Maltol Mitigates Thioacetamide-induced Liver Fibrosis through TGF-β1-mediated Activation of PI3K/Akt Signaling Pathway

Crosstalk between Hepatic Stellate Cells and Hepatic Macrophages in Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Steatohepatitis

Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease is the most prevalent liver condition worldwide. Its more severe manifestation, metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis (MASH), is accompanied by distinctive hepatocellular injury and inflammation with fibrosis. The involvement of chronic inflammation and accompanying immune cell activation in the maturation phases of MASH progression, mediated through hepatic stellate cells (HSCs), plays a central role. This review highlights the detailed molecular and cellular mechanisms of MASH, with special attention to the dynamic dialogue between HSCs and hepatic macrophages. This review will help narrow the existing gaps, with a summary of key roles HSCs and hepatic macrophages play within liver immunity to inflammation, discussing critical intercellular communication pathways as well as proposing new venues for research toward a better understanding of MASH pathobiology, which could pave ways toward breakthroughs in the clinical condition.

Dapagliflozin alleviates thioacetamide induced-liver fibrosis in rats via controlling the Nrf2/HO-1 and TLR4/TGF-β1/PI3K signaling pathways

OBJECTIVES

Because liver fibrosis causes several insults that can result in death, it is regarded as an epidemic health issue. As "an inhibitor of the sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT2)," Dapagliflozin (Dapa) is one of the newest anti-diabetic drugs used to treat type 2 diabetes mellitus. Dapa's antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antifibrotic properties produced positive impacts in numerous human and animal models. Due to Dapa's previously documented properties, we planned this investigation to elucidate the protective function of Dapa in male rat liver fibrosis caused by thioacetamide (TAA) as well as the expected pathways.

METHODS

There were four groups of 24 rats: a control group, a TAA group that received (100 mg/kg b.wt intraperitoneally twice a week for 6 weeks), "TAA + Dapa" groups that given oral Dapa at (1 and 2 mg/kg b.wt. for 4 weeks in addition to TAA injections).

RESULTS

It was shown that TAA injections increased toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) (509.6%), tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α) (298.8%), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), malondialdehyde (MDA), interleukin-6 (IL-6) (330.9%), phosphotidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K) (428.9% %), and transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β1) (416.6%) levels. All of these markers were considerably reduced by Dapa treatment. In addition, reduced glutathione (GSH), nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) (79%), albumin, Heme-oxygenase 1 (HO-1) (69%), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) were all decreased after TAA injection; however, they were restored by Dapa administration. The Dapa-treated groups had higher Nrf2 and HO-1 gene expressions, based on the results of PCR. Biochemical outcomes were validated by histopathological results. Immunohistopathological study revealed that DAPA treatment decreased caspase-3 and alpha-smooth Muscle Actin (αSMA) expression.

CONCLUSION

Due to its interactions with the Nrf2/HO-1 and TLR4 pathways, our research showed that Dapa had antioxidant and anti-inflammatory qualities against TAA-induced liver fibrosis.

Hepatoprotective effect of diosmetin against thioacetamide-induced liver injury via modulating Bax/NF-κB/caspase-3/Nrf-2/PPARϒ signaling pathway in rats

Thioacetamide (TAA), an established liver toxic chemical, is used to develop experimental models of liver injury by inducing inflammation, oxidative stress, and apoptosis. The current study investigates the hepatoprotective effect of diosmetin (DSM), a bioflavonoid molecule, with mechanistic investigations using an in vivo TAA-induced liver injury model because there is no precedence. In the current investigation, 30 Wistar rats were randomly assigned to five groups. The rats were given TAA (200 mg/kg) and DSM (50 and 100 mg/kg body weight) for 8 weeks. Liver function biomarkers (ALT, ASP, AST, bilirubin, GGT, CRP, albumin, globulin, and total protein) and inflammatory markers were analyzed on serum, whereas antioxidant levels, histological evaluation, and apoptotic markers were evaluated on liver tissue. The finding of this study indicated that DSM ameliorates TAA-induced increases in ALT, ASP, AST, bilirubin, GGT, CRP, MDA, albumin, globulin, total protein, and antioxidant enzyme activity such as SOD, CAT, and GSH levels. DSM reduced alterations in inflammatory biomarkers (IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α) and apoptotic markers (Bax, NF-κB, caspase-3, Nrf-2, PPARϒ) in liver tissues. Furthermore, DSM therapy resulted in significant major changes in liver histology, fibrosis, and cell death. The current study's findings demonstrated that DSM significantly decreases hepatotoxicity by enhancing liver structure and function while suppressing oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis.

Coleus vettiveroides Root Extract Protects Against Thioacetamide-Induced Chronic Liver Injury by Inhibiting NF-κB Signaling Pathway

The roots of Coleus vettiveroides (CV) have been traditionally used in Indian medicinal systems such as Ayurveda and Siddha for its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antidiabetic effects. This study examines the antifibrotic potential of CV ethanolic root extract (CVERE) against thioacetamide (TAA)-induced liver fibrosis in Wistar rats. TAA was administered via i.p., thrice weekly for 11 weeks to induce liver fibrosis in rats. In separate groups, rats were administered with TAA and were concurrently treated with CVERE 125 mg/kg, CVERE 250 mg/kg, and silymarin (SIL) 100 mg/kg. Liver marker enzymes of hepatotoxicity, oxidative stress markers, proinflammatory marker gene expression (TNF-α, NF-κB, COX, and ILs), fibrotic marker gene expression (collagen I and III), immune histochemical expression of fibrosis marker proteins, and histopathologic changes were analyzed. TAA administration led to a significant (p < 0.001) increase in the serum level of hepatotoxic marker enzymes. The TAA-treated group showed higher levels (p < 0.001) of MDA and reduced activities of SOD and CAT in the liver. TAA administration increased CYP2E1 expression, proinflammatory, and fibrotic marker gene expressions in rat liver. The histopathology of the liver confirms TAA-induced architectural distortion and fibrotic changes. CVERE and SIL simultaneous treatments significantly protected against TAA-induced oxidative stress, inflammation, and liver fibrosis. In conclusion, CVERE inhibited TAA-induced liver fibrosis through downregulation of TAA metabolic activation, redox imbalance, and inflammation through repression of the NF-κB pathway.

Network pharmacology-based exploration of the mechanism of Wenweishu granule in treating chronic atrophic gastritis with spleen-stomach cold deficiency syndrome

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Wenweishu (WWS) is a traditional Chinese medicine compound formulated for chronic atrophic gastritis (CAG) treatment by warming the stomach and alleviating pain. However, its pharmacological mechanisms remain underexplored.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study investigated the therapeutic effects and potential mechanisms of WWS on CAG with spleen-stomach cold deficiency syndrome (SSCDS).

METHODS

To achieve this, an SSCDS-CAG rat model and a human gastric mucosal epithelial cells (GES-1) cell model were established using multi-factor modeling and N-Methyl-N'-nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine (MNNG) induction, respectively. WWS's effects on gastric injury were evaluated through pathology, inflammation, serum biomarkers, and apoptosis. Additionally, MNNG's effects on GES-1 cells were analyzed. Network pharmacology, involving protein-protein interaction networks, GO/KEGG enrichment, and molecular docking, was employed to predict WWS's potential targets and mechanisms in SSCDS-CAG. Mechanistic insights were further validated using immunohistochemistry, quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, and western blotting.

RESULTS

In vivo results showed that WWS alleviated symptoms in SSCDS-CAG rats, lowering symptom scores and improving gastric histopathology. It modulated serum biomarkers and reduced inflammation and apoptosis in both in vivo and in vitro studies. Network pharmacology results revealed 263 overlapping targets between WWS and SSCDS-CAG, associated with apoptosis, inflammation, and the PI3K/AKT pathway. Molecular docking revealed strong binding affinity between the core target and active WWS components. In SSCDS-CAG rats and GES-1 cells, WWS inhibited PI3K/AKT phosphorylation, increased PTEN expression, and regulated Bcl-2, Bax, and cleaved caspase-3 levels.

CONCLUSION

WWS reduces inflammation and apoptosis in multi-factor CAG rats and MNNG-induced GES-1 cells by modulating the PTEN/PI3K/AKT signaling pathway and apoptosis-related proteins.

Paroxetine alleviates dendritic cell and T lymphocyte activation via GRK2-mediated PI3K-AKT signaling in rheumatoid arthritis

BACKGROUND

G protein-coupled receptor kinase 2 (GRK2) could participate in the regulation of diverse cells via interacting with non-G-protein-coupled receptors. In the present work, we explored how paroxetine, a GRK2 inhibitor, modulates the differentiation and activation of immune cells in rheumatoid arthritis (RA).

METHODS

The blood samples of healthy individuals and RA patients were collected between July 2021 and March 2022 from the First Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University. C57BL/6 mice were used to induce the collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) model. Flow cytometry analysis was used to characterize the differentiation and function of dendritic cells (DCs)/T cells. Co-immunoprecipitation was used to explore the specific molecular mechanism.

RESULTS

In patients with RA, high expression of GRK2 in peripheral blood lymphocytes, accompanied by the increases of phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase (PI3K), protein kinase B (AKT), and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). In animal model, a decrease in regulatory T cells (T regs ), an increase in the cluster of differentiation 8 positive (CD8 + ) T cells, and maturation of DCs were observed. Paroxetine, when used in vitro and in CIA mice, restrained the maturation of DCs and the differentiation of CD8 + T cells, and induced the proportion of T regs . Paroxetine inhibited the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, the expression of C-C motif chemokine receptor 7 in DCs and T cells. Simultaneously, paroxetine upregulated the expression of programmed death ligand 1, and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Additionally, paroxetine inhibited the PI3K-AKT-mTOR metabolic pathway in both DCs and T cells. This was associated with a reduction in mitochondrial membrane potential and changes in the utilization of glucose and lipids, particularly in DCs. Paroxetine reversed PI3K-AKT pathway activation induced by 740 Y-P (a PI3K agonist) through inhibiting the interaction between GRK2 and PI3K in DCs and T cells.

CONCLUSION

Paroxetine exerts an immunosuppressive effect by targeting GRK2, which subsequently inhibits the metabolism-related PI3K-AKT-mTOR pathway of DCs and T cells in RA.

The advancement of targeted regulation of hepatic stellate cells using traditional Chinese medicine for the treatment of liver fibrosis

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Liver fibrosis, which is a precursor to cirrhosis in chronic liver diseases, is driven by various factors. The activation and proliferation of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) are recognized as a crucial phase in the progression of liver fibrosis. Compared with western drug therapy, Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) and herbal medicine not only have the advantages of multi-target and multi-pathways in the treatment of liver fibrosis, but also have high safety without toxic side effects.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

This paper aims to compile and analyze the active ingredients in TCM and their corresponding signaling pathways that target and modulate the phenotype of hepatic stellate cells, offering a potential treatment for hepatic fibrosis.

METHODS

The Literature information was obtained from the scientific databases PubMed, Web of Science and CNKI from January 2010 to June 2020 with the aim of elucidating the intrinsic mechanisms and roles of TCM and natural medicine in the treatment of LF. The search terms included "liver fibrosis" or "hepatic fibrosis", "traditional Chinese medicine" or "Chinese herbal medicine", "medicinal plant", "natural plant", and "herb".

RESULTS

We described the antifibrosis activity of TCM and natural medicine in LF based on different signaling pathways. Plant medicine and herbal formulas regulated the related gene and protein expression via pathways such as TGF-β/Smad, PI3K/AKT/mTOR, MAPK and Wnt/β-catenin, which inhibit the proliferation, apoptosis, autophagy and activation of HSCs.

CONCLUSION

By reviewing both domestic and international literature on TCM interventions in liver fibrosis, this study presents a thorough evaluation of recent research progress and the challenges faced in the clinical application of TCM for this condition. The goal is to lay a solid foundation for further in-depth studies and to strengthen the theoretical framework in this field. The inhibitory effect of TCM and natural medicine on fibrosis was reflected in multiple levels and multiple pathways, providing reasonable evidence for new drug development. To make TCM and natural medicine widely and flexibly used in clinical practice, the efficacy, safety and mechanism of action need more in-depth experimental research. It also seeks to provide a theoretical foundation for future research on targeted therapies for liver fibrosis and related diseases.

Signaling pathways that activate hepatic stellate cells during liver fibrosis

Liver fibrosis is a complex process driven by various factors and is a key feature of chronic liver diseases. Its essence is liver tissue remodeling caused by excessive accumulation of collagen and other extracellular matrix. Activation of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs), which are responsible for collagen production, plays a crucial role in promoting the progression of liver fibrosis. Abnormal expression of signaling pathways, such as the TGF-β/Smads pathway, contributes to HSCs activation. Recent studies have shed light on these pathways, providing valuable insights into the development of liver fibrosis. Here, we will review six signaling pathways such as TGF-β/Smads that have been studied more in recent years.

Maltol Improves Peripheral Nerve Function by Inhibiting Schwann Cell Apoptosis via the PERK/eIF2α/CHOP Pathway and MME Upregulation in Diabetic Peripheral Neuropathy

Diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN) is the most prevalent chronic complication among diabetic patients and a primary risk factor contributing to the deterioration of diabetic foot conditions. The pathogenesis of DPN remains complex and not fully understood, and there are hardly any effective treatment drugs. Maltol (3-hydroxy-2-methyl-4-pyranone) has demonstrated antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. However, the potential role of maltol in the treatment of DPN remains unclear. This study aimed to assess maltol's effects on DPN rats and high glucose (HG)/palmitic acid (PA)-induced rat Schwann cells (RSC96). The results indicated maltol's capacity to enhance peripheral nerve function in DPN rats. In RSC96 cells stimulated with high HG and PA, maltol treatment reduced DPN markers and apoptosis-related proteins. Functional enrichment analysis of differentially expressed genes revealed that endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress pathways were involved in this process. Western blot results demonstrated the activation of ER stress pathway in HG/PA-induced RSC96 cells, with maltol attenuating ER stress-related protein expression. Furthermore, the knockdown of Membrane metallo-endopeptidase (MME) reversed maltol's effects on apoptosis-related protein expression, suggesting a potential therapeutic role for maltol via MME in treating DPN. These findings indicate that maltol may hold promise as a therapeutic agent for DPN treatment.

Changes in chemical components and hepatoprotective effect of red Panax notoginseng processed by aspartic acid impregnation treatment

BACKGROUND

Red Panax notoginseng (RPN) is one of the major processed products of P. notoginseng (PN), with more effective biological activities. However, the traditional processing method of RPN has some disadvantages, such as low conversion rate of ginsenosides and long processing time.

RESULTS

In this work, we developed a green, safe, and efficient approach for RPN processing by aspartic acid impregnation pretreatment. Our results showed that the optimized temperature, steaming time, and concentration of aspartic acid were 120 °C, 1 h, and 3% respectively. The original ginsenosides in PN treated by aspartic acid (Asp-PN) were completely converted to rare saponins at 120 °C within just 1 h. The concentration of the rare ginsenosides in Asp-PN was two times higher than that in untreated RPN. In addition, we examined the protective effect of RPN and Asp-PN on acetaminophen-induced liver injury in a mouse model. The results showed that Asp-PN has significantly more potent hepatoprotective action than the RPN. The hepatoprotection of Asp-PN in acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity may be due to its anti-oxidative stress, anti-apoptotic, and anti-inflammatory activities.

CONCLUSION

These results indicated that aspartic acid impregnation pretreatment may provide an effective method to shorten the steaming time, improve the conversion rate of ginsenosides, and enhance hepatoprotective activity of RPN. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Multiomics analysis revealed that the metabolite profile of raw milk is associated with lactation stage of dairy cows and could be affected by variations in the ruminal microbiota

The nutritional components and quality of milk are influenced by the rumen microbiota and its metabolites at different lactation stages. Hence, rumen fluid and milk samples from 6 dairy cows fed the same diet were collected during peak, early mid- and later mid-lactation. Untargeted metabolomics and 16S rRNA sequencing were applied for analyzing milk and rumen metabolites, as well as rumen microbial composition, respectively. The levels of lipid-related metabolites, L-glutamate, glucose-1-phosphate and acetylphosphate in milk exhibited lactation-dependent attenuation. Maltol, N-acetyl-D-glucosamine, and choline, which are associated with milk flavor or coagulation properties, as well as L-valine, lansioside-A, clitocine and ginsenoside-La increased significantly in early mid- and later mid-lactation, especially in later mid-lactation. The obvious increase in rumen microbial diversities (Ace and Shannon indices) were observed in early mid-lactation compared with peak lactation. Twenty-one differential bacterial genera of the rumen were identified, with Succinivibrionaceae_UCG-001, Candidatus Saccharimonas, Fibrobacter, and SP3-e08 being significantly enriched in peak lactation. Rikenellaceae_RC9_gut_group, Eubacterium_ruminantium_group, Lachnospira, Butyrivibrio, Eubacterium_hallii_group, and Schwartzia were most significantly enriched in early mid-lactation. In comparison, only 2 bacteria (unclassified_f__Prevotellaceae and Prevotellaceae_UCG-001) were enriched in later mid-lactation. For rumen metabolites, LPE(16:0), L-glutamate and L-tyrosine had higher levels in peak lactation, whereas PE(17:0/0:0), PE(16:0/0:0), PS(18:1(9Z)/0:0), L-phenylalanine, dulcitol, 2-(methoxymethyl)furan and 3-phenylpropyl acetate showed higher levels in early mid- and later mid-lactation. Multiomics integrated analysis revealed that a greater abundance of Fibrobacter contributed to phospholipid content in milk by increasing ruminal acetate, L-glutamate and LysoPE(16:0). Prevotellaceae_UCG-001 and unclassified_f_Prevotellaceae provide substrates for milk metabolites of the same category by increasing ruminal L-phenylalanine and dulcitol contents. These results demonstrated that milk metabolomic fingerprints and critical functional metabolites during lactation, and the key bacteria in rumen related to them. These findings provide new insights into the development of functional dairy products.

The role of PI3k/AKT signaling pathway in attenuating liver fibrosis: a comprehensive review

Excessive accumulation of extracellular matrix (ECM) components within the liver leads to a pathological condition known as liver fibrosis. Alcohol abuse, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), autoimmune issues, and viral hepatitis cause chronic liver injury. Exploring potential therapeutic targets and understanding the molecular mechanisms involved in liver fibrosis are essential for the development of effective interventions. The goal of this comprehensive review is to explain how the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway contributes to the reduction of liver fibrosis. The potential of this pathway as a therapeutic target is investigated through a summary of results from in vivo and in vitro studies. Studies focusing on PI3K/AKT activation have shown a significant decrease in fibrosis markers and a significant improvement in liver function. The review emphasizes how this pathway may prevent ECM synthesis and hepatic stellate cell (HSC) activation, ultimately reducing the fibrotic response. The specific mechanisms and downstream effectors of the PI3K/AKT pathway in liver fibrosis constitute a rapidly developing field of study. In conclusion, the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway plays a significant role in attenuating liver fibrosis. Its complex role in regulating HSC activation and ECM production, demonstrated both in vitro and in vivo, underscores its potential as a effective therapeutic approach for managing liver fibrosis and slowing disease progression. A comprehensive review of this field provides valuable insights into its future developments and implications for clinical applications.

Effects of metformin on parasitological, pathological changes in the brain and liver and immunological aspects during visceral toxocariasis in mice

There are currently insufficient anthelmintic medications available for the treatment of toxocariasis. For instance, Albendazole (ABZ) is the preferred medication, but its effectiveness against tissue-dwelling parasites is limited. In addition, Metformin (MTF) is a widely used oral antidiabetic medication that is considered to be safe for treatment. This study aimed to investigate any potential effects of MTF, alone or in combination with ABZ, on mice infections caused by Toxocara canis (T. canis). The efficacy of the treatment was assessed in the acute and chronic phases of the infection by larval recovery and histopathological, immunohistochemical, and biochemical studies. The results showed that combined therapy significantly reduced larval counts in the liver, brain, and muscles and ameliorated hepatic and brain pathology. It reduced oxidative stress and TGF-β mRNA expression and increased FGF21 levels in the liver. It decreased TNF-α levels and MMP-9 expression in the brain. In addition, it increased serum levels of IL-12 and IFN-γ and decreased serum levels of IL-4 and IL-10. In the acute and chronic phases of the infection, the combined treatment was more effective than ABZ alone. In conclusion, this study highlights the potential role of MTF as an adjuvant in the treatment of experimental T. canis infection when administered with ABZ.

Evaluation of Lentilactobacillus parafarraginis A6-2 strain for aluminum removal and anti-inflammatory effects: implications for alleviating Al toxicity

AIM

To assess the effectiveness of Lentilactobacillus parafarraginis A6-2 cell lysate for the removal of aluminum (Al), which induces neurotoxicity, and its protective effect at cellular level.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The cell lysate of the selected L. parafarraginis A6-2 strain demonstrated superior Al removal compared to live or dead cells. The Al removal efficiency of L. parafarraginis A6-2 cell lysate increased with decreasing pH and increasing temperature, primarily through adsorption onto peptidoglycan. Neurotoxicity mitigation potential of L. parafarraginis A6-2 was evaluated using C6 glioma cells. C6 cells exposed with increasing concentration of Al led to elevated toxicity and inflammation, which were gradually alleviated upon treatment with L. parafarraginis A6-2. Moreover, Al-induced oxidative stress in C6 cells showed a concentration-dependent reduction upon treatment with L. parafarraginis A6-2.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated that L. parafarraginis A6-2 strain, particularly in its lysate form, exhibited enhanced capability for Al removal. Furthermore, it effectively mitigated Al-induced toxicity, inflammation, and oxidative stress.

In-silico prediction of TGF-β1 non-synonymous variants and their impact on binding affinity to Fresolimumab

TGF-β1 is a potent immunoregulatory cytokine that plays diverse roles in development, bone healing, fibrosis, and cancer. However, characterizing TGF-β1 gene variants is challenging because the structural and functional consequences of these variants are still undetermined. In this study, we aimed to perform an in-silico analysis of TGF-β1 non-synonymous variants and their pathogenic effects on the TGF-β1 protein. A total of 10,252 TGF-β1 SNPs were collected from the NCBI dbSNP database and in-silico tools (SIFT, PROVEAN, Mutation Taster, ClinVar, PolyPhen-2, CScape, MutPred, and ConSurf) were used. The in-silico predicted potential variants were further investigated for their binding to the TGF-β1 targeting drug "Fresolimumab". Molecular docking was performed using HADDOCK and confirmed by PRODIGY and PDBsum. The in-silico analysis predicted four potential TGF-β1 nsSNPs: E47G in the LAP domain of the propeptide and I22T, L28F, and E35D in the mature TGF-β1 peptide. HADDOCK and molecular dynamics simulations revealed that the I22T and E35D variants have higher binding affinity for Fresolimumab as compared to the wild type and L28F variants. Molecular dynamics simulations (100 ns) and principal component analysis showed that TGF-β1 variants influenced the protein structure and caused variations in the internal dynamics of protein complexes with the antibody. Among them, the E35D variant significantly destabilized the TGF-β1 protein structure, resulting in rearrangement in the binding site and affecting the interactions with the Fresolimumab. This study identified four variants that can affect the TGF-β1 protein structure and result in functional consequences such as impaired response to Fresolimumab.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Alogliptin exhibits multifaceted effects in thioacetamide-insulted rats: A novel approach to combating hepatic inflammation and fibrogenesis

Hepatic fibrosis arising from chronic liver injury is characterized by dysregulated healing, including hepatic stellate cell activation and excessive deposition of extracellular matrix proteins. Administration of the hepatotoxin thioacetamide (TAA) induces liver injury coupled to fibrogenesis in rodents, mimicking aspects of human disease. Alogliptin is a highly selective inhibitor of dipeptidyl peptidase-4 with purported antifibrotic actions. We investigated the protective effects of alogliptin against TAA-mediated hepatic fibrosis in rats. Adult male Sprague-Dawley rats received intraperitoneal injections of TAA (150 mg/kg) twice weekly for 6 weeks to induce liver fibrosis. A subset of rats also received daily oral alogliptin (20 mg/kg). At 6 weeks, liver injury and fibrosis were assessed by histology, hydroxyproline content, serum liver enzymes, inflammatory cytokines, oxidative stress markers, and genes related to inflammation, apoptosis, and fibrosis. TAA elicited necroinflammation, oxidative stress, upregulation of pro-fibrogenic mediators, increased hydroxyproline content, and excessive collagen deposition, indicating hepatic fibrosis. The administration of Alogliptin led to notable enhancements in liver histology, an extension in survival time, a decrease in hydroxyproline levels and the expression of fibrogenic genes, a reduction in inflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress, and mitigation of hepatocellular apoptosis in rats subjected to TAA treatment. Alogliptin displayed potent antifibrotic, antioxidant, and hepatoprotective properties in this model of toxic liver damage, likely by impeding NFκB while enhanced Nrf2 DNA binding activity which together modulate oxidative stress, inflammation, myofibroblast activation, and apoptosis. These results highlight the potential therapeutic value of alogliptin offering hope for improved treatment of hepatic fibrosis.

System Biology Investigation Revealed Lipopolysaccharide and Alcohol-Induced Hepatocellular Carcinoma Resembled Hepatitis B Virus Immunobiology and Pathogenesis

Hepatitis B infection caused by the hepatitis B virus is a life-threatening cause of liver fibrosis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. Researchers have produced multiple in vivo models for hepatitis B virus (HBV) and, currently, there are no specific laboratory animal models available to study HBV pathogenesis or immune response; nonetheless, their limitations prevent them from being used to study HBV pathogenesis, immune response, or therapeutic methods because HBV can only infect humans and chimpanzees. The current study is the first of its kind to identify a suitable chemically induced liver cirrhosis/HCC model that parallels HBV pathophysiology. Initially, data from the peer-reviewed literature and the GeneCards database were compiled to identify the genes that HBV and seven drugs (acetaminophen, isoniazid, alcohol, D-galactosamine, lipopolysaccharide, thioacetamide, and rifampicin) regulate. Functional enrichment analysis was performed in the STRING server. The network HBV/Chemical, genes, and pathways were constructed by Cytoscape 3.6.1. About 1546 genes were modulated by HBV, of which 25.2% and 17.6% of the genes were common for alcohol and lipopolysaccharide-induced hepatitis. In accordance with the enrichment analysis, HBV activates the signaling pathways for apoptosis, cell cycle, PI3K-Akt, TNF, JAK-STAT, MAPK, chemokines, NF-kappa B, and TGF-beta. In addition, alcohol and lipopolysaccharide significantly activated these pathways more than other chemicals, with higher gene counts and lower FDR scores. In conclusion, alcohol-induced hepatitis could be a suitable model to study chronic HBV infection and lipopolysaccharide-induced hepatitis for an acute inflammatory response to HBV.

E Se tea extract ameliorates CCl4 induced liver fibrosis via regulating Nrf2/NF-κB/TGF-β1/Smad pathway

BACKGROUND

Liver fibrosis is a crucial progress to deteriorate liver disease. E Se tea (ES) is an ethnic herbal tea in China that has various biological activities for human beings. However, the traditional application on the treatment of liver disease is not studied.

PURPOSE

This study is firstly performed to explore the chemical constituents of ES extract together with its anti-hepatic fibrosis effect and potential mechanism on CCl₄ treated mice.

STUDY DESIGN AND METHODS

The chemical constituents of ethanol-aqueous extract from ES (ESE) were analyzed by UPLC-ESI-MS/MS. The anti-hepatic fibrosis effect of ESE was determined by measuring ALT and AST activities, antioxidative indexes, inflammatory cytokines and collagen protein levels on CCl₄ treated mice. Moreover, H&E, Masson staining and immunohistochemical analysis were performed for evaluating the protective effect of ESE on histopathological changes of liver tissues.

RESULTS

UHPLCHRESI-MS/MS analysis showed that the ESE was rich in flavonoids such as phlorizin, phloretin, quercetin and hyperoside. ESE could significantly reduce the plasma AST and ALT activities. The cytokines (IL-6, TNF-α, IL-1β) expressions were inhibited after ESE administration via suppressing NF-κB pathway. In addition, ESE could decrease MDA accumulation for alleviating CCl₄ induced liver oxidative stress via regulating Nrf2 pathway to promote the expressions of antioxidant enzymes (SOD, HO-1, CAT and NQO1). Moreover, ESE could inhibit the expressions of TGF-β1, Smad2, α-SMA, and collagens Ⅰ and III proteins, thereby effectively alleviate the liver fibrosis.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrated that ESE could alleviate liver fibrosis through enhancing antioxidant and anti-inflammatory abilities by Nrf2/NF-κB pathway and reducing deposition of liver fibrosis via suppressing TGF-β/Smad pathway.

Molecular mechanisms in thioacetamide-induced acute and chronic liver injury models

Thioacetamide (TAA) undergoes bioactivation in the liver by the CYP450 2E1 enzyme, resulting in the formation of TAA-S-oxide and TAA-S-dioxide. TAA-S-dioxide induces oxidative stress via lipid peroxidation of the hepatocellular membrane. A single TAA dose (50-300 mg/kg) administration initiates hepatocellular necrosis around the pericentral region after its covalent binding to macromolecules in the liver. Intermittent TAA administration (150-300 mg/kg, weekly thrice, for 11-16 weeks) activates transforming growth factor (TGF)-β/smad3 downstream signaling in injured hepatocytes, causing hepatic stellate cells (HSCs) to acquire myofibroblast like phenotype. The activated HSCs synthesize a variety of extracellular matrix, leading to liver fibrosis, cirrhosis, and portal hypertension. The TAA induced liver injury varies depending on the animal model, dosage, frequency, and routes of administration. However, TAA induces hepatotoxicity in a reproducible manner, and it is an ideal model to evaluate the antioxidant, cytoprotective, and antifibrotic compounds in experimental animals.

Identification of LBH and SPP1 involved in hepatic stellate cell activation during liver fibrogenesis

Liver fibrosis is a pathological response driven by the activation of hepatic stellate cell (HSC). However, the mechanisms of liver fibrosis and HSC activation are complicated and far from being fully understood. We aimed to explore the candidate genes involved in HSC activation during liver fibrogenesis. Five genes (LBH, LGALS3, LOXL1, S100A6 and SPP1) were recurrent in the DEGs derived from the seven datasets. The expression of these genes gradually increased as liver fibrosis staging advanced, suggesting they might be candidate genes involved in HSC activation during hepatic fibrosis. These candidate genes were predicted to be coregulated by miRNAs such as hsa-miR-125a-5p and has-miR-125b, or by transcription factors including JUN, USF1, TP53 and TFAP2C. PPI analysis showed that LGALS3, LOXL1, S100A6 and SPP1 might interact with each other indirectly, but no interaction was found between them and LBH. The candidate genes and their interaction partners were enriched in focal adhesion, extracellular matrix organization and binding. Upregulation of LBH, S100A6 and SPP1 were further validated in TGF-β-treated LX-2 as well as in DDC or CCL₄-treated mice models. Decreased LBH and SPP1 expression reduces the expression of HSC activation-related markers in TGF-β-treated LX-2. Our results indicated that LBH, LGALS3, LOXL1, S100A6 and SPP1 were candidate genes which may participate in the HSC activation during liver fibrosis.

Preparation and Characterisation of Liposomes of Bergenia Ciliata Extract and Evaluation of their Hepatoprotective Activity

Acute liver damage (ALD) can cause biochemical and pathological changes, which can lead to major complications and even death. The goal of the study was to examine the therapeutic efficacy of liposomes of Bergenia ciliata extract against thioacetamide-induced liver damage in rats. Liposomal batches of B. ciliata extract were prepared by altering the kind and amount of phospholipids and characterized through various physiochemical properties such as laser diffraction, TEM, encapsulation efficiency, stability and in-vitro release studies. In-vivo hepatoprotective studies were performed on TAA-induced acute hepatic damage model. Further, in-silico studies of bergenin against the three hepatic damage markers viz. TGF-β1, TNF-α and interleukin-6 were also performed. Laser diffraction and TEM showed that most stable liposome batch of B. ciliata extract were in the range of 678-1170 nm with encapsulation efficiency of 84.3±3.5. Extract was found to be rapidly dissociated from B. ciliata liposomes in HCl than PBS, according to in-vitro release data. In-vivo data revealed a significant decline in LFT indicators, amelioration of pathological changes and high bergenin bioavailability in the liposomal group. Protective activity of bergenin against ALD targets like TGF-β1, TNF-α and interleukin-6 was anticipated via molecular docking research. As a result, the current findings of the study indicate that B. ciliata liposomes and bergenin have promising ameliorative potential in the management of ALD.

Maltol, a Natural Flavor Enhancer, Inhibits NLRP3 and Non-Canonical Inflammasome Activation

Maltol (3-hydroxy-2-methyl-4-pyrone) is used widely as a food and cosmetic supplement, and it has antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. Inflammasome causes the maturation and secretion of interleukin (IL)-1β and -18 through the activation of caspase-1 (Casp1), which contributes to various inflammatory diseases. This study examined the effects of maltol on the inflammasome activation in macrophages and mice. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-primed macrophages were treated with a trigger of NLRP3, NLRC4, AIM2, or non-canonical (NC) inflammasomes in the presence of maltol. The secretion of IL-1β and IL-18 and the cleavage of Casp1 were analyzed as indices of inflammasome activation. Mice were injected with LPS and an NLRP3 trigger with or without maltol, and the peritoneal IL-1β secretions were observed. The effects of maltol on reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and Casp1 activity were analyzed to determine the mechanism. Maltol inhibited the activation of NLRP3 and NC inflammasomes, but it did not alter the other inflammasomes. Maltol also attenuated IL-1β secretion resulting from the inflammasome activation in mice. The anti-inflammatory mechanism of maltol was revealed by the inhibition of ROS production and Casp1 activity. Maltol is suggested to be promising as a anti-inflammasome molecule.

Targeted therapeutics and novel signaling pathways in non-alcohol-associated fatty liver/steatohepatitis (NAFL/NASH)

Non-alcohol-associated fatty liver/steatohepatitis (NAFL/NASH) has become the leading cause of liver disease worldwide. NASH, an advanced form of NAFL, can be progressive and more susceptible to developing cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Currently, lifestyle interventions are the most essential and effective strategies for preventing and controlling NAFL without the development of fibrosis. While there are still limited appropriate drugs specifically to treat NAFL/NASH, growing progress is being seen in elucidating the pathogenesis and identifying therapeutic targets. In this review, we discussed recent developments in etiology and prospective therapeutic targets, as well as pharmacological candidates in pre/clinical trials and patents, with a focus on diabetes, hepatic lipid metabolism, inflammation, and fibrosis. Importantly, growing evidence elucidates that the disruption of the gut-liver axis and microbe-derived metabolites drive the pathogenesis of NAFL/NASH. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) act as a signaling mediator, resulting in lipid accumulation, macrophage and hepatic stellate cell activation, further promoting inflammation and liver fibrosis progression during the development of NAFL/NASH. Targeting gut microbiota or EVs may serve as new strategies for the treatment of NAFL/NASH. Finally, other mechanisms, such as cell therapy and genetic approaches, also have enormous therapeutic potential. Incorporating drugs with different mechanisms and personalized medicine may improve the efficacy to better benefit patients with NAFL/NASH.

MiR-1290: a potential therapeutic target for regenerative medicine or diagnosis and treatment of non-malignant diseases

MicroRNAs are a set of small non-coding RNAs that could change gene expression with post-transcriptional regulation. MiRNAs have a significant role in regulating molecular signaling pathways and innate and adaptive immune system activity. Moreover, miRNAs can be utilized as a powerful instrument for tissue engineers and regenerative medicine by altering the expression of genes and growth factors. MiR-1290, which was first discovered in human embryonic stem cells, is one of those miRNAs that play an essential role in developing the fetal nervous system. This review aims to discuss current findings on miR-1290 in different human pathologies and determine whether manipulation of miR-1290 could be considered a possible therapeutic strategy to treat different non-malignant diseases. The results of these studies suggest that the regulation of miR-1290 may be helpful in the treatment of some bacterial (leprosy) and viral infections (HIV, influenza A, and Borna disease virus). Also, adjusting the expression of miR-1290 in non-infectious diseases such as celiac disease, necrotizing enterocolitis, polycystic ovary syndrome, pulmonary fibrosis, ankylosing spondylitis, muscle atrophy, sarcopenia, and ischemic heart disease can help to treat these diseases better. In addition to acting as a biomarker for the diagnosis of non-malignant diseases (such as NAFLD, fetal growth, preeclampsia, down syndrome, chronic rhinosinusitis, and oral lichen planus), the miR-1290 can also be used as a valuable instrument in tissue engineering and reconstructive medicine. Consequently, it is suggested that the regulation of miR-1290 could be considered a possible therapeutic target in the treatment of non-malignant diseases in the future.

Kinsenoside attenuates liver fibro-inflammation by suppressing dendritic cells via the PI3K-AKT-FoxO1 pathway

Kinsenoside (KD) exhibits anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects. Dendritic cells (DCs) are critical regulators of the pathologic inflammatory milieu in liver fibrosis (LF). Herein, we explored whether and how KD repressed development of LF via DC regulation and verified the pathway involved in the process. Given our analysis, both KD and adoptive transfer of KD-conditioned DCs conspicuously reduced hepatic histopathological damage, proinflammatory cytokine release and extracellular matrix deposition in CCl₄-induced LF mice. Of note, KD restrained the LF-driven rise in CD86, MHC-II, and CCR7 levels and, simultaneously, upregulated PD-L1 expression on DCs specifically, which blocked CD8⁺T cell activation. Additionally, KD reduced DC glycolysis, maintained DCs immature, accompanied by IL-12 decrease in DCs. Inhibiting DC function by KD disturbed the communication of DCs and HSCs with the expression or secretion of α-SMA and Col-I declined in the liver. Mechanistically, KD suppressed the phosphorylation of PI3K-AKT driven by LF or PI3K agonist, followed by enhanced nuclear transport of FoxO1 and upregulated interaction of FoxO1 with the PD-L1 promoter in DCs. PI3K inhibitor or si-IL-12 acting on DC could relieve LF, HSC activation and diminish the effect of KD. In conclusion, KD suppressed DC maturation with promoted PD-L1 expression via PI3K-AKT-FoxO1 and decreased IL-12 secretion, which blocked activation of CD8⁺T cells and HSCs, thereby alleviating liver injury and fibro-inflammation in LF.

EPA-Enriched Phospholipids Alleviate Renal Interstitial Fibrosis in Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats by Regulating TGF-β Signaling Pathways

Hypertensive nephropathy is a chronic kidney disease caused by hypertension. Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) has been reported to possess an antihypertensive effect, and our previous study suggested that EPA-enriched phospholipid (EPA-PL) had more significant bioactivities compared with traditional EPA. However, the effect of dietary EPA-PL on hypertensive nephropathy has not been studied. The current study was designed to examine the protection of EPA-PL against kidney damage in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs). Treatment with EPA-PL for three weeks significantly reduced blood pressure through regulating the renin–angiotensin system in SHRs. Moreover, dietary EPA-PL distinctly alleviated kidney dysfunction in SHRs, evidenced by reduced plasma creatinine, blood urea nitrogen, and 24 h proteinuria. Histology results revealed that treatment of SHRs with EPA-PL alleviated renal injury and reduced tubulointerstitial fibrosis. Further mechanistic studies indicated that dietary EPA-PL remarkably inhibited the activation of TGF-β and Smad 3, elevated the phosphorylation level of PI3K/AKT, suppressed the activation of NF-κB, reduced the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including IL-1β and IL-6, and repressed the oxidative stress and the mitochondria-mediated apoptotic signaling pathway in the kidney. These results indicate that EPA-PL has potential value in the prevention and alleviation of hypertensive nephropathy.

Maltol mitigates cisplatin-evoked cardiotoxicity via inhibiting the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway in rodents in vivo and in vitro

Our current research aims to evaluate the efficiency of a flavor enhancer, maltol (produced by heating ginseng) against cisplatin-evoked cardiotoxicity by establishing cisplatin-induced heart injury in vivo and H9C2 rat cardiomyocyte model. The cisplatin-treated mice at 3 mg/kg for four times on the 7th, 9th, 11th and 13th day, and in them appeared a serious cardiac damage accompanied with the increase in indicators of heart damage. Multiple exposure of 3 mg/kg for four times of cisplatin increased cardiac cells apoptosis with increased expression of Bax and cleaved-caspase 3, and decreased expression of Bcl-2. Interestingly, supplement of maltol at doses of 50 and 100 mg/kg for 15 days significantly suppressed the cardiac disturbance. In cultured H9C2 cells, maltol enhanced PI3K/Akt expression level during cisplatin treatment, and reduced cisplatin-induced apoptosis. Notably, inhibition of PI3K/Akt by LY294002 and HY-10249A lessened the efficacy of maltol. In mice, maltol apparently induced PI3K/Akt in heart tissues and protected against cisplatin-induced cardiotoxicity. In conclusion, maltol exerted the protective effects against cisplatin-induced cardiotoxicity, at least partially by inhibiting the activation of PI3K/Akt signaling pathways in cardiomyocytes, to ease oxidative stress, and alleviate reactive oxygen species-mediated apoptosis.

Hepatoprotective effects of methanolic extract of green tea against Thioacetamide-Induced liver injury in Sprague Dawley rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Since ancient times, herbal medicines have been applied in the treatment of cancer. Tea, derivative from the dried leaves of Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze plant is the most popular beverage globally after water and is available in various forms. Green tea has been expansively investigated for its beneficial properties of cancer prevention and therapy. The goal of the research: The current study was conducted to evaluate the hepaprotective character of methanolic green tea extract and its mechanism of action contrary to thioacetamide (TAA)-produced liver fibrosis of Sprague Dawley rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Thirty rodents were equally placed in 5 clusters including normal control, TAA group as a positive control, silymarin as standard drug control, and treatment groups consisting of high dose and a low dose Camellia sinensis. Rats in experimental clusters by mouth fed with C. sinensis at 250 mg/kg or 500 mg/kg daily for 2 months. After 60 days, all rats were sacrificed. Blood specimens were gathered for liver biochemical examination. Livers of all groups were dissected out and subjected to histopathological examination through the Hematoxylin and Eosin stain, Masson trichrome, and immunohistochemistry stains (PCNA). Liver tissue homogenate was also analyzed for antioxidant activity parameters.

RESULTS

Gross morphological examination showed a regular liver architecture in C. sinensis fed collections compared to the TAA sets. Histology of rat's liver fed with C. sinensis showed an important decrease in the liver index with hepatic cells propagation, mild cellular injury, and immunostaining showed significant down-expression of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA). TAA produced liver fibrosis through a significant increase in serum alanine transferase, aspartate aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, and bilirubin. Total protein and albumin also decreased in the TAA group. Moreover, the reduction of antioxidant enzyme activity including superoxide dismutase and catalase as well as the increase in malondialdehyde was detected in the TAA control group. Meanwhile, an abnormal level of liver biochemical parameters was restored closer to the normal levels in serum of the C. sinensis-fed clusters. In addition, C. sinensis fed assemblies showed elevated antioxidative enzymes activity with a reduction in malondialdehyde level comparable to the levels in silymarin-treated rats.

CONCLUSIONS

Green tea potentially inhibited the progression of liver cirrhosis, down -regulation of PCNA proliferation, prevented oxidation of hepatocytes, recovered SOD and CAT enzymes, condensed MDA and reduced cellular inflammation.

The involvement of TGF-β1 /FAK/α-SMA pathway in the antifibrotic impact of rice bran oil on thioacetamide-induced liver fibrosis in rats

The objective of the current study is to investigate the effect of rice bran oil (RBO) on hepatic fibrosis as a characteristic response to persistent liver injuries. Rats were randomly allocated into five groups: the negative control group, thioacetamide (TAA) group (thioacetamide 100 mg/kg thrice weekly for two successive weeks, ip), RBO 0.2 and 0.4 groups (RBO 0.2mL and 0.4 mL/rat/day, po) and standard group (silymarin 100 mg/kg/day, po) for two weeks after TAA injection. Blood and liver tissue samples were collected for biochemical, molecular, and histological analyses. Liver functions, oxidative stress, inflammation, liver fibrosis markers were assessed. The obtained results showed that RBO reduced TAA-induced liver fibrosis and suppressed the extracellular matrix formation. Compared to the positive control group, RBO dramatically reduced total bilirubin, AST, and ALT blood levels. Furthermore, RBO reduced MDA and increased GSH contents in the liver. Simultaneously RBO downregulated the NF-κβ signaling pathway, which in turn inhibited the expression of some inflammatory mediators, including Cox-2, IL-1β, and TNF-α. RBO attenuated liver fibrosis by suppressing the biological effects of TGF-β1, α-SMA, collagen I, hydroxyproline, CTGF, and focal adhesion kinase (FAK). RBO reduced liver fibrosis by inhibiting hepatic stellate cell activation and modulating the interplay among the TGF-β1 and FAK signal transduction. The greater dosage of 0.4 mL/kg has a more substantial impact. Hence, this investigation presents RBO as a promising antifibrotic agent in the TAA model through inhibition of TGF-β1 /FAK/α-SMA.

Dihydromyricetin Reverses Thioacetamide-Induced Liver Fibrosis Through Inhibiting NF-κB-Mediated Inflammation and TGF-β1-Regulated of PI3K/Akt Signaling Pathway

As a natural active substance, dihydromyricetin (DHM) has been proven to have good hepatoprotective activity. However, the therapeutic effect of DHM on liver fibrosis, which has become a liver disease threatening the health of people around the world, has not been studied to date. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of DHM as a new nutritional supplement on thioacetamide (TAA)-induced liver fibrosis. The liver fibrosis model was established by intraperitoneal injection of TAA (200 mg/kg, every 3 days) for 8 weeks, and oral administration of DHM (20 mg/kg and 40 mg/kg, daily) after 4 weeks of TAA-induced liver fibrosis. The results showed that DHM treatment significantly inhibited the activities of alanine aminotransferase (ALT) (37.81 ± 7.62 U/L) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) (55.18 ± 10.94 U/L) in serum of liver fibrosis mice, and increased the levels of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione (GSH) while reversed the level of malondialdehyde (MDA). In addition, histopathological examination illustrated that TAA induced the inflammatory infiltration, apoptosis and fibroatherosclerotic deposition in liver, which was further confirmed by western-blot and immunofluorescence staining. Moreover, DHM inhibited hepatocyte apoptosis by regulating the phosphorylation level of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), protein kinase-B (AKT) and its downstream apoptotic protein family. Interestingly, immunofluorescence staining showed that DHM treatment significantly inhibited alpha smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), which was a marker of hepatic stellate cell activation, and regulated the expression of transforming growth factor (TGF-β1). Importantly, supplementation with DHM significantly inhibited the release of nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) signaling pathway and pro-inflammatory factors in liver tissue induced by TAA, and improved liver fiber diseases, such as tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and recombinant rat IL-1β (IL-1β). In conclusion, the evidence of this study revealed that DHM is a potential hepatoprotective and health factor, and which also provides the possibility for the treatment of liver fibrosis.

A characterized saponin extract of Panax japonicus suppresses hepatocyte EMT and HSC activation in vitro and CCl4-provoked liver fibrosis in mice: Roles of its modulatory effects on the Akt/GSK3β/Nrf2 cascade

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Liver fibrosis constitutes a pathologic condition resulting in a series of advanced liver diseases. Oleanane-type saponins are distinctive active constituents in the medicinal plant Panax japonicus C. A. Mey (P. japonicus). Herein, we assessed protective effects of a characterized saponin extract of rhizomes of P. japonicus (SEPJ) on hepatocyte EMT and HSC activation in vitro and liver fibrosis in mice. We also investigated molecular mechanisms underlying the hepatoprotective activity of SEPJ.

METHODS

EMT of AML-12 hepatocytes was evaluated by observing morphology of cells and quantifying EMT marker proteins. Activation of LX-2 HSCs was assessed via scratch assay, transwell assay, and EdU-incorporation assay, and by quantifying activation marker proteins. Liver fibrosis in mice was evaluated by HE, SR, and Masson staining, and by measuring related serum indicators. Immunoblotting and RT-PCR were performed to study mechanisms underlying the action of SEPJ.

RESULTS

SEPJ inhibited TGF-β-induced EMT in AML-12 hepatocytes and activation of LX-2 HSCs. SEPJ elevated Akt phosphorylation at Ser473 and GSK3β phosphorylation at Ser9 in these cells, giving rise to a descent of the catalytic activity of GSK3β. These events increased levels of both total and nuclear Nrf2 protein and upregulated expressions of Nrf2-responsive antioxidative genes. In addition, enhanced phosphorylation of Akt and GSK3β acted upstream of SEPJ-mediated activation of Nrf2. Knockdown of Nrf2 or inhibition of Akt diminished the protective activity of SEPJ against TGF-β in both AML-12 and LX-2 cells. Our further in vivo experiments revealed that SEPJ imposed a considerable alleviation on CCl₄-provoked mouse liver fibrosis. Moreover, hepatic Akt/GSK3β/Nrf2 cascade were potentiated by SEPJ. Taken together, our results unveiled that SEPJ exerted protective effects against fibrogenic cytokine TGF-β in vitro and ameliorated liver fibrosis in mice. Mechanistically, SEPJ regulated the Akt/GSK3β/Nrf2 signaling which subsequently enhanced intracellular antioxidative capacity.

CONCLUSIONS

SEPJ inhibits hepatocyte EMT and HSC activation in vitro and alleviates liver fibrosis in mice. Modulation of the Akt/GSK3β/Nrf2 cascade attributes to its hepatoprotective effects. Our findings support a possible application of SEPJ in the control of liver fibrosis.

Novel Therapeutic Targets in Liver Fibrosis

Liver fibrosis is end-stage liver disease that can be rescued. If irritation continues due to viral infection, schistosomiasis and alcoholism, liver fibrosis can progress to liver cirrhosis and even cancer. The US Food and Drug Administration has not approved any drugs that act directly against liver fibrosis. The only treatments currently available are drugs that eliminate pathogenic factors, which show poor efficacy; and liver transplantation, which is expensive. This highlights the importance of clarifying the mechanism of liver fibrosis and searching for new treatments against it. This review summarizes how parenchymal, nonparenchymal cells, inflammatory cells and various processes (liver fibrosis, hepatic stellate cell activation, cell death and proliferation, deposition of extracellular matrix, cell metabolism, inflammation and epigenetics) contribute to liver fibrosis. We highlight discoveries of novel therapeutic targets, which may provide new insights into potential treatments for liver fibrosis.

Protective effect of Idelalisib on carbon tetrachloride-induced liver fibrosis via microRNA-124-3P/phosphatidylinositol-3-hydroxykinase signalling pathway

Liver fibrosis is the repair process of abnormal connective tissue hyperplasia after liver damage caused by different causes. Inhibition of PI3K/Akt signalling pathway can reduce the deposition of extracellular matrix, inhibit the proliferation of hepatic stellate cells (HSCs), and promote its apoptosis to achieve the purpose of therapy. This study aimed to investigate the effect of Idelalisib (PI3K inhibitor) on carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄)‐induced liver fibrosis in mice. We used CCl₄‐induced liver fibrosis mouse model in vivo and TGF‐β1‐stimulated HSCs to evaluate the antifibrosis activity of Idelalisib. In vivo, Idelalisib significantly alleviated CCl₄‐induced liver damage, collagen deposition, and hydroxyproline accumulation in mice. Immunohistochemistry and Western blot results showed that Idelalisib could significantly inhibit the expressions of COL1 and α‐SMA in a concentration‐dependent manner. In cell experiments, Idelalisib significantly inhibited the expressions of COL1, SMA, and p‐Smad3 in TGF‐β‐induced HSCs, thereby inhibiting HSC activation. Flow cytometry and Western blot results showed that Idelalisib significantly promoted TGFβ‐induced apoptosis of HSCs after 48 h of administration, but had no significant effect after 24 h. Idelalisib promoted the apoptosis of activated HSCs by inhibiting the PI3K/Akt/FOXO3 signalling pathway. To further explore the mechanism by which Idelalisib inhibited PI3K, we predicted the miRNA targeting PI3K through the database and crossed it with the down‐regulated miRNA reported in liver fibrosis mice in the past five years. Finally, we identified miR‐124‐3p and miR‐143‐3p. We then demonstrated that Idelalisib significantly promoted miR‐124‐3p and miR‐142‐3p in vitro and in vivo. Dual‐luciferase report analysis showed that Idelalisib significantly inhibited luciferase activity but had no significant effect on the luc‐MUT transfection assay. Finally, we demonstrated that Idelalisib reversed the effects of miR‐124‐3p inhibitor on the PI3K/Akt/FOXO3 asterisk pathway and caspase‐3. Idelalisib has potential as a candidate drug for alleviating liver fibrosis.

The Antimicrobial Mode of Action of Maltol and Its Synergistic Efficacy with Selected Cationic Surfactants

Maltol, mostly used as a flavoring molecule, also has various potential applications as a biomedical compound. Despite its extensive use in the food industry, maltol’s antimicrobial activity was evaluated only briefly, and was suggested to be insufficient on its own. Recently, we have shown that maltol can be used in conjunction with cationic surfactant species to receive higher activity against contaminant microorganisms. In this paper, we have broadened the antimicrobial efficacy studies and evidenced maltol’s mode of action against Gram-negative, Gram-positive bacteria, and fungi. In addition, to increase its efficacy, blends of maltol and two selected cationic surfactants, dodecyl-dimethyl-ammonium chloride (DDAC) and polyquaternium 80 (P-80), were appraised for their activity. Broad efficacy studies revealed synergistic interactions between maltol and both cationic surfactants against most of the tested microorganisms. Electron microscopy images were used to evaluate the microorganisms’ morphology following treatment, pinpointing the specific cell wall damage caused by each of the compounds. Our findings indicate that maltol’s effect on the microbial cell wall can be complemented by catalytic amounts of selected cationic surfactants to enhance and extend its activity. Such a solution can be used as a broad-spectrum preservative for personal care products in cosmetic applications.

Protective Effect of 20(R)-Ginsenoside Rg3 Against Cisplatin-Induced Renal Toxicity via PI3K/AKT and NF-[Formula: see text]B Signaling Pathways Based on the Premise of Ensuring Anticancer Effect

Although the protective effect of ginsenoside on cisplatin-induced renal injury has been extensively studied, whether ginsenoside interferes with the antitumor effect of cisplatin has not been confirmed. In this paper, we verified the main molecular mechanism of 20(R)-ginsenoside Rg3 (R-Rg3) antagonizing cisplatin-induced acute kidney injury (AKI) through the combination of in vivo and in vitro models. It is worth mentioning that the two cell models of HK-2 and HepG2 were used simultaneously for the first time to explore the effect of the activation site of tumor-associated protein p53 on apoptosis and tumor suppression. The results showed that a single injection of cisplatin (20 mg/kg) led to weight loss, the kidney index of the mice increased, and creatinine (CRE) and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) levels in mice sharply increased. Continuous administration of R-Rg3 at doses of 10 and 20 mg/kg for 10 days could significantly alleviate this symptom. Similarly, R-Rg3 treatment reduced oxidative stress damage caused by cisplatin. Moreover, R-Rg3 could observably reduce the apoptosis and inflammatory infiltration of renal tubular cells induced by cisplatin. We used western blotting analysis to demonstrate that R-Rg3 restored cisplatin-induced AKI might be related to PI3K/AKT and NF-[Formula: see text]B mediated apoptosis and inflammation pathways. In the meantime, we also verified that R-Rg3 could activate different sites of p53 to control renal cell apoptosis induced by cisplatin without affecting its antitumor effect.

Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry metabolic profiling, molecular simulation and dynamics of diverse phytochemicals of Punica granatum L. leaves against estrogen receptor

Introduction: Breast cancer is the most common type of cancer globally and its treatment with many FDA-approved synthetic drugs manifests various side effects. Alternatively, phytochemicals are natural reserves of novel drugs for cancer therapy. Punica granatum commonly known as pomegranate is a rich source of phytopharmaceuticals. Methods: The phytoconstituents of Punica granatum leaves were profiled using GC-MS/MS in the present work. Cytoscape-assisted network pharmacology of principal and prognostic biomarkers, which are immunohistochemically tested in breast cancer tissue, was carried out for the identification of protein target. Followed by, rigorous virtual screening of 145 phytoconstituents against the three ER isoforms (α, β and γ) was performed using Discovery Studio. The docked complexes were further evaluated for their flexibility and stability using GROMACS2016 through 50 ns long molecular dynamic simulations. Results: In the current study, we report the precise and systematic GC-MS/MS profiling of phytoconstituents (19 novel metabolites out of 145) of hydromethanolic extract of Punica granatum L. (pomegranate) leaves. These phytocompounds are various types of fatty acids, terpenes, heterocyclic compounds and flavonoids. 4-coumaric acid methyl ester was identified as the best inhibitor of ER isoforms with drug-likeness and no toxicity from ADMET screening. γ-ligand binding domain complex showed the best interactions with minimum RMSD, constant Rg, and the maximum number of hydrogen bonds. Conclusion: We conclude that 4-coumaric acid methyl ester exhibits favourable drug-like properties comparable to tamoxifen, an FDA-approved breast cancer drug and can be tested further in preclinical studies.

MicroRNAs in Transforming Growth Factor-Beta Signaling Pathway Associated With Fibrosis Involving Different Systems of the Human Body

Fibrosis, a major cause of morbidity and mortality, is a histopathological manifestation of many chronic inflammatory diseases affecting different systems of the human body. Two types of transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β) signaling pathways regulate fibrosis: the canonical TGF-β signaling pathway, represented by SMAD-2 and SMAD-3, and the noncanonical pathway, which functions without SMAD-2/3 participation and currently includes TGF-β/mitogen-activated protein kinases, TGF-β/SMAD-1/5, TGF-β/phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase/Akt, TGF-β/Janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription protein-3, and TGF-β/rho-associated coiled-coil containing kinase signaling pathways. MicroRNA (miRNA), a type of non-coding single-stranded small RNA, comprises approximately 22 nucleotides encoded by endogenous genes, which can regulate physiological and pathological processes in fibrotic diseases, particularly affecting organs such as the liver, the kidney, the lungs, and the heart. The aim of this review is to introduce the characteristics of the canonical and non-canonical TGF-β signaling pathways and to classify miRNAs with regulatory effects on these two pathways based on the influenced organ. Further, we aim to summarize the limitations of the current research of the mechanisms of fibrosis, provide insights into possible future research directions, and propose therapeutic options for fibrosis.

Schisantherin A ameliorates liver fibrosis through TGF-β1mediated activation of TAK1/MAPK and NF-κB pathways in vitro and in vivo

BACKGROUD

Schisandra chinensis, a traditional Chinese medicine for liver protection, can significantly improve liver fibrosis. However, it is still unclear which active components in Schisandra chinensis play an anti-fibrosis role.

PURPOSE

The purpose of present study was to observe the anti-fibrosis effect of schisantherin A (SCA) on liver fibrosis and explore its underlying mechanism.

METHODS

The liver fibrosis model of mice was constructed by the progressive intraperitoneal injection of thioacetamide (TAA), and SCA (1, 2, and 4 mg/kg) was administered by gavage for 5 weeks. The biochemical indicators and inflammatory cytokines were measured, changes in the pathology of the mice liver were observed by hematoxylin & eosin (H&E) and Masson stainings for studying the anti-fibrosis effect of SCA. A hepatic stellate cell (HSCs) activation model induced by transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1) was established, and the effect of SCA on the HSCs proliferation was observed by MTT assay. The expressions of target proteins related to transforming growth factor-β-activated kinase 1 (TAK1)/mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) pathways were evaluated by western blotting, immunohistochemistry or immunofluorescence analysis, to explore the potential mechanism of SCA.

RESULTS

SCA could significantly ameliorate the pathological changes of liver tissue induced by TAA, and reduce the serum transaminase level, the hydroxyproline level and the expression of α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA) and collagen 1A1 (COL1A1) proteins in the liver tissue. SCA could significantly lower the levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) in the serum and liver tissue, and down-regulate the expression of target proteins related to TAK1/MAPK and NF-κB pathways in the liver tissue. The in vitro studies demonstrated that SCA significantly inhibited the proliferation and activation of HCS-T6 cells induced by TGF-β1, decreased TNF-α and IL-6 levels, and inhibited the TAK1 activation induced by TGF-β1 and then the expression of MAPK and NF-κB signaling pathway-related proteins.

CONCLUSION

Together, SCA can ameliorate the liver fibrosis induced by TAA and the HSC-T6 cell activation induced by TGF-β1 in mice, and its mechanism may be to inhibit the HSCs activation and inflammatory response by inhibiting TGF-β1 mediated TAK1/MAPK and signal pathways.

Ginsenoside Rh1 Improves Type 2 Diabetic Nephropathy through AMPK/PI3K/Akt-Mediated Inflammation and Apoptosis Signaling Pathway

Although ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer) has received extensive attention in the treatment and prevention of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) in the past few decades, there are few studies on the complications of T2DM. At present, obesity-linked diabetic nephropathy (DN) has become the most prevailing element of the end-stage renal failure in the world. The aim of this work is to evaluate the ameliorative effects of ginsenoside Rh1 (G-Rh1) on DN induced by high fat diet plus streptozotocin (HFD/STZ) through some potential and combined mechanisms of action. The results showed that G-Rh1 treatment at 5 and 10 mg/kg for 8 weeks exerted excellent effects in controlling fasting blood glucose (FBG), improving glucose tolerance, and increasing insulin level. In addition, G-Rh1 effectively prevents the excessive production of advanced glycation end products (AGEs), a diabetic nephropathy marker, in HFD/STZ induced DN mice. Meanwhile, oxidation indicators including SOD, GSH, and MDA were improved by G-Rh1 treatment to varying degrees. It is worth noting that G-Rh1 not only inhibits the secretion of Nox1 and Nox4 in kidney tissues, but also has an inhibitory effect on inflammatory factors and NF-[Formula: see text]B signaling pathway. Importantly, further in-depth research on molecular mechanisms provides vital evidence that the ameliorative effect of G-Rh1 on DN is related to the inhibition of apoptosis and the AMPK/PI3K/Akt signaling pathway. In summary, G-Rh1 may be of great value in improving the treatment of DN although more experimental data is needed.

The p53/p21/p16 and PI3K/Akt signaling pathways are involved in the ameliorative effects of maltol on D-galactose-induced liver and kidney aging and injury

Successive evidence has established that maltol, a flavor-enhancing agent, could provide resistance to oxidative stress-induced tissue injury in various animal models though its benefits for aging-induced liver and kidney injuries are still undetermined. In the present work, for demonstrating maltol's ameliorative effect and probable mechanism against aging-induced liver and kidney injuries, D-galactose (D-Gal)-induced animal in vivo and HEK293 cells in vitro models were established and results demonstrated that long-term D-Gal treatment increases the accumulation of advanced glycation end products (AGEs) in liver and kidney tissues, mitigates cell viability, and arrests the cycle. Interestingly, 4-weeks maltol treatment at 50 and 100 mg/kg activated aging-associated proteins including p53, p21, and p16 followed by inhibiting malondialdehyde (MDA)'s over-production and increasing the levels of antioxidant enzymes. Therefore, decreases in cytochrome P450 E1 (CYP2E1) and 4-hydroxydecene (4-HNE)'s immunofluorescence expression levels are confirmed. Furthermore, maltol improved oxidative stress injury by activating the phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K)/protein kinase B (Akt) signaling pathway. In conclusion, the purpose of the present study was to estimate the mechanistic insights into maltol's role as an antioxidant in liver and kidney cell senescence and injury, which will reflect potential of therapeutic strategy for antiaging and aging-related disease treatment.

Alleviative effects of 20(R)-Rg3 on HFD/STZ-induced diabetic nephropathy via MAPK/NF-κB signaling pathways in C57BL/6 mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is a major complication of diabetes. The kidney disease develops in nearly 20%-40% of type 2 diabetes (T2D) patients. Ginseng is the root of Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer and has been used in prevention and treatment of diseases for more than 2000 years as a traditional oriental medicine. The 20(R)-ginsenoside Rg3, an active saponin isolated from ginseng, can prevent and treat many diseases. The object of this research was to explore the alleviative effects of 20(R)-Rg3 on DN in mice.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The T2D animal model was induced by continuous access to a high fat diet (HFD) combined with a single injection of 100 mg/kg streptozotocin (STZ) in C57BL/6 mice. The mice were treated by oral gavage of the 20(R)-Rg3 (10, 20 mg/kg) for 8 weeks. Functional and histopathological analyses of the kidneys were then performed. Protein expression levels of MAPKs and NF-κB signal pathways in the kidney were evaluated by western blotting. The expressions of HO-1 and NF-κB in the kidney were measured by fluorescent labeling staining. Other assessments including fasting blood glucose (FBG) levels, blood lipids, oxidative indicators, and inflammatory factors were all performed.

RESULTS

Abnormally elevated FBG levels were observed in HFD/STZ mice, contributing significantly to the occurrence of DN. Simultaneously, HFD/STZ mice showed the rise of serum total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride (TG), and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) levels, and the decrease in high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C). DN was evidenced by the overproduction of malondialdehyde (MDA), decreased levels of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT) enzymatic activities, high levels of serum blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and creatinine (Cr). Simultaneously, the results of the immunofluorescence assay showed an increased expression level in NF-κB p65 while a decrease in antioxidant enzyme HO-1 was observed. Herein, 20(R)-Rg3 treatment for 8 weeks not only attenuated FBG levels and advanced glycation end products (AGEs) levels but also improved insulin (INS) level, blood lipids, oxidative stress, and renal function by regulating MAPKs and NF-κB signal pathways in DN mice.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, the findings from the present study explicitly confirmed that 20(R)-Rg3 exerted ameliorative effects on DN mice via improving anti-oxidative activity and reducing renal inflammation.

Protection Mechanisms Underlying Oral Administration of Chlorogenic Acid against Cadmium-Induced Hepatorenal Injury Related to Regulating Intestinal Flora Balance

Cadmium (Cd) is a heavy metal, which is widely used in the industry and daily life. It has a long half-life, so large amounts of Cd can accumulate in humans and become toxic. Chlorogenic acid (CGA) can eliminate free radicals and inhibit lipid peroxidation and is mainly used to prevent metal toxicity. In the present study, mice are given CGA by intraperitoneal injection or gavage, respectively, to explore the mechanism of preventing Cd toxicity. In acute Cd-exposed mice, CGA treatment (ip) alleviated Cd-induced oxidative damage and reduced the production of NO and MPO in the liver and kidney tissues, while TLR4 expression levels did not change significantly. After 8 weeks of Cd exposure, CGA administration (gavage) significantly alleviated gut dysbiosis by decreasing the Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes ratio, enhancing the relative abundances of bacteria, including Ruminiclostridium_9, Alloprevotella, and Rikenella, and inhibiting the activation of the TLR4/MyD88/NF-κB signaling pathway. These findings suggested that protection mechanisms underlying the oral administration of CGA against the Cd-induced hepatorenal injury was related to the regulation of the intestinal flora balance. CGA can be used as an effective component in daily diet to prevent Cd toxicity.

Vinpocetine attenuates thioacetamide-induced liver fibrosis in rats

Liver fibrosis is associated with increased mortality and morbidity. However, there is not effective treatment so far. Vinpocetine (Vinpo) is a synthetic derivative of vinca alkaloid vincamine. Limited previous reports have shown some beneficial effects of Vinpo in different organ fibrosis, but the ability of Vinpo to inhibit liver fibrosis induced by thioacetamide (TAA) has not been reported, that is why we investigate the potential ability of this vinca alkaloid derivative to attenuate liver fibrosis. Hepatic fibrosis was induced in male Sprague Dawley rats by TAA (200 mg/kg; ip; 3 times/week) for 6 weeks. Daily treatments with Vinpo (10-20 mg/kg/day; orally) ameliorated TAA-induced hepatic oxidative stress and histopathological damage as indicated by a decrease in liver injury markers, LDH, hepatic MDA, and NOx levels, as well as increase anti-oxidative parameters. Besides, the anti-fibrotic efficacy of Vinpo was confirmed by decreasing hydroxyproline, and α-SMA. Also, the anti-inflammatory effect of Vinpo was explored by decreasing IL-6 and TNF-α levels. Our novel findings were that Vinpo decreased VEGF/Ki-67 expression in the liver confirming its effect on angiogenesis and proliferation. These findings reveal the anti-fibrotic effect of Vinpo against TAA-induced liver fibrosis in rats, and suggest the modulation of oxidative stress, inflammation, angiogenesis and proliferation as mechanistic cassette underlines this effect.

Panax quinquefolium saponins protect against cisplatin evoked intestinal injury via ROS-mediated multiple mechanisms

BACKGROUND

Cisplatin is one of the most common chemotherapeutic drugs. Cisplatin-induced toxicity gives rise to gastrointestinal cell damage, subsequent diarrhea and vomiting, leading to the discontinuation of its clinical application in long-term cancer chemotherapy. Panax quinquefolium L., also known as American ginseng, has many pharmacological activities such as improving immunity, anti-tumor, anti-radiation and blood sugar lowering.

PURPOSE

Previously, our laboratory reported that American ginseng berry extract could alleviate chemotherapeutic agents-induced renal damage caused by cisplatin. Hence, this study further explored the protective effect of P. quinquefolium saponins (PQS) on cisplatin-induced intestinal injury in mice and the possible molecular mechanisms.

METHODS

Biochemical markers, levels of inflammatory factors, histopathological staining and western blotting were used to analyze intestinal injury based on various molecular mechanisms.

RESULTS

We demonstrated the destruction of the intestinal barrier caused by cisplatin exposure by detecting the activity of diamine oxidase (DAO) and the expression of tight junction proteins zonula occludens-1 (ZO-1) and occludin. Meanwhile, cisplatin exposure changed SOD and MDA levels in the small intestine, causing oxidative damage to the intestinal mucosa. The inflammation associated-intestinal damage was further explored by the measurement of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and analysis of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) inflammatory pathway protein expression. Moreover, apoptotic cells labeled with TUNEL staining-positive cells and activated caspase family proteins suggest that cisplatin induces intestinal apoptosis. Interestingly, PQS pretreatment significantly reversed these situations.

CONCLUSION

These evidences clearly suggest that PQS can alleviate cisplatin-induced intestinal damage by inhibiting oxidative stress, reducing the occurrence of inflammation and apoptosis, and improving intestinal barrier function.

Artemisinin and artemisinin derivatives as anti-fibrotic therapeutics

Fibrosis is a pathological reparative process that can occur in most organs and is responsible for nearly half of deaths in the developed world. Despite considerable research, few therapies have proven effective and been approved clinically for treatment of fibrosis. Artemisinin compounds are best known as antimalarial therapeutics, but they also demonstrate antiparasitic, antibacterial, anticancer, and anti-fibrotic effects. Here we summarize literature describing anti-fibrotic effects of artemisinin compounds in in vivo and in vitro models of tissue fibrosis, and we describe the likely mechanisms by which artemisinin compounds appear to inhibit cellular and tissue processes that lead to fibrosis. To consider alternative routes of administration of artemisinin for treatment of internal organ fibrosis, we also discuss the potential for more direct oral delivery of Artemisia plant material to enhance bioavailability and efficacy of artemisinin compared to administration of purified artemisinin drugs at comparable doses. It is our hope that greater understanding of the broad anti-fibrotic effects of artemisinin drugs will enable and promote their use as therapeutics for treatment of fibrotic diseases.

Limonin Attenuates LPS-Induced Hepatotoxicity by Inhibiting Pyroptosis via NLRP3/Gasdermin D Signaling Pathway

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced liver injury is the main factor in acute liver failure. The current study aims to investigate the protection of limonin, an antioxidant compound from citrus fruit, against LPS-induced liver toxicity and elucidate the potential mechanisms. We found that limonin elevated cell viability and reduced LDH release in LPS-treated HepG2 cells. Limonin also inhibited LPS-induced pyroptosis by inhibiting membrane rupture, reducing ROS generation, and decreasing gasdermin D activation. Moreover, limonin inhibited the formation of a NOD-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3)/Apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing a CARD (ASC) complex by reducing the related protein expression and the colocalization cytosolic of NLRP3 and caspase-1 and then suppressed IL-1β maturation. Ultimately, we established LPS-induced hepatotoxicity in vivo by using C57BL/6 mice administrated LPS (10 mg/kg) intraperitoneally and limonin (50 and 100 mg/kg) orally. We found that limonin dereased the serum ALT and AST activity and LDH release and increased the hepatic GSH amount in LPS-treated mice. Additionally, the liver histological evaluation revealed that limonin protects against LPS-induced liver damage. We further demonstrated that limonin ameliorated LPS-induced hepatotoxicity by inhibiting pyroptosis via the NLRP3/gasdermin D signaling pathway. In summary, this study uncovered the mechanism whereby limonin mitigated LPS-induced hepatotoxicity and documented that limonin might be a promising candidate drug for LPS-induced hepatotoxicity.