficial for the proliferation of Catenibacterium and Phascolarctobacterium. This research provided a valuable resource for further exploring the structure-activity relationship and prebiotic activity of G. frondosa polysaccharides.

Structural characterization of a Chlorella heteropolysaccharide by analyzing its depolymerized product and finding an inducer of human dendritic cell maturation

Chlorella polysaccharides have been gaining increasing attention because of their high yield from dried Chlorella powder and their remarkable immunomodulatory activity. In this study, the major polysaccharide fraction, CPP-3a, in Chlorella pyrenoidosa, was isolated, and its detailed structure was investigated by analyzing the low-molecular-weight product prepared via free radical depolymerization. The results indicated that CPP-3a with a molecular weight of 195.2 kDa was formed by →2)-α-L-Araf-(1→, →2)-α-D-Rhap-(1→, →5)-α-L-Araf-(1→, →3)-β-D-Glcp-(1→, →4)-α-D-Glcp-(1→, →4)-α-D-GlcpA-(1→, →2,3)-α-D-Manp-(1→, →3,4)-α-D-Manp-(1→, →3,4)-β-D-Galp-(1→, →3,6)-β-D-Galp-(1→, and →2,3,6)-α-D-Galp-(1→ residues, branched at C2, C3, C4, or C6 of α/β-D-Galp and α-D-Manp, and terminated by α/β-L-Araf, α-L-Arap, α-D-Galp, and β-D-Glcp. Biological assays showed that CPP-3a significantly altered the dendritic morphology of immature dendritic cells (DCs). Enhanced CD80, CD86, and MHC I expression on the cell surface and decreased phagocytic ability indicated that CPP-3a could induce the maturation of DCs. Furthermore, CPP-3a-stimulated DCs not only stimulated the proliferation of allogeneic naïve CD4+ T cells and the secretion of IFN-γ, but also directly stimulated the activation and proliferation of CD8+ T cells through cross-antigen presentation. These findings indicate that CPP-3a can promote human DC maturation and T-cell stimulation and may be a novel DC maturation inducer with potential developmental value in DC immunotherapy.

Extraction, purification, structural characterization and pharmacological activities of polysaccharides from sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.): A review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.) is an edible fruit with a long history in China as a medicinal plant. The fruits of H. rhamnoides are rich in a variety of nutrients and pharmacological active compounds. As one of the most important active ingredients in sea buckthorn, polysaccharides have attracted the attention of researchers due to their antioxidant, anti-fatigue, and liver protective qualities.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

This review summarizes recent studies on extraction, purification, structural characterization and pharmacological activities of polysaccharides from sea buckthorn. In addition, the relationship between the structure and the activities of sea buckthorn polysaccharides (SBPS) were discussed. This review would provide important research bases and up-to-date information for the future in-depth development and application of sea buckthorn polysaccharides in the field of pharmaceuticals and functional foods.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

By inputting the search term "Sea buckthorn polysaccharides", relevant research information was obtained from databases such as Web of Science, Google Scholar, PubMed, China Knowledge Network (CNKI), China Master Theses Full-text Database, and China Doctoral Dissertations Full-text Database.

RESULTS

The main extraction methods of SBPS include hot water extraction (HWE), ultrasonic assisted extraction (UAE), microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), flash extraction (FE), and ethanol extraction. More than 20 polysaccharides have been isolated from sea buckthorn fruits. The chemical structures of sea buckthorn polysaccharides obtained by different extraction, isolation, and purification methods are diverse. Polysaccharides from sea buckthorn display a variety of pharmacological properties, including antioxidant, anti-fatigue, liver protection, anti-obesity, regulation of intestinal flora, immunoregulation, anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, and hypoglycemic activities.

CONCLUSIONS

Sea buckthorn has a long medicinal history and characteristics of an ethnic medicine and food. Polysaccharides are one of the main active components of sea buckthorn, and they have received increasing attention from researchers. Sea buckthorn polysaccharides have remarkable pharmacological activities, health benefits, and broad application prospects. In addition, further exploration of the chemical structure of SBPS, in-depth study of their pharmacological activities, identification of their material basis, characterization of disease resistance mechanisms, and potential health functions are still directions of future research. With the accumulation of research on the extraction and purification processes, chemical structure, pharmacological effects, molecular mechanisms, and structure-activity relationships, sea buckthorn polysaccharides derived from natural resources will ultimately make significant contributions to human health.

Natural products in atherosclerosis therapy by targeting PPARs: a review focusing on lipid metabolism and inflammation

Inflammation and dyslipidemia are critical inducing factors of atherosclerosis. Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are ligand-activated transcription factors and control the expression of multiple genes that are involved in lipid metabolism and inflammatory responses. However, synthesized PPAR agonists exhibit contrary therapeutic effects and various side effects in atherosclerosis therapy. Natural products are structural diversity and have a good safety. Recent studies find that natural herbs and compounds exhibit attractive therapeutic effects on atherosclerosis by alleviating hyperlipidemia and inflammation through modulation of PPARs. Importantly, the preparation of natural products generally causes significantly lower environmental pollution compared to that of synthesized chemical compounds. Therefore, it is interesting to discover novel PPAR modulator and develop alternative strategies for atherosclerosis therapy based on natural herbs and compounds. This article reviews recent findings, mainly from the year of 2020 to present, about the roles of natural herbs and compounds in regulation of PPARs and their therapeutic effects on atherosclerosis. This article provides alternative strategies and theoretical basis for atherosclerosis therapy using natural herbs and compounds by targeting PPARs, and offers valuable information for researchers that are interested in developing novel PPAR modulators.

Traditional Chinese medicine polysaccharide in nano-drug delivery systems: Current progress and future perspectives

Traditional Chinese medicine polysaccharides (TCMPs) have gained increasing attention in the field of nanomedicine due to their diverse biological activities and favorable characteristics as drug carriers, including biocompatibility, biodegradability, safety, and ease of modification. TCMPs-based nano-drug delivery systems (NDDSs) offer several advantages, such as evasion of reticuloendothelial system (RES) phagocytosis, protection against biomolecule degradation, enhanced drug bioavailability, and potent therapeutic effects. Therefore, a comprehensive review of the latest developments in TCMPs-based NDDSs and their applications in disease therapy is of great significance. This review provides an overview of the structural characteristics and biological activities of TCMPs relevant to carrier design, the strategies employed for constructing TCMPs-based NDDSs, and the versatile role of TCMPs in these systems. Additionally, current challenges and future prospects of TCMPs in NDDSs are discussed, aiming to provide valuable insights for future research and clinical translation.

Structural characterization of Russula griseocarnosa polysaccharide and its improvement on hematopoietic function

The hematopoietic function of a polysaccharide derived from Russula griseocarnosa was demonstrated in K562 cells, and subsequently purified through chromatography to obtain RGP1. RGP1 is a galactan composed of 1,6-α-D-Galp as the main chain, with partial substitutions. A -CH3 substitution was detected at O-3 of 1,6-α-D-Galp. The possible branches at O-2 of 1,6-α-D-Galp was α-L-Fucp. In mice with cyclophosphamide (CTX)-induced hematopoietic dysfunction, RGP1 alleviated bone marrow damage and multinucleated giant cell infiltration of the spleen, increased the number of long-term hematopoietic stem cells, and regulated the levels of myeloid cells in the peripheral blood. Furthermore, RGP1 promoted the differentiation of activated T cells and CD4+ T cells without affecting natural killer cells and B cells. Proteomic analysis, detection of cytokines, and western blotting revealed that RGP1 could alleviate hematopoietic dysfunction by promoting the activation of CD4+ T cells and the Janus kinase/ signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 pathway. The present study provides experimental evidence to support the application of RGP1 in CTX-induced hematopoietic dysfunction.