Phytotoxic effects of silver nanoparticles and silver ions to Arabidopsis thaliana as revealed by analysis of molecular responses and of metabolic pathways

The Resistance of Germinating Pea (Pisum sativum L.) Seeds to Silver Nanoparticles

The results of our recent research revealed that biologically synthesized silver nanoparticles (bio-AgNPs) applied to several-day-old pea (Pisum sativum L.) plants or used for seed nanopriming protected pea plants against selected fungal pathogens. However, the susceptibility of pea to bio-AgNPs during seed germination remains mostly unknown. Therefore, in this study, we investigated the cells' viability, ROS generation, total antioxidant capacity, the activity of selected antioxidant enzymes, and changes in the polar metabolite profiles of 4-day-old pea seedlings developed in water (control) and water suspensions of bio-AgNPs (at 50 and 200 mg/L). The bio-AgNPs did not negatively affect pea seeds' germination, early seedlings' growth, and root tips cells' viability (at both tested concentrations). In the root, the bio-AgNPs at a lower concentration (50 mg/L) stimulated ROS generation. Nanoparticles enhanced peroxidase activity in root and the total antioxidant capacity in epicotyl. Increased levels of malate, phosphoric acid, proline, GABA, and alanine were observed in root and epicotyl of pea seedlings developed at 50 mg/L of bio-AgNPs. A higher concentration affected the tricarboxylic acid cycle and nitrogen metabolism. Bio-AgNPs alerted oxidative homeostasis and primary metabolism of pea seedlings but did not exceed a certain threshold limit and thus did not injure pea at an early stage of seedling development.

Stage-Specific Effects of Silver Nanoparticles on Physiology During the Early Growth Stages of Rice

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), widely utilized nanomaterials, can negatively affect crop growth and development. However, it remains unclear whether crops exhibit similar responses to AgNPs stress at seed germination and seedling stages. In this study, rice seeds and seedlings were exposed to AgNPs, and their growth, photosynthetic efficiency, and antioxidant systems were recorded. demonstrated significant AgNPs accumulation in rice tissues, with notable higher accumulation in seedlings exposed to AgNPs after germination compared to AgNPs exposure during germination. The roots exhibited greater AgNPs accumulation than shoots across both stages. Exposure to AgNPs during the seed germination stage, even at concentrations up to 2 mg/L, did not significantly affect growth, physiological indices, or oxidative stress. In contrast, seedlings exposed to 1 and 2 mg/L AgNPs showed significant reductions in shoot length, biomass, nutrient content, and photosynthetic efficiency. At low AgNPs concentrations, the maximum relative electron transport rate (rETRmax) was significantly reduced, while the higher concentrations caused pronounced declines in the chlorophyll a fluorescence transient curves (OJIP) compared to the control group. Antioxidant enzyme activities increased in both leaves and roots in a dose-dependent manner, with roots exhibiting significantly higher activity, suggesting that roots are the primary site of AgNPs stress responses. In conclusion, rice responds differently to AgNPs exposure at distinct developmental stages, with the seedling stage being more susceptible to AgNPs-induced stress than the seed germination stage. These findings underscore the importance of considering growth stages when assessing the food safety and environmental risks associated with AgNPs exposure.

Nano-enabled strategies in sustainable agriculture for enhanced crop productivity: A comprehensive review

The global food demand is increasing with the world population, burdening agriculture with unprecedented challenges. Agricultural techniques that ushered in the green revolution are now unsustainable, owing to population growth and climate change. The agri-tech revolution that promises a robust, efficient, and sustainable agricultural system while enhancing food security is expected to be greatly aided by advancements in nanotechnology, which have been reviewed here. Nanofertilizers and nanoinsecticides can benefit agricultural practices economically without major environment impact. Owing to their unique size and features, nano-agrochemicals provide enhanced delivery of active ingredients and increased bioavailability, and posing lesser environment hazard. Nano-agrochemicals should be improved for increased efficiency in the future. In this context, nanocomposites have drawn considerable interest with regard to food security. Nanocomposites can overcome the drawbacks of chemical fertilizers and improve plant output and nutrient bioavailability. Similarly, metallic and polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) can potentially improve sustainable agriculture via better plant development, increased nutrient uptake, and soil healing. Hence, they can be employed as nanofertilizers, nanopesticides, and nanoherbicides. Nanotechnology is also being used to enhance crop production via genetic modification of traits for efficient use of soil nutrients and higher yields. Furthermore, NPs can help plants overcome salinity stress-induced oxidative damage. We also review the fate of NPs in the soil system, plants, animals, and humans, highlight the shortcomings of previous research, and offer suggestions for toxicity studies that would aid regulatory bodies and benefit the agrochemical sector, consequently promoting efficient and sustainable use of nano-agrochemicals.

Molecular mechanisms of plant productivity enhancement by nano fertilizers for sustainable agriculture

Essential plant nutrients encapsulated or combined with nano-dimensional adsorbents define nano fertilizers (NFs). Nanoformulation of non-essential elements enhancing plant growth and stress tolerance also comes under the umbrella of NFs. NFs have an edge over conventional chemical fertilizers, viz., higher plant biomass and yield using much lesser fertilization, thereby reducing environmental pollution. Foliar and root applications of NFs lead to their successful uptake by the plant, depending on the size, surface charge, and other physicochemical properties of NFs. Smaller NFs can pass through channels on the waxy cuticle depending on the hydrophobicity, while larger NFs pass through the stomatal conduits of leaves. Charge-based adsorption, followed by apoplastic movement and endocytosis, translocates NFs through the root, while the size of NFs influences passage into vascular tissues. Recent transcriptomic, proteomic, and metabolomic studies throw light on the molecular mechanisms of growth promotion by NFs. The expression levels of nutrient transporter genes are regulated by NFs, controlling uptake and minimizing excess nutrient toxicity. Accelerated growth by NFs is brought about by their extensive regulation of cell division, photosynthesis, carbohydrate, and nitrogen metabolism, as well as the phytohormone-dependent signaling pathways related to development, stress response, and plant defense. NFs mimic Ca,2+ eliciting second messengers and associated proteins in signaling cascades, reaching transcription factors and finally orchestrating gene expression to enhance growth and stress tolerance. Developing advanced nano fertilizers of the future must involve exploring molecular interactions with plants to reduce toxicity and improve effectiveness.

Long-term effects of silver nanoparticles and mineral nutrition components on the photosynthetic processes, chloroplast ultrastructure and productivity of Solanum lycopersicum plants

The effects of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), both alone and in combination with mineral nutrients, on the growth and photosynthesis of Solanum lycopersicum plants during ontogeny were studied. The experiment involved weekly applications of 10 μmol of AgNPs for 15 weeks in a greenhouse over a summer period. A comprehensive characterization of the AgNPs was performed via TEM, ESI/EELS, and zeta potential measurements before and throughout the experiment. The activity of PSII, stomatal conductivity, photosynthesis, transpiration and respiration rates were measured, and the photosynthetic pigments, chloroplast ultrastructure, and dry and fresh masses of leaves, roots, and fruits were assessed. The results indicated that combining AgNPs with mineral nutrients increased PSII activity and the photosynthesis rate and altered the chloroplast ultrastructure. However, the use of mineral nutrients or AgNPs alone did not induce these changes. Atomic absorption spectrometry detected AgNPs in all the plant organs except the fruits. The highest fruit yield was associated with Veni Prisma®, a commercial product containing colloidal silver, which also caused desynchronized fruit maturation. This study hypothesizes that the synergistic effect of AgNPs and mineral nutrients enhances silver accumulation in chloroplasts, improving light utilization and photosynthetic efficiency, particularly under low light, thus increasing fruit quantity and dry mass. Conversely, long-term use of AgNPs alone was accompanied by silver accumulation outside the chloroplasts and did not lead to increased photosynthesis or an increase in fresh fruit mass.

GC-MS metabolomics of French lettuce (Lactuca Sativa L. var capitata) leaves exposed to bisphenol A via the hydroponic media

INTRODUCTION

Bisphenol A (BPA), an organic compound used to produce polycarbonate plastics and epoxy resins, has become a ubiquitous contaminant due to its high-volume production and constant release to the environment. Plant metabolomics can trace the stress effects induced by environmental contaminants to the variation of specific metabolites, making it an alternative way to study pollutants toxicity to plants. Nevertheless, there is an important knowledge gap in metabolomics applications in this area.

OBJECTIVE

Evaluate the influence of BPA in French lettuce (Lactuca Sativa L. var capitata) leaves metabolic profile by gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS) using a hydroponic system.

METHODS

Lettuces were cultivated in the laboratory to minimize biological variation and were analyzed 55 days after sowing (considered the plant's adult stage). Hexanoic and methanolic extracts with and without derivatization were prepared for each sample and analyzed by GC-MS.

RESULTS

The highest number of metabolites was obtained from the hexanoic extract, followed by the derivatized methanolic extract. Although no physical differences were observed between control and contaminated lettuce leaves, the multivariate analysis determined a statistically significant difference between their metabolic profiles. Pathway analysis of the most affected metabolites showed that galactose metabolism, starch and fructose metabolism and steroid biosynthesis were significantly affected by BPA exposure.

CONCLUSIONS

The preparation of different extracts from the same sample permitted the determination of metabolites with different physicochemical properties. BPA alters the leaves energy and membrane metabolism, plant growth could be affected at higher concentrations and exposition times.

Evaluating the phytotoxicological effects of bulk and nano forms of zinc oxide on cellular respiration-related indices and differential gene expression in Hordeum vulgare L

The increasing use of nanoparticles is driving the growth of research on their effects on living organisms. However, studies on the effects of nanoparticles on cellular respiration are still limited. The remodeling of cellular-respiration-related indices in plants induced by zinc oxide nanoparticles (nnZnO) and its bulk form (blZnO) was investigated for the first time. For this purpose, barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) seedlings were grown hydroponically for one week with the addition of test compounds at concentrations of 0, 0.3, 2, and 10 mg mL-1. The results showed that a low concentration (0.3 mg mL-1) of blZnO did not cause significant changes in the respiration efficiency, ATP content, and total reactive oxygen species (ROS) content in leaf tissues. Moreover, a dose of 0.3 mg mL-1 nnZnO increased respiration efficiency in both leaves (17 %) and roots (38 %). Under the influence of blZnO and nnZnO at medium (2 mg mL-1) and high (10 mg mL-1) concentrations, a dose-dependent decrease in respiration efficiency from 28 % to 87 % was observed. Moreover, the negative effect was greater under the influence of nnZnO. The gene transcription of the subunits of the mitochondria electron transport chain (ETC) changed mainly only under the influence of nnZnO in high concentration. Expression of the ATPase subunit gene, atp1, increased slightly (by 36 %) in leaf tissue under the influence of medium and high concentrations of test compounds, whereas in the root tissues, the atp1 mRNA level decreased significantly (1.6-2.9 times) in all treatments. A dramatic decrease (1.5-2.4 times) in ATP content was also detected in the roots. Against the background of overexpression of the AOX1d1 gene, an isoform of alternative oxidase (AOX), the total ROS content in leaves decreased (with the exception of 10 mg mL-1 nnZnO). However, in the roots, where the pressure of the stress factor is higher, there was a significant increase in ROS levels, with a maximum six-fold increase under 10 mg mL-1 nnZnO. A significant decrease in transcript levels of the pentose phosphate pathway and glycolytic enzymes was also shown in the root tissues compared to leaves. Thus, the disruption of oxidative phosphorylation leads to a decrease in ATP synthesis and an increase in ROS production; concomitantly reducing the efficiency of cellular respiration.

Earthworms improve the rhizosphere micro-environment to mitigate the toxicity of microplastics to tomato (Solanum lycopersicum)

Microplastics (MPs) are widespread in agricultural soil, potentially threatening soil environmental quality and plant growth. However, toxicological research on MPs has mainly been limited to individual components (such as plants, microbes, and animals), without considering their interactions. Here, we examined earthworm-mediated effects on tomato growth and the rhizosphere micro-environment under MPs contamination. Earthworms (Eisenia fetida) mitigated the growth-inhibiting effect of MPs on tomato plant. Particularly, when exposed to environmentally relevant concentrations (ERC, 0.02% w/w) of MPs, the addition of earthworms significantly (p < 0.05) increased shoot and root dry weight by 12-13% and 13-14%, respectively. MPs significantly reduced (p < 0.05) soil ammonium (NH4+-N) (0.55-0.69 mg/kg), nitrate nitrogen (NO3--N) (7.02-8.65 mg/kg) contents, and N cycle related enzyme activities (33.47-42.39 μg/h/g) by 37.7-50.9%, 22.6-37.2%, and 34.2-48.0%, respectively, while earthworms significantly enhanced (p < 0.05) inorganic N mineralization and bioavailability. Furthermore, earthworms increased bacterial network complexity, thereby enhancing the robustness of the bacterial system to resist soil MPs stress. Meanwhile, partial least squares modelling showed that earthworms significantly influenced (p < 0.01) soil nutrients, which in turn significantly affected (p < 0.01) plant growth. Therefore, the comprehensive consideration of soil ecological composition is important for assessing MPs ecological risk.

Comprehensive toxicological, metabolomic, and transcriptomic analysis of the biodegradation and adaptation mechanism by Achromobacter xylosoxidans SL-6 to diuron

Biodegradation was considered a promising and environmentally friendly method for treating environmental pollution caused by diuron. However, the mechanisms of biodegradation of diuron required further research. In this study, the degradation process of diuron by Achromobacter xylosoxidans SL-6 was systematically investigated. The results suggested that the antioxidant system of strain SL-6 was activated by adding diuron, thereby alleviating their oxidative stress response. In addition, degradation product analysis showed that diuron in strain SL-6 was mainly degraded by urea bridge cleavage, dehalogenation, deamination, and ring opening, and finally cis, cis-muconic acid was generated. The combined analysis of metabolomics and transcriptomics revealed the biodegradation and adaptation mechanism of strain SL-6 to diuron. Metabolomics analysis showed that after the strain SL-6 was exposed to diuron, metabolic pathways such as tricarboxylic acid cycle (cis, cis-muconic acid), glutathione metabolism (oxidized glutathione), and urea cycle (arginine) were reprogrammed in the cells. Furthermore, diuron could induce the production of membrane transport proteins in strain SL-6 cells and overexpress antioxidant enzyme genes, finally ultimately promoting the up-regulation of genes encoding amide hydrolases and dioxygenases, which was revealed by transcriptomics studies. This work enriched the biodegradation mechanism of phenylurea herbicides and provided guidance for the removal of diuron residues in the environment and promoting agriculture sustainable development.

Toxicological effects of nanoparticles in plants: Mechanisms involved at morphological, physiological, biochemical and molecular levels

The rapid advancement of nanotechnology has led to unprecedented innovations across diverse industries, including pharmaceuticals, agriculture, cosmetics, electronics, textiles, and food, owing to the unique properties of nanoparticles. The extensive production and unregulated release of synthetic nanoparticles may contribute to nanopollution within the ecosystem. In the agricultural sector, nanotechnology is increasingly utilized to improve plant productivity, enhance resistance to stressors, and reduce the usage of chemicals. However, the uncontrolled discharge of nanoparticles into the natural environment raises concerns regarding possible plant toxicological impacts. The review focuses on the translocation of these particles within the plants, emphasizing their phytotoxicological effects at morphological, physiological, biochemical, and molecular levels. Eventhough the beneficial aspects of these nanoparticles are evident, excessive usage of nanoparticles at higher concentrations may lead to potential adverse effects. The phytotoxicity resulting from excessive amounts of nanoparticles affects seed germination and biomass production, disrupts the photosynthesis system, induces oxidative stress, impacts cell membrane integrity, alters gene expression, causes DNA damage, and leads to epigenetic variations in plants. Nanoparticles are found to directly associate with the cell membrane and cell organelles, leading to the dissolution and release of toxic ions, generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and subsequent oxidative stress. The present study signifies and accumulates knowledge regarding the application of nanoparticles in agriculture and illustrates a clear picture of their possible impacts on plants and soil microbes, thereby paving the way for future developments in nano-agrotechnology. The review concludes by addressing current challenges and proposing future directions to comprehend and mitigate the possible biological risks associated with nanoparticles in agriculture.

Plant-nano interactions: A new insight of nano-phytotoxicity

Whether nanoparticles (NPs) are boon or bane for society has been a centre of in-depth debate and key consideration in recent times. Exclusive physicochemical properties like small size, large surface area-to-volume ratio, robust catalytic activity, immense surface energy, magnetism and superior biocompatibility make NPs obligatory in many scientific, biomedical and industrial ventures. Nano-enabled products are newer entrants in the present era. To attenuate environmental stress and maximize crop yields, scientists are tempted to introduce NPs as augmented supplements in agriculture. The feasible approaches for NPs delivery are irrigation, foliar spraying or seed priming. Internalization of excessive NPs to plants endorses negative implications at higher trophic levels via biomagnification. The characteristics of NPs (dimensions, type, solubility, surface charge), applied concentration and duration of exposure are prime factors conferring nanotoxicity in plants. Several reports approved NPs persuaded toxicity can precisely mimic abiotic stress effects. The signature effects of nanotoxicity include poor root outgrowth, biomass reduction, oxidative stress evolution, lipid peroxidation, biomolecular damage, perturbed antioxidants, genotoxicity and nutrient imbalance in plants. NPs stress impels mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling cascade and urges stress responsive defence gene expression to counteract stress in plants. Exogenous supplementation of nitric oxide (NO), arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus (AMF), phytohormones, and melatonin (ME) is novel strategy to circumvent nanotoxicity. Briefly, this review appraises plants' physio-biochemical responses and adaptation scenarios to endure NPs stress. As NPs stress represents large-scale contaminants, advanced research is indispensable to avert indiscriminate NPs usage for synchronizing nano-security in multinational markets.

The combined contamination of nano-polystyrene and nanoAg: Uptake, translocation and ecotoxicity effects on willow saplings

Nanoplastics (NPLs) and nanoAg (AgNPs) are emerging contaminants commonly detected in aquatic and terrestrial environments due to their widespread use in various domains. However, their uptake, translocation, and toxic effects on plants in cooccurrence environments remain largely unexplored. Therefore, a hydroponic experiment was conducted using 100 nm NPLs (1 mg/L and 10 mg/L), AgNPs (100 μg/L and 1000 μg/L) and saplings of willow (Salix matsudana 'J172') to investigate absorption, translocation and the physio-biochemical responses of the plants. The results indicated that NPLs and AgNPs were agglomerated with each other in solutions. NPLs not only penetrated the roots of the saplings but also translocated to the branches and leaves through xylem ducts. However, AgNPs was only detected in the roots, suggesting that the internalization of nanoparticles in plants depends on the properties and types of particles themselves. The combined exposure to NPLs and AgNPs selectively affected the absorption and distribution of K, Ca, Mg and Fe, resulting in inhibited saplings growth and photosynthesis. Furthermore, the presence of NPLs and AgNPs induced oxidative damage and stimulated the antioxidant stress system in the plants. This study provides novel insights into the internalization and ecotoxicological mechanisms of NPLs and AgNPs in woody vascular plants.

Phytotoxic impact of bifunctionalized silver nanoparticles (AgNPs-Cit-L-Cys) and silver nitrate (AgNO3) on chronically exposed callus cultures of Populus nigra L

Owing to the unique physicochemical properties and the low manufacturing costs, silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have gained growing interest and their application has expanded considerably in industrial and agricultural sectors. The large-scale production of these nanoparticles inevitably entails their direct or indirect release into the environment, raising some concerns about their hazardous aspects. Callus culture represents an important tool in toxicological studies to evaluate the impact of nanomaterials on plants and their potential environmental risk. In this study, we investigated the chronic phytotoxic effects of different concentrations of novel bifunctionalized silver nanoparticles (AgNPs-Cit-L-Cys) and silver nitrate (AgNO3) on callus culture of Populus nigra L., a pioneer tree species in the riparian ecosystem. Our results showed that AgNPs-Cit-L-Cys were more toxic on poplar calli compared to AgNO3, especially at low concentration (2.5 mg/L), leading to a significant reduction in biomass production, accompanied by a decrease in protein content, a significant increase in both lipid peroxidation level, ascorbate peroxidase (APX), and catalase (CAT) enzymatic activities. In addition, these findings suggested that the harmful activity of AgNPs-Cit-L-Cys might be correlated with their physicochemical properties and not solely attributed to the released Ag+ ions and confirmed that AgNPs-Cit-L-Cys phytoxicity is associated to oxidative stress.

Cadmium tolerance in Elodea canadensis Michx: Subcellular distribution and metabolomic analysis

The aquatic plant Elodea canadensis is considered a good candidate for ecotoxicological investigations. Cadmium (Cd) is a widespread contaminant in aquatic systems. In this study, to better elucidate the underlying tolerance mechanism and molecular impact of environmentally relevant Cd concentration in aquatic plants, subcellular distribution, chemical forms, and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry-based non-targeted metabolomics profiles were comprehensively analyzed in E. canadensis subjected to 0 and 10 µM Cd treatment for 5 d. Subcellular fractionation analysis of Cd-containing leaves showed that 67% of Cd was compartmentalized in cell wall followed by the soluble fraction (24 %) and organelles (9 %). The majority of Cd (90 %) was found in the extraction using 1 M NaCl. Metabolomic analysis using unsupervised principal component analyses and a supervised partial least squares discriminant analysis revealed clear differences in metabolic profiles between the two groups, demonstrating the metabolic effects of Cd. The 155 identified compounds altered by Cd were mainly from primary metabolism, including sugars, amino acids, organic acids, and their derivatives. Secondary metabolites such as polyphenols and phenolamides were also detected. The massive up-regulation of metabolites, including trehalose, proline, sarcosine, nicotianamine, putrescine, α-ketoglutaric acid, citric acid, and phytol might represent a detoxification mechanism. These findings highlighted the mechanistic strategies that E. canadensis employs to defend against Cd toxicity.

Silver nanoparticles affect wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) germination, seedling blight and yield

The aim of the study was to evaluate the effect of two types of negatively charged quasi-spherical silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) at concentrations of 10, 20 and 30mgL-1 and silver ions at a concentration of 30mgL-1 on the growth, selected physiological aspects and yielding of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) cv. Tybalt, and on plant resistance to seedling blight. Seed germination, α-amylase activity in seeds, morphology and infestation of seedlings by pathogens were assessed in a hydroponic treatment. Growth rate, PSII efficiency, heading and yield of the same plants were then analysed in pot culture. Results showed that the AgNPs and silver ions had a negative effect on roots, but reduced seedling blight and improved leaf area compared to the control. In addition, the AgNPs reduced with sodium borohydride in the presence of trisodium citrate at concentrations of 10 and 20mgL-1 stimulated germination, α-amylase activity and shoot length, which was not observed in the case of silver ions and the AgNPs reduced with sodium hypophosphite in the presence of sodium hexametaphosphate. In a pot experiment, the AgNPs improved plant growth, PSII efficiency, accelerated heading and increased yield-related parameters compared with the control. Results revealed the interaction strength in the following order: TCSB-AgNPs>SHSH-AgNPs>silver ions. TCSB-AgNPs in the lowest concentration had the most favourable effect, indicating their great potential for use in improving wheat cultivation.

Engineered nanoparticles in plant growth: Phytotoxicity concerns and the strategies for their attenuation

In the agricultural sector, the use of engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) has been acclaimed as the next big thing for sustaining and increasing crop productivity. A vast amount of literature is available regarding the growth-promoting attributes of different ENPs. In this context, it has been emphasized that the ENPs can bolster vegetative growth, leaf development, and seed setting and also help in mitigating the effects of abiotic and biotic stresses. At the same time, there have been a lot of speculations and concerns regarding the phytotoxicity of ENPs off-late. In this connection, many research articles have presented the negative effects of ENPs on plant systems. These studies have highlighted that almost all the ENPs impart a certain degree of phytotoxicity in terms of reduction in growth, biomass, impairment of photosynthesis, oxidative status of plant cells, etc. Mostly, the ENPs based on metal or metal oxides (Cd, Cr, Pb, Ag, Ce, etc.) and nonmetals (C) that are introduced into the environment are known to incite inhibitory effects. However, the phytotoxicity of ENPs are known to be determined mostly by the chemical nature of the element, size, surface charge, coating molecules, and abiotic factors like pH and light. This review article, therefore, elucidates the phytotoxic properties of different ENPs and the plant responses induced at the molecular level subjected to nanoparticle exposure. Moreover, the article highlights the probable strategies that may be adopted for the suppression of the phytotoxicity of ENPs to ensure the safe and sustainable application of ENPs in crop fields.

Metabolomics as a Tool to Understand Nano-Plant Interactions: The Case Study of Metal-Based Nanoparticles

Metabolomics is a powerful tool in diverse research areas, enabling an understanding of the response of organisms, such as plants, to external factors, their resistance and tolerance mechanisms against stressors, the biochemical changes and signals during plant development, and the role of specialized metabolites. Despite its advantages, metabolomics is still underused in areas such as nano-plant interactions. Nanoparticles (NPs) are all around us and have a great potential to improve and revolutionize the agri-food sector and modernize agriculture. They can drive precision and sustainability in agriculture as they can act as fertilizers, improve plant performance, protect or defend, mitigate environmental stresses, and/or remediate soil contaminants. Given their high applicability, an in-depth understanding of NPs' impact on plants and their mechanistic action is crucial. Being aware that, in nano-plant interaction work, metabolomics is much less addressed than physiology, and that it is lacking a comprehensive review focusing on metabolomics, this review gathers the information available concerning the metabolomic tools used in studies focused on NP-plant interactions, highlighting the impact of metal-based NPs on plant metabolome, metabolite reconfiguration, and the reprogramming of metabolic pathways.

Phytotoxic Action of Silver Nanoparticles on Lemna minor: Multi-Parameter Analysis of Different Physiological Processes

Considering the widespread use of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) and their consequent build-up in waterways, there is a concern about the hazardous effect of AgNPs for aquatic ecosystems. The aim of this study was to clarify the mechanism of the action of AgNPs on duckweed (Lemna minor L.) by evaluating multiple parameters in different physiological processes. Duckweed was treated with AgNPs in a concentration range of 0.5 to 5 mg/L over a 7-day period. The analysis revealed that the AgNP-treated duckweed accumulated Ag in accordance with increasing AgNP concentrations. Furthermore, higher concentrations (2 and 5 mg/L) of AgNPs negatively affected N, P and especially K and Mg levels in the plant tissue. Accordingly, the plant growth and photosynthetic parameters were more inhibited in response to higher concentrations of AgNPs. Nanosilver significantly increased the generation of ROS at higher concentrations, although lipid peroxidation was significant even at the lowest concentration of AgNPs. However, defense mechanisms were able to counteract AgNP-induced oxidative stress and balance the intracellular redox status, as evidenced by increased activities of the main detoxification enzymes. With this experimental setting, AgNPs exhibited a relatively weak phytotoxicity at 0.5 and 1 mg/L; nevertheless, silver in a nano form poses a hazard for plants, considering its continuous release into aquatic environments.

Engineered Nanomaterials for Improving the Nutritional Quality of Agricultural Products: A Review

To ensure food safety, the current agricultural development has put forward requirements for improving nutritional quality and reducing the harmful accumulation of agricultural chemicals. Nano-enabled sustainable agriculture and food security have been increasingly explored as a new research frontier. Nano-fertilizers show the potential to be more efficient than traditional fertilizers, reducing the amount used while ensuring plant uptake, supplying the inorganic nutrients needed by plants, and improving the process by which plants produce organic nutrients. Other agricultural uses of nanotechnology affect crop productivity and nutrient quality in addition to nano-fertilizers. This article will review the research progress of using nanomaterials to improve nutritional quality in recent years and point out the focus of future research.

Mutagenesis and Resistance Development of Bacteria Challenged by Silver Nanoparticles

Because of their extremely broad spectrum and strong biocidal power, nanoparticles of metals, especially silver (AgNPs), have been widely applied as effective antimicrobial agents against bacteria, fungi, and so on. However, the mutagenic effects of AgNPs and resistance mechanisms of target cells remain controversial. In this study, we discover that AgNPs do not speed up resistance mutation generation by accelerating genome-wide mutation rate of the target bacterium Escherichia coli. AgNPs-treated bacteria also show decreased expression in quorum sensing (QS), one of the major mechanisms leading to population-level drug resistance in microbes. Nonetheless, these nanomaterials are not immune to resistance development by bacteria. Gene expression analysis, experimental evolution in response to sublethal or bactericidal AgNPs treatments, and gene editing reveal that bacteria acquire resistance mainly through two-component regulatory systems, especially those involved in metal detoxification, osmoregulation, and energy metabolism. Although these findings imply low mutagenic risks of nanomaterial-based antimicrobial agents, they also highlight the capacity for bacteria to evolve resistance.

Effect of metal cations on antimicrobial activity and compartmentalization of silver in Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 upon exposure to silver ions

Silver is an antimicrobial agent that is used extensively in consumer products, such as fabrics and humidifiers. Silver ion (Ag⁺) uptake in bacteria represents a crucial phase of antimicrobial activity. However, the uptake mechanism of Ag⁺ in bacteria remains largely unknown. The genus Shewanella drives many geochemical processes of nutrients and pollutants in soils. In the present study, Ag⁺ uptake by Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 was first investigated in a laboratory in defined anaerobic, oligotrophic, and inorganic media with or without cations (potassium ions [K⁺], magnesium ions [Mg²⁺], and zinc ions [Zn²⁺]). Our results revealed variations in antimicrobial activity of Ag⁺ in the presence of Mg²⁺ and Zn²⁺. First, Mg²⁺ significantly decreased antimicrobial activity of Ag⁺ in S. oneidensis MR-1 by inhibiting cellular Ag⁺ uptake when compared with K⁺. The results were consistent with that of Co²⁺ (Mg²⁺ channel blocker) decreased Ag⁺ uptake by S. oneidensis MR-1. Moreover, Mg²⁺ promoted riboflavin secretion and facilitated the formation of metallic Ag nanoparticles on bacterial surfaces, which was beneficial for extracellular electron transfer and consequently reduced antibacterial activity of Ag⁺. Second, Zn²⁺ increased the antimicrobial activity of Ag⁺ in S. oneidensis MR-1, although the effect on Ag⁺ uptake was minimal. A synergistic interaction between Zn²⁺ and Ag⁺ led to an increase in dead cells and decreased ferrihydrite reduction capacity. The findings suggest that Mg²⁺ could reduce the environmental risk of Ag⁺ to soil bacteria, while Zn²⁺ should be of particular concern due to its synergistic antimicrobial effect on bacteria.

The Imbibition of Pea (Pisum sativum L.) Seeds in Silver Nitrate Reduces Seed Germination, Seedlings Development and Their Metabolic Profile

The use of silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) on plants is accompanied by the occurrence of Ag⁺ ions, so the research of the effects of both on plants should be related. Therefore, in our study, the effects of Ag NPs suspension (containing Ag⁰ at 20 mg/L) and AgNO₃ solutions (with the concentration of Ag⁺ ions at 20 and 50 mg/L) on the seed germination and early seedling growth (4 days) of pea (Pisum sativum L.) were compared. Both Ag NPs and AgNO₃ did not decrease seed germination, and even stimulated seedling growth. In seedlings developing in the Ag NPs suspension, an increase in monosaccharides, homoserine and malate was noted. In the next experiment, the effect of short-term seed imbibition (8 h) in AgNO₃ at elevated concentrations, ranging from 100 to 1000 mg/L, on the further seed germination, seedling growth (in absence of AgNO₃) and their polar metabolic profiles were evaluated. The seed imbibition in AgNO₃ solutions at 500 and 1000 mg/L reduced seed germination, inhibited seedlings’ growth and caused morphological deformations (twisting and folding of root). The above phytotoxic effects were accompanied by changes in amino acids and soluble carbohydrates profiles, in both sprouts and cotyledons. In deformed sprouts, the content of homoserine and asparagine (major amino acids) decreased, while alanine, glutamic acid, glutamine, proline, GABA (γ-aminobutyric acid) and sucrose increased. The increase in sucrose coincided with a decrease in glucose and fructose. Sprouts, but not cotyledons, also accumulated malic acid and phosphoric acid. Additionally, cotyledons developed from seeds imbibed with AgNO₃ contained raffinose and stachyose, which were not detectable in sprouts and cotyledons of control seedlings. The obtained results suggest the possible disturbances in the mobilization of primary (oligosaccharides) and presumably major storage materials (starch, proteins) as well as in the primary metabolism of developing seedlings.

Recent Advances in Metal-Based Nanoparticle-Mediated Biological Effects in Arabidopsis thaliana: A Mini Review

The widespread application of metal-based nanoparticles (MNPs) has prompted great interest in nano-biosafety. Consequently, as more and more MNPs are released into the environment and eventually sink into the soil, plants, as an essential component of the ecosystem, are at greater risk of exposure and response to these MNPs. Therefore, to understand the potential impact of nanoparticles on the environment, their effects should be thoroughly investigated. Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana L.) is an ideal model plant for studying the impact of environmental stress on plants’ growth and development because the ways in which Arabidopsis adapt to these stresses resemble those of many plants, and therefore, conclusions obtained from these scientific studies have often been used as the universal reference for other plants. This study reviewed the main findings of present-day interactions between MNPs and Arabidopsis thaliana from plant internalization to phytotoxic effects to reveal the mechanisms by which nanomaterials affect plant growth and development. We also analyzed the remaining unsolved problems in this field and provide a perspective for future research directions.

Effects of chiral herbicide dichlorprop on Arabidopsis thaliana metabolic profile and its implications for microbial communities in the phyllosphere

Dichlorprop (2-(2,4-dichlorophenoxy) propionic acid, DCPP), a commonly used herbicide for weed control, can be residually detected in soil. It is still unclear whether chiral DCPP exerts an enantioselective adverse effect on plant metabolism and the microbial community of the phyllosphere. In this study, we selected Arabidopsis thaliana as a model plant to explore the effects of R- and S-DCPP enantiomers on plant physiological activities, metabolism, and associated changes in the phyllosphere microbial community. Results indicated that the fresh weight of plants decreased by 37.6% after R-DCPP treatment, whereas it increased by 7.6% after S-DCPP treatment. The R-DCPP enantiomer also caused stronger disturbance to leaf morphology, mesophyll cell structure, and leaf metabolites compared with S-DCPP. GC-MS analysis of DCPP-treated Arabidopsis leaves pointed out a differential profile mostly in carbohydrates, organic acids, and fatty acids, between S-DCPP and R-DCPP treatments. The diversity of phyllospheric microorganisms decreased and the stability of microbial community in the phyllosphere increased after R-DCPP treatment, whereas the opposite result was detected after S-DCPP exposure. The correlation analysis revealed that chiral herbicides may affect microbial communities in the phyllosphere by influencing leaf metabolism, while sugars and terpenoids were considered the main factors in reshaping the microbial community structure in the phyllosphere. Our study provides a new perspective for evaluating the effect of residual DCPP enantiomers on plant physiology and corresponding phyllosphere microorganism changes via the regulation of leaf metabolism, and clarifies the ecological risk of DCPP enantiomer application in agriculture.

Morphological, Histological and Ultrastructural Changes in Hordeum vulgare (L.) Roots That Have Been Exposed to Negatively Charged Gold Nanoparticles

In recent years, there has been an impressive development of nanotechnology. This has resulted in the increasing release of nanomaterials (NM) into the environment, thereby causing the risk of an uncontrolled impact on living organisms, including plants. More studies indicated the biotoxic effect of NM on plants, including crops. The interaction of nanoparticles (NP) with food crops is extremely important as they are a link to the food chain. The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of negatively charged gold nanoparticles (-) AuNP (at two concentrations; 25 µg/mL or 50 µg/mL) on barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) root development. Morphological, histological and ultrastructural analyses (with the use of stereomicroscope, bright filed microscope and transmission electron microscope) revealed that regardless of the concentration, (-) AuNP did not enter into the plant body. However, the dose of (-) AuNP proved to be important for the plant’s response because different morphological, histological and ultrastructural changes were observed in the treated roots. The NP treatment caused: red root colouration, a local increase in the root diameter and a decreased formation of the root hair cells (on morphological level), damage to the rhizodermal cells, vacuolisation of the cortical cells, a detachment of the cell files between the cortical cells, atypical divisions of the cells, disorder of the meristem organisation (on the histological level), the appearance of periplasmic space, numerous vesicles and multivesicular bodies, electron-dense spots in cytoplasm, alterations in the structure of the mitochondria, breakdown of the tonoplast and the plasmalemma (on the ultrastructural level).

Effects of rice root exudates on aggregation, dissolution and bioaccumulation of differently-charged Ag nanoparticles

The biological toxicity and eco-environmental risk of metal nanoparticles (MNPs) is closely related to their stability. The stability of MNPs not only depends on their own properties but also on the effects of biological and environmental factors. To better understand the interaction between biological factors and MNPs in aquatic environments, the effects of total rice root exudates (T-RRE) on the aggregation, dissolution and bioaccumulation of Ag nanoparticles (AgNPs) with different surface charges were investigated in detail. Results indicated that T-RRE can induce the aggregation and sedimentation, and hinder the dissolution of polyethyleneimine-coated AgNPs (AgNPs@PEI) with positive surface charges as well as reducing the bioaccumulation of Ag in rice roots. T-RRE had no obvious effect on the dispersion stability of AgNPs@Cit (negatively charged citrate-coated AgNPs) and AgNPs@PVP (near electrically neutral polyvinylpyrrolidone-coated AgNPs), although T-RRE could induce the dissolution of AgNPs@Cit and AgNPs@PVP. In the molecular fractions of T-RRE, high-molecular-weight root exudates (H-RRE) play a key role in inducing the aggregation of AgNPs@PEI and hindering the bioaccumulation of Ag in rice roots. Compared with H-RRE, low-molecular-weight root exudates (L-RRE) can promote the dissolution of AgNPs@Cit and AgNPs@PVP, but it can obviously promote silver accumulation in rice roots. The difference in charge intensity between L-RRE and T-RRE plays a key role in inducing the aggregation and dissolution of AgNPs with different charges. These findings provide a foundation for investigation of the interactions between rice root exudates and nanoparticles with different surface charges in complex environmental systems.

The biological toxicity and eco-environmental risk of metal nanoparticles (MNPs) is closely related to their stability.

Exploration of defense and tolerance mechanisms in dominant species of mining area - Trifolium pratense L. upon exposure to silver

This present study investigated detoxification mechanisms of leguminous forage Trifolium pratense L. (red clover) seedlings upon exposure to Ag ions (Ag⁺) on an atomic level. Depressed plant growth (maximum inhibition rate: 46.57%) and significantly altered antioxidase/antioxidant substances levels (maximum inhibition rate: 65.45%/55.41%) revealed that the physiological metabolism was disturbed. Notable lesions were observed in both leaf and root cells at 588 μM Ag⁺ treatment. All differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were remarkably mapped to biological metabolism related pathways. Red clover seedlings were speculated to initially transform and immobilize Ag⁺ in the culture medium, then transporting and fixing them inside the cell, mainly as unreduced Ag⁺ bound to oxygen-, nitrogen-, sulfur-, chloride-containing biological molecules. A portion of Ag⁺ was reduced to Ag⁰ and aggregated to form crystalline argentiferous nanoparticles. Effective reducing agents such as alcohols, carboxylic acid, and etc, which are capable of coordinating heavy metals to reduce and stabilize them, were assumed to play a role in Ag⁺ reduction. The research results are of great value to understand the defense and tolerance mechanisms of red clover to Ag⁺ and explore the main existing forms of Ag⁺ in vivo and in vitro, which could indicate contamination condition in regional ecological environment such as mining area and its potential effects.

Evaluating impacts of biogenic silver nanoparticles and ethylenediurea on wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) against ozone-induced damages

Tropospheric ozone (O₃) is a phytotoxic pollutant that leads to a reduction in crop yield. Nanotechnology offers promising solutions to stem such yield losses against abiotic stresses. Silver nanoparticles are major nanomaterials used in consumer products however, their impact on crops under abiotic stress is limited. In this study, we evaluated the anti-ozonant efficacy of biogenic silver nanoparticles (B-AgNPs) and compared them with a model anti-ozonant ethylenediurea (EDU) against ozone phyto-toxicity. Growth, physiology, antioxidant defense, and yield parameters in two wheat cultivars (HD-2967 & DBW-17), treated with B-AgNPs (25 mg/L and 50 mg/L) and EDU (150 mg/L and 300 mg/L), were studied at both vegetative and reproductive stages. During the experimental period, the average ambient ozone concentration and accumulated dose of ozone over a threshold of 40 ppb (AOT40) (8 h day^-1) were found to be 60 ppb and 6 ppm h, respectively, which were sufficient to cause ozone-induced phyto-toxicity in wheat. Growth and yield for B-AgNPs as well as EDU-treated plants were significantly higher in both the tested cultivars over control ones. However, 25 mg/L B-AgNPs treatment showed a more pronounced effect in terms of yield attributes and its lower accumulation in grains for both cultivars. DBW-17 cultivar responded better with B-AgNPs and EDU treatments as compared to HD-2967. Meanwhile, foliar exposure of B-AgNPs (dose; 25 mg/L) significantly enhanced grain weight plant^-1, thousand-grain weight, and harvest index by 54.22 %, 29.46 %, and 14.21 %, respectively in DBW-17, when compared to control. B-AgNPs could enhance ozone tolerance in wheat by increasing biochemical and physiological responses. It is concluded that B-AgNPs at optimum concentrations were as effective as EDU, hence could be a promising ozone protectant for wheat.

Surface Coating-Modulated Phytotoxic Responses of Silver Nanoparticles in Plants and Freshwater Green Algae

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have been implemented in a wide range of commercial products, resulting in their unregulated release into aquatic as well as terrestrial systems. This raises concerns over their impending environmental effects. Once released into the environment, they are prone to various transformation processes that modify their reactivity. In order to increase AgNP stability, different stabilizing coatings are applied during their synthesis. However, coating agents determine particle size and shape and influence their solubility, reactivity, and overall stability as well as their behavior and transformations in the biological medium. In this review, we attempt to give an overview on how the employment of different stabilizing coatings can modulate AgNP-induced phytotoxicity with respect to growth, physiology, and gene and protein expression in terrestrial and aquatic plants and freshwater algae.

Phytotoxicological effects of engineered nanoparticles: An emerging nanotoxicology

Recent innovations in the field of nanoscience and technology and its proficiency as a part of inter-disciplinary science has set an eclectic display in innumerable branches of science, a majority in aliened health science of human and agriculture. Modern agricultural practices have been shifting towards the implementation of nanotechnology-based solutions to combat various emerging problems ranging from safe delivery of nutrients to sustainable approaches for plant protection. In these processes, engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) are widely used as nanocarriers (to deliver nutrients and pesticides) due to their high permeability, efficacy, biocompatibility, and biodegradability properties. Even though the constructive nature of nanoparticles (NPs), nanomaterials (NMs), and other modified or ENPs towards sustainable development in agriculture is referenced, the darker side i.e., eco-toxicological effects is still not covered to a larger extent. The overwhelming usage of these trending NMs has led to continuous persistence in the ecosystem, and their interface with the biotic and abiotic community, degradation lanes and intervention, which might lead to certain beneficial or malefic effects. Metal oxide NPs and polymeric NPs (Alginate, chitosan, and polyethylene glycol) are the most used ENPs, which are posing the nature of beneficial as well as environmentally concerning hazardous materials depending upon their fate and persistence in the ecosystem. The cautious usage of NMs in a scientific way is most essential to harness beneficial aspects of NMs in the field of agriculture whilst minimizing the eco-toxicological effects. The current review is focused on the toxicological effects of various NMs on plant physiology and health. It details interactions of plant intracellular components between applied/persistent NMs, which have brought out drastic changes in seed germination, crop productivity, direct and indirect interaction at the enzymatic as well as nuclear levels. In conclusion, ENPs can pose as genotoxicants that may alter the plant phenotype if not administered appropriately.

Enthralling the impact of engineered nanoparticles on soil microbiome: A concentric approach towards environmental risks and cogitation

Nanotechnology is an avant-garde field of scientific research that revolutionizes technological advancements in the present world. It is a cutting-edge scientific approach that has undoubtedly a plethora of functions in controlling environmental pollutants for the welfare of the ecosystem. However, their unprecedented utilization and hysterical release led to a huge threat to the soil microbiome. Nanoparticles(NPs) hamper physicochemical properties of soil along with microbial metabolic activities within rhizospheric soils.Here in this review shed light on concentric aspects of NP-biosynthesis, types, toxicity mechanisms, accumulation within the ecosystem. However, the accrual of tiny NPs into the soil system has dramatically influenced rhizospheric activities in terms of soil properties and biogeochemical cycles. We have focussed on mechanistic pathways engrossed by microbes to deal with NPs.Also, we have elaborated the fate and behavior of NPs within soils. Besides, a piece of very scarce information on NPs-toxicity towards environment and rhizosphere communities is available. Therefore, the present review highlights ecological perspectives of nanotechnology and solutions to such implications. We have comprehend certain strategies such as avant-garde engineering methods, sustainable procedures for NP synthesis along with vatious regulatory actions to manage NP within environment. Moreover, we have devised risk management sustainable and novel strategies to utilize it in a rationalized and integrated manner. With this background, we can develop a comprehensive plan about NPs with novel insights to understand the resistance and toxicity mechanisms of NPs towards microbes. Henceforth, the orientation towards these issues would enhance the understanding of researchers for proper recommendation and promotion of nanotechnology in an optimized and sustainable manner.

Leaf metabolic influence of glyphosate and nanotubes on the Arabidopsis thaliana phyllosphere

Chemical exposure can indirectly affect leaf microbiota communities, but the mechanism driving this phenomenon remains largely unknown. Results revealed that the co-exposure of glyphosate and multi-carbon nanotubes (CNTs) caused a synergistic inhibitory effect on the growth and metabolism of Arabidopsis thaliana shoots. However, only a slight inhibitory effect was induced by nanotubes or glyphosate alone at the tested concentrations. Several intermediate metabolites of nitrogen metabolism and fatty acid synthesis pathways were upregulated under the combined treatment, which increased the amount of energy required to alleviate the disruption caused by the combined treatment. Additionally, compared with the two individual treatments, the glyphosate/nanotube combination treatment induced greater fluctuations in the phyllosphere bacterial community members with low abundance (relative abundance (RA) <1%) at both the family and genus levels, and among these bacteria some plant growth promotion and nutrient supplement related bacteria were markable increased. Strikingly, strong correlations between phyllosphere bacterial diversity and metabolites suggested a potential role of leaf metabolism, particularly nitrogen and carbohydrate metabolism, in restricting the range of leaf microbial taxa. These correlations between phyllosphere bacterial diversity and leaf metabolism will improve our understanding of plant-microbe interactions and the extent of their drivers of variation and the underlying causes of variability in bacterial community composition.

Effects of S-metolachlor on wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) seedling root exudates and the rhizosphere microbiome

S-metolachlor (S-ME) is a common chloroacetanilide herbicide. Here, we investigated the effects of S-ME on wheat seedling growth and explored via metabolomics the driver through which S-ME changes the rhizosphere microbiome. The results indicated that 4 mg/kg S-ME had a strong inhibitory effect on plant growth by inducing hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) levels. The richness of the rhizosphere microbiome markedly decreased after S-ME treatment, although the abundance of some potential beneficial rhizobacteria, such as Rhizobiaceae and Burkholderiaceae, increased suggesting that plants recruited potential beneficial microorganisms to resist S-ME-induced stress. Spearman correlation analysis revealed that Rhizobiaceae and Burkholderiaceae were positively correlated with organic acids secreted by plants after S-ME treatment, implying that potential beneficial microorganisms may be attracted mainly by organic acids. Our results demonstrated the phytotoxicity of S-ME on crop growth and indicated both that S-ME could influence rhizosphere microorganism abundance and that recruitment of potential beneficial microorganisms could be the result of root exudate regulation.

Nanopriming with zero-valent iron synthesized using pomegranate peel waste: A "green" approach for yield enhancement in Oryza sativa L. cv. Gonindobhog

Nanopriming is a combination of nanoparticle treatment and a seed dressing technique that can increase seed quality, seedling vigour, yield and also imparts tolerance against biotic and abiotic stress. Here, nano-scale zero-valent iron (G-nZVI) was synthesized using fruit peel waste of Punica granatum L and their formation was validated from XRD and optical spectroscopic techniques. Later, the seeds were primed with G-nZVI at six different concentrations (0, 10, 20, 40, 80, and 160 mg L ^-1) to determine the dose which is optimum for increasing germination percentage and seedling vigour of rice (Oryza sativa L. cv. Gobindobhog). According to initial results, upon priming seeds with 40-80 mg L ^-1 G-nZVI highest growth rate was found. The early growth enhancement of seedlings was chiefly attributed to increased ROS generation, higher hydrolytic enzyme activities, and increased iron uptake in germinating seeds upon nanopriming. The effects of nanopriming were carried over to later stages of development. A field experiment was carried out where nanoprimed seeds and traditional hydroprimed control seeds were sown in plots and grown till maturity without the aid of any conventional fertilizers and pesticides and it was found that crop yield and grain nutrient concentrations were higher in nanoprimed sets. Compared to control hydroprimed sets, 1.53 folds higher crop yield was observed upon seed priming with 80 mg L ^-1 G-nZVI. Thus in the future, G-nZVI can be considered to be a novel low-cost, eco-friendly, food waste-derived seed treatment agent that has immense potential in increasing rice yield.

Synergistic effects of glyphosate and multiwall carbon nanotubes on Arabidopsis thaliana physiology and metabolism

Agricultural chemicals have the potential to become pollutants that adversely affect plant growth. Interactions between these compounds are likely, but potential synergies are under-researched. Multiwall carbon nanotubes are increasingly finding novel uses in agriculture, as delivery mechanisms and as slow-release fertilizers. There is potential for nanotubes to interact with other agricultural chemicals in unpredictable ways. To investigate this possibility, we examined interactions with glyphosate, a widely used herbicide that is also attracting increasing concern over its potential for non-target effects. Here we examined potential synergistic effects on hydroponically grown Arabidopsis thaliana. Single treatments did not affect plant growth significantly, or did only mildly. However, combined treatment significantly affected both plant root and shoot growth. High-level content of malondialdehyde and up-regulated of metabolic antioxidant molecules in plant indicated that combined group caused the strong oxidative damage, while the decreased of antioxidant enzyme activities indicated an imbalance between reactive oxygen species (ROS)and the antioxidant defense system due to the continuously generated ROS. Besides, several intermediate metabolites of unsaturated fatty acids synthesis pathways were up-regulated in combined treatment, which clarified that combined group changed membrane components. The increase of intermediate metabolites in combined group also reflected more energy consumption in the repairment of the disrupt of combined treatment. The synergistic effect observed was attributed to the accumulation of glyphosate resulting from permeability and transportability of the carbon nanotubes. Overall, the risk of nanotube-herbicide interaction suggests a caution use of nanotubes in agricultural applications.

Physiological, biochemical, and transcriptional regulation in a leguminous forage Trifolium pratense L. responding to silver ions

Trifolium pratense L. (red clover) is an important leguminous crop with great potential for Ag-contaminated environment remediation. Whereas, the molecular mechanisms of Ag tolerance in red clover are largely unknown. Red clover seedlings were used for physiological and transcriptomic investigation under 0, 20, 50, and 100 mg/L Ag⁺ stress in our research to reveal potential molecular resistance mechanism. Research showed that red clover possessed fairly strong Ag absorbance capacity, the Ag level reached 0.14 and 2.35 mg/g·FW in the leaves and roots under 100 mg/L AgNO₃ stress condition. Root fresh weight, root dry weight, root water content, and photosynthetic pigments contents were significantly decreased with elevating AgNO₃ concentration. Obvious withered plant tissue, microstructure disorder, and disrupted organelles were observed. In vitro evaluations (e.g., PI and DCFH-DA staining) represented that AgNO₃ at high concentration (100 mg/L) exhibited obvious inhibition on cell viability, which was due possibly to the induction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation. A total of 44643 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified under Ag stress, covering 27155 upregulated and 17488 downregulated genes. 12 stress-responsive DEGs was authenticated utilizing real-time quantitative PCR (qRT-PCR). Gene ontology (GO) analysis revealed that the DEGs were mostly related to metal ion binding (molecular function), nucleus (cellular component), and defense response (biological process). Involved DEGs in sequence-specific DNA binding transcription factor activity, response to various hormones (e.g., abscisic acid, IAA/Auxin, salicylic acid, and etc), calcium signal transduction, and protein ubiquitination were concluded to play crucial roles in Ag tolerance of red clover. On the other hand, Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) database annotated several stress responsive pathways such as plant-pathogen interaction, phenylpropanoid biosynthesis, ubiquitin mediated proteolysis, hormone signal transduction, and autophagy. Several down-regulated genes (e.g., RSF2, RCD1, DOX1, and etc) were identified indicating possible metabolic disturbance. Besides, protein-protein interaction network (PPI) identified several pivotal genes such as ribosomal proteins, TIR, and ZAT.

Comparative nanometallomics as a new tool for nanosafety evaluation

Nanosafety evaluation is paramount since it is necessary not only for human health protection and environmental integrity but also as a cornerstone for industrial and regulatory bodies. The current nanometallomics did not cover non-metallic nanomaterials, which is an important part of nanomaterials. In this critical review, the concept of nanometallomics was expanded to incorporate all nanomaterials. The impacts on metal(loid) and metallo-biomolecular homeostasis by nanomaterials will be focused upon in nanometallomics study. Besides, the impacts on elemental and biomolecular homeostasis by metallo-nanomaterials are also considered as the research subjects of nanometallomics. Based on the new concept of nanometallomics, comparative nanometallomics was proposed as a new tool for nanosafety evaluation, which is high throughput and will be precise considering the nature of machine learning techniques. The perspectives of nanometallomics like metallo-wide association study and non-target nanometallomics were put forward.

Phytotoxicity of Silver Nanoparticles on Tobacco Plants: Evaluation of Coating Effects on Photosynthetic Performance and Chloroplast Ultrastructure

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are the most exploited nanomaterial in agriculture and food production, and their release into the environment raises concern about their impact on plants. Since AgNPs are prone to biotransformation, various surface coatings are used to enhance their stability, which may modulate AgNP-imposed toxic effects. In this study, the impact of AgNPs stabilized with different coatings (citrate, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), and cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB)) and AgNO₃ on photosynthesis of tobacco plants as well as AgNP stability in exposure medium have been investigated. Obtained results revealed that AgNP-citrate induced the least effects on chlorophyll a fluorescence parameters and pigment content, which could be ascribed to their fast agglomeration in the exposure medium and consequently weak uptake. The impact of AgNP-PVP and AgNP-CTAB was more severe, inducing a deterioration of photosynthetic activity along with reduced pigment content and alterations in chloroplast ultrastructure, which could be correlated to their higher stability, elevated Ag accumulation, and surface charge. In conclusion, intrinsic properties of AgNP coatings affect their stability and bioavailability in the biological medium, thereby indirectly contributing changes in the photosynthetic apparatus. Moreover, AgNP treatments exhibited more severe inhibitory effects compared to AgNO₃, which indicates that the impact on photosynthesis is dependent on the form of Ag.

Transcriptome, proteome, and metabolome reveal the mechanism of tolerance to selenate toxicity in Cardamine violifolia

Cardamine violifolia was found here to accumulate selenium (Se) to over 9000 mg kg^-1 dry weight. To investigate the mechanism of Se accumulation and tolerance in C. violifolia, metabolome, transcriptome, and proteome technologies were applied to C. violifolia seedlings treated with selenate. Several sulfate transporter (Sultr) genes (Sultr1;1, Sultr1;2, and Sultr2;1) and sulfur assimilatory enzyme genes showed high expression levels in response to selenate. Many calcium protein and cysteine-rich kinase genes of C. violifolia were downregulated, whereas selenium-binding protein 1 (SBP1) and protein sulfur deficiency-induced 2 (SDI2) of C. violifolia were upregulated by selenate. The expression of genes involved in the ribosome and posttranslational modifications and chaperones in C. violifolia were also detected in response to selenate. Based on the results of this study and previous findings, we suggest that the downregulated expression of calcium proteins and cysteine-rich kinases, and the upregulated expression of SBP1 and SDI2, were important contributors to the Se tolerance of C. violifolia. The downregulation of cysteine-rich kinases and calcium proteins would enhance Se tolerance of C. violifolia is a novel proposition that has not been reported on other Se hyperaccumulators. This study provides us novel insights to understand Se accumulation and tolerance in plants.

Toxicity mechanism of silver nanoparticles to Chlamydomonas reinhardtii: photosynthesis, oxidative stress, membrane permeability, and ultrastructure analysis

Silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) are widely used in daily life and inevitably discharged into the aquatic environment, causing increasingly serious pollution. Research on the toxicity of Ag-NPs is still in infancy, little information is available on the relationships between oxidative stress and antioxidant, as well as damaging degrees of Ag-NPs to cellular structural components of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii (C. reinhardtiii). In the present study, we revealed the toxicity mechanism of C. reinhardtii under Ag-NPs stress using flow cytometry (FCM), metabolic methods, and transmission electron microscopy. The results showed that the chloroplasts were damaged and the synthesis of photosynthetic pigments was inhibited under Ag-NPs stress, which inhibited the growth of C. reinhardtii. Meanwhile, Ag-NPs also caused C. reinhardtii to produce excessive reactive oxygen species (ROS), increased malondialdehyde content and changed the permeability of cell membrane, resulting in the acceleration of internalization of Ag-NPs. The decrease of cell size and intracellular chlorophyll autofluorescence was observed with FCM. To deal with the induced excessive ROS that could lead to lethal and irreversible structure damage, C. reinhardtii activated antioxidant enzymes including superoxide dismutase and peroxidase. This study provides new information for better understanding the potential toxicity risks of Ag-NPs in the aquatic environment.

Effects of residual S-metolachlor in soil on the phyllosphere microbial communities of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)

S-metolachlor (S-ME) is a widely used chiral herbicide that can cause potential ecological risks via long-term usage. In this work, we chose a model plant, wheat, as the test material to determine the effects of applying 10 mg/kg S-ME to soil on its fresh weight, chlorophyll and malondialdehyde (MDA) content, and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity and the diversity and structural composition of the phyllosphere microorganisms after 7 and 14 days of exposure. Our work showed that this concentration of residual S-ME in soil only slightly decreased plant biomass and had little effect on lipid peroxidation, the antioxidant enzyme system and chlorophyll content. Interestingly, although the test concentration of S-ME did not exert strong inhibitory effects on the physiological activities of wheat, it decreased the diversity of phyllosphere microbial communities and changed their structure, indicating that microorganisms were more sensitive stress indicators. S-ME reduced the colonization by some beneficial bacteria related to plant nitrogen fixation among the phyllosphere microorganisms, which influenced the growth and yield of wheat because these bacteria contribute to plant fitness. In addition, S-ME affected the association between the host and the composition of the phyllosphere microbial communities under different growth conditions. Our work provides insights into the ecological implications of the effects of herbicides on the phyllosphere microbiome.

Nanoparticles in Agroindustry: Applications, Toxicity, Challenges, and Trends

Nanotechnology is a tool that in the last decade has demonstrated multiple applications in several sectors, including agroindustry. There has been an advance in the development of nanoparticulated systems to be used as fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, sensors, and quality stimulants, among other applications. The nanoencapsulation process not only protects the active ingredient but also can affect the diffusion, interaction, and activity. It is important to evaluate the negative aspects of the use of nanoparticles (NPs) in agriculture. Given the high impact of the nanoparticulated systems in the agro-industrial field, this review aims to address the effects of various nanomaterials on the morphology, metabolomics, and genetic modification of several crops.

Enantioselective effects of imazethapyr residues on Arabidopsis thaliana metabolic profile and phyllosphere microbial communities

Imazethapyr (IM) is a widely used acetolactate synthase-inhibiting chiral herbicide. It has long-term residuals that may be absorbed by the human body through the edible parts of plants, such as vegetable leaves or fruits. Here, we selected a model plant, Arabidopsis thaliana, to determine the effects of R-IM and S-IM on its leaf structure, photosynthetic efficiency, and metabolites, as well as the structures of microorganisms in the phyllosphere, after 7 days of exposure. Our results indicated enantiomeric differences in plant growth between R-IM and S-IM; 133 µg/kg R-IM showed heavier inhibition of photosynthetic efficiency and greater changes to subcellular structure than S-IM. R-IM and S-IM also had different effects on metabolism and leaf microorganisms. S-IM mainly increased lipid compounds and decreased amino acids, while R-IM increased sugar accumulation. The relative abundance of Moraxellaceae human pathogenic bacteria was increased by R-IM treatment, indicating that R-IM treatment may increase leaf surface pathogenic bacteria. Our research provides a new perspective for evaluating the harmfulness of pesticide residues in soil, phyllosphere microbiome changes via the regulation of plant metabolism, and induced pathogenic bacterial accumulation risks.

Biochar-induced immobilization and transformation of silver-nanoparticles affect growth, intracellular-radicles generation and nutrients assimilation by reducing oxidative stress in maize

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are used in a wide range of consumer products inevitably releases in massive quantities in the natural environment, posing a potential thread to ecosystem-safety and plant health. Here, the impact of AgNPs (100-1000 mg L^-1) without and with biochar (@2 % w/v) amendment on maize plants was assessed in hydroponics exposure medium. AgNPs exposure to plants induced dose-dependent phytotoxicity by suppressing plant growth, disturbing photosynthesis and gas exchange traits and alteration in macro- and micronutrients assimilation. At the same time, AgNPs with addition of biochar alleviated the phyto-toxic effects of AgNPs through approximately 4-8 times reduction in uptake and tissue accumulation of Ag. Moreover, activities of antioxidant enzymes in AgNPs + biochar treated plants indicated the lower oxidative stress. Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy confirmed that superoxide (O₂^-) radical was the dominant reactive oxygen species. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopic (FTIR) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopic (XPS) results revealed that biochar surface carboxyl and sulfur functional groups were involved in complexation process with NPs, which inhibited the oxidative dissolution and release of Ag⁺ ions besides of biochar space shield effect. Thus, the interaction of biochar with AgNPs immobilizes these NPs and can effectively reduce their bioavailability in the environmental matrix.

Silver nanoparticles affect phenolic and phytoalexin composition of Arabidopsis thaliana

Silver nanoparticles are widely used in industry, medicine, biotechnology and agriculture. As a consequence, these nanoparticles are reaching the environment as waste products, which might have a negative impact on the environment, especially on plants. This includes the elicitation of various biochemical processes in plants. In this article, we report on the changes in secondary metabolic profile of Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings subjected to silver nanoparticle treatment in vitro. Briefly, various sizes (10 nm, 40 nm and 100 nm in diameter) and concentrations (0.5-5.0 ppm) of silver nanoparticles were tested. Ultraperformance liquid chromatography coupled with ultraviolet and fluorescence detectors as well as hyphenated to a high-resolution mass spectrometer (UPLC-PDA-FLR, UPLC-HESI-HRMS) and HPLC - ion trap mass spectrometer (HPLC-ESI-MS/MS), were applied to identify and quantify secondary metabolites. To understand whether silver ions could induce changes in the secondary metabolite profile, seedlings treated with silver nitrate in concentrations equivalent to these of nanoparticles were also analysed. The results showed significant differences in the accumulation of phenolic and indole compounds between treatments. Silver nanoparticles and silver ions induced the biosynthesis of camalexin, hydroxycamalexin O-hexoside and hydroxycamalexin malonyl-hexoside. These compounds are important phytoalexins for Brassicaceae family (especially for Camelinae clad) and are also synthetized in response to biotic and abiotic stresses. Statistically significant changes have been also observed for five phenolic compounds and 5'Glucosyl-dihydroneoascorbigen in different treatment conditions.

Enantioselective effects of imazethapyr on Arabidopsis thaliana root exudates and rhizosphere microbes

Imazethapyr (IM) is a chiral herbicide with two enantiomers (R-IM and S-IM). Here, we determined the enantioselective effects of IM on Arabidopsis thaliana biomass and chlorophyll content, root exudates and rhizosphere microbes after 7 days of exposure. The results suggested that 133 μg/kg R-IM enantiomer in soil slightly inhibited plant biomass but S-IM did not exert significant inhibitory effects. The rhizosphere microorganism composition was also found to have enantiomeric differences between R- and S-IM. The relative abundance of beneficial rhizosphere microbes such as Bacillus and Ramlibacter increased much more with R-IM treatment than with S-IM treatment, indicating that the rhizosphere recruited some beneficial microbes to resist the herbicide stress. The IM enantiomers exerted a significant influence on root exudates with enantioselectivity. R-IM resulted in higher levels of most amino acids, organic acids, sugars and other metabolites after 7 days of exposure; few metabolites were increased by only the S-IM treatment. The correlation analyses between compounds (sugars, amino acids and organic acid) and microbes at the genus level revealed that the number of microbes was more positively correlated with organic acids than other compounds, indicating that organic acids can attract more microbes than amino acids and sugars. Some organic acids, such as 3-hydroxybutyric acid, may be a carbon source for the beneficial microbe Ramlibacter. This study increases the understanding of the differences in IM enantiomer toxicity with respect to plant physiological activity and soil microorganisms.

Oxidative stress response and proteomic analysis reveal the mechanisms of toxicity of imidazolium-based ionic liquids against Arabidopsis thaliana

Ionic liquids (ILs) are extensively used in various fields, posing a potential threat in the ecosystem because of their high stability, excellent solubility, and biological toxicity. In this study, the toxicity mechanism of three ILs, 1-octyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride ([C₈MIM]Cl), 1-decyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride ([C₁₀MIM]Cl), and 1-dodecyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride ([C₁₂MIM]Cl) on Arabidopsis thaliana were revealed. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) level increased with higher concentration and longer carbon chain length of ILs, which led to the increase of malondialdehyde (MDA) content and antioxidase activity, including superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPX) and peroxidase (POD) activities. SOD, CAT, and GPX activities decreased in high ILs concentration due to the excessive ROS. Differentially expressed protein was analyzed based on Gene ontology (GO) and KEGG pathways analysis. 70, 45, 84 up-regulated proteins, and 72, 104, 79 down-regulated proteins were identified in [C₈MIM]Cl, [C₁₀MIM]Cl, and [C₁₂MIM]Cl treatment, respectively (fold change ≥ 1.5 with ≥95% confidence). Cellular aldehyde metabolic process, mitochondrial and mitochondrial respiratory chains, glutathione transferase and oxidoreductase activity were enriched as up-regulated proteins as the defense mechanism of A. thaliana to resist external stresses. Chloroplast, photosynthetic membrane and thylakoid, structural constituent of ribosome, and transmembrane transport were enriched as the down-regulated protein. Compared with the control, 8 and 14 KEGG pathways were identified forup-regulated and down-regulated proteins, respectively, in three IL treatments. Metabolic pathways, carbon metabolism, biosynthesis of amino acids, porphyrin and chlorophyll metabolism were significantly down-regulated. The GO terms annotation demonstrated the oxidative stress response and effects on photosynthesis of A. thaliana in ILs treatment from biological process, cellular component, and molecular function categories.

Offspring toxicity of silver nanoparticles to Arabidopsis thaliana flowering and floral development

Many studies have considered silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) cytotoxicity to mammalian and human cell lines and plant growth. However, only few studies considered toxic effects of AgNPs on plant offspring, especially on flowering. Arabidopsis thaliana was treated with 12.5 mg/kg AgNPs employing parental-(P-AgNPs) and offspring-generation (O-AgNPs) exposure to study the effects of AgNPs on flowering and floral development. Exposure to P-AgNPs was found to significantly decrease petal and pollen viability and subsequently reduced pod production. The inhibition of A. thaliana vegetative growth caused by P-AgNPs exposure was transferred to offspring and even became more severe in the O-AgNPs group. Further, the transcription of genes related to flowering and floral organ development in P-AgNPs and O-Con plants was downregulated by approximately 10-40% compared to the transcription in P-Con plants and showed a stronger decrease in the O-AgNPs group to 30-50% of that in the P-AgNPs group. This resulted in a delay in flowering of 4, 3 and 8 days in P-AgNPs, O-Con and O-AgNPs plants, respectively. Our research shows that the negative effects on floral development can be transferred to the offspring in A. thaliana, which may have significant implications with regard to the risks posed by NPs to food safety and security.

Copper pre-exposure reduces AgNP bioavailability to wheat

Heavy metals in contaminated sites can affect plant responses to emerging contaminates such as engineered silver nanoparticles (AgNPs), but the underlying mechanisms are poorly understood. After 4-day exposure to 0-2.5 mg Cu L^-1 hydroponically, Cu concentrations in roots of wheat seedlings (Triticum aestivum L.) increased from 20 ± 3 to 325 ± 58 mg kg^-1. Meanwhile, the cell death in root tips, as measured by the uptake of Evans blue stain, increased 1.8-2.8 times in response to Cu exposure. Total thiol contents in roots (including glutathione, cysteine and phytochelatins), as measured by high performance liquid chromatography, increased 1.4 times upon low Cu exposure but decreased 2.2 times upon high Cu exposure. After those wheats were exposed to 10 mg L^-1 AgNPs for 8 h, the Ag influx rates decreased 1.3-3.9 times in Cu pre-exposed plants. Together, the cell death in root tips and thiol levels in roots could explain the decreased Ag influx rates of Cu pre-exposed plants. These findings indicate that the bioavailability of AgNPs without consideration of pre-existing metals could be over-estimated.

Insights into the transcriptional responses of a microbial community to silver nanoparticles in a freshwater microcosm

Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are widely used because of their excellent antibacterial properties. They are, however, easily discharged into the water environment, causing potential adverse environmental effects. Meta-transcriptomic analyses are helpful to study the transcriptional response of prokaryotic and eukaryotic aquatic microorganisms to AgNPs. In the present study, microcosms were used to investigate the toxicity of AgNPs to a natural aquatic microbial community. It was found that a 7-day exposure to 10 μg L^-1 silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) dramatically affected the structure of the microbial community. Aquatic micro eukaryota (including eukaryotic algae, fungi, and zooplankton) and bacteria (i.e., heterotrophic bacteria and cyanobacteria) responded differently to the AgNPs stress. Meta-transcriptomic analyses demonstrated that eukaryota could use multiple cellular strategies to cope with AgNPs stress, such as enhancing nitrogen and sulfur metabolism, over-expressing genes related to translation, amino acids biosynthesis, and promoting bacterial-eukaryotic algae interactions. By contrast, bacteria were negatively affected by AgNPs with less signs of detoxification than in case of eukaryota; various pathways related to energy metabolism, DNA replication and genetic repair were seriously inhibited by AgNPs. As a result, eukaryotic algae (mainly Chlorophyta) dominated over cyanobacteria in the AgNPs treated microcosms over the 7-d exposure. The present study helps to understand the effects of AgNPs on aquatic microorganisms and provides insights into the contrasting AgNPs toxicity in eukaryota and bacteria.