A standardised static in vitro digestion method suitable for food - an international consensus

Sonochemical fabrication and characterization of β-Lactoglobulin-Galactooligosaccharide conjugates: Enhancement of calcium absorption

Solid-in-oil-in-water (S/O/W) emulsions containing calcium carbonate (CaCO3) are a potential new type of calcium-fortified emulsion system. This study developed ultrasonication-pretreated β-lactoglobulin (ULG)-galactooligosaccharide (GOS) conjugates using a novel combined method involving ultrasonication and Maillard reaction. This synergistic approach significantly increased the grafting degree and induced structural modifications of protein. The ULG-GOS conjugates exhibited superior emulsifying properties and interfacial stabilization capacity through exposed hydrophobic domains and strengthened electrostatic repulsion. When applied as stabilizers for S/O/W emulsions, ULG-GOS conjugates form a homogeneous system with significantly improved environmental stability. Notably, in vitro digestion studies revealed a 2-fold increase in calcium bioaccessibility (58.77 ± 1.75 %) of ULG-GOS stabilized system compared to native LG-stabilized systems. This study underscored the critical role of ultrasonication in enhancing the functionality of LG-GOS conjugates, which were essential to nutritional formulations designed to facilitate calcium absorption.

Total and bioaccessible contents of phenolic bioactives in nutritious flours exposed to consumption in Salvador, Bahia, Brazil using in vitro gastrointestinal digestion (INFOGEST protocol)

There is growing interest in quantifying phenolic bioactives (PBs) in food matrices, including a variety of nutritious flours. The objective of this study apply a factorial design to determine the total (TT) and bioaccessible (TB) levels of PBs in 26 nutritious flours, using the INFOGEST in vitro digestion method. Acids (gallic, protocatechuic, chlorogenic, caffeic, syringic, p-coumaric, sinapic and ellagic) and flavonoids (catechin, rutin, quercetin and kaempferol) were determined by high performance liquid chromatography with diode array detector (HPLC-DAD). TT ranged, in μg g-1, from 3.16 ± 0.27 (p-coumaric acid) to 3803 ± 217 (rutin). TB, in μg g-1, ranged from <0.17 to 1.37 ± 0.07 (ellagic acid) to <0.16 to 88.83 ± 0.72 (catechin). Significant concentrations of CP in nutritious flours - eggplant (FBJ), orange (FLJ) and grape seed (FSU) - are relevant to profile these samples and help consumers incorporate them into their daily diets.

Assessing the effect of gastrointestinal conditions and solubility on the bioaccessibility of polyphenolic compounds from a white grape marc extract

This study investigates the bioaccessibility of phenolic compounds from a Vitis vinifera marc extract using an in vitro gastrointestinal model. Both undiluted and five-fold diluted extracts were digested to assess how solubility and gastrointestinal conditions impact polyphenol bioaccessibility. The extract was obtained using the environmentally friendly Medium Scale Ambient Temperature (MSAT) system. Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) analysis revealed that gastric digestion significantly increased polyphenolic content, particularly catechin, epicatechin, and procyanidins. Diluted extracts showed 30 % higher polyphenolic content and a 200 % increase in gallic acid compared to undigested samples. However, bioaccessibility decreased during intestinal digestion. Interaction tests with bile salts revealed 50 % polyphenol insolubility, suggesting that some compounds may remain in the residual fraction and serve as substrates for colonic microbiota fermentation. These findings emphasize the crucial role of gastrointestinal digestion in polyphenol bioaccessibility and highlight white grape marc extract as a potential source of bioactives for microbiota modulation and functional nutrition.

Development of new chocolate formulations by incorporating spray-dried and liposomal encapsulates of ground ivy (Glechoma hederacea L.) polyphenolic extract

In present study, innovative chocolates with spray-dried and liposomal encapsulates of ground ivy extract were developed. Encapsulates, whose morphology was studied by scanning electron (SEM) and atomic force (AFM) microscopy, were incorporated into chocolate in two ways - by direct addition into prepared chocolate mass and by addition of cocoa butter in which the encapsulates were previously homogenized. Chocolates were characterized by determination of bioactive profile and release kinetics of encapsulated polyphenols simulating in vitro digestion. Physical characterization included determination of rheological, textural and melting parameters, while sensory analysis evaluated appearance, acoustics, texture and taste. Chocolates were enriched with ground ivy polyphenols, including chlorogenic, rosmarinic acid and rutin. Prior homogenization of encapsulates in cocoa butter resulted in decrease in Casson yield stress and viscosity of chocolates, but also in higher sensory evaluations of visual appearance. The maximum melting temperature of chocolates remained within the narrow range 30.4-31.6 °C.

Effects of substitution sites and acyl chain length on antioxidant capacity and bioaccessibility of high-active resveratrol monoesters in vitro

Resveratrol monoesters, synthesized by esterifying with lipophilic groups, excel in lipophilicity, antioxidant activity, and bioavailability. This study selectively acylated resveratrol at 3-OH and 4'-OH using lipozyme RMIM (from Rhizomucor miehei). Seven 3-resveratrol monoesters (3-RC2:0-18:0) and seven 4'-RC2:0-18:0 were prepared, purified and identified. Their antioxidant capacity and bioaccessibility were innovatively studied, focusing on substitution and acyl chain length effects. Results showed that 3-RC2:0-18:0 consistently outperformed 4'-RC2:0-18:0 in SET assays for antioxidant activity. Notably, 4'-RC2:0-8:0 performed better oxygen radical absorption capacity than 3-RC18:0. 3-RC2:0 even showed better ABTS radical scavenging capacity than Trolox and TBHQ. 3-RC2:0/RC4:0 displayed higher antioxidant efficacy than medium- and long-chain counterparts, excluding 3-RC16:0. In the gastric and intestinal phases, 4'-RC2:0-18:0 showed slightly higher retention due to enhanced lipophilicity compared to 3-RC2:0-18:0. RC2:0/RC12:0-18:0 showed better retention properties during digestion. In summary, 3-RC2:0/16:0 exhibited exceptional antioxidant capacity and digestive stability. These findings suggest resveratrol derivatives' potential in lipid-based foods, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics.

The effects of non-covalent interaction between rice glutelin and gum arabic on digestibility and stability of perilla oil emulsion

This study investigated the formation formation mechanism of rice glutelin (RG)-gum arabic (GA) complex using multispectral techniques and molecular simulations. RG-GA-perilla oil (PO) emulsions were constructed, and their microstructure, emulsifying, rheological, stability, and digestion properties were systematically evaluated. Turbidity and ζ-potential showed effective RG-GA complexation at pH 3.5, with GA concentration influencing their electrostatic interactions. Multispectral and molecular docking demonstrated that RG and GA interacted through hydrophobic and hydrogen bonding. RG's secondary structure from an α-helix/random coil to β-sheet/β-turn, establishing ordered conformation. At 1.5 w% GA, RG-GA-PO emulsion exhibited reduced particle size and uniform droplet distribution.The emulsions displayed enhanced emulsifying and rheological properties, along with improved stability against thermal processing, freeze-thaw and oxidation. In vitro digestion studies revealed that 1.5 w% GA contributed to PO stability during gastric digestion by inhibiting RG degradation. The RG-GA complex facilitated PO release in small intestine, with a maximum FAA release rate of 58.06 ± 3.83 %.

New approach using alternative proteolytic enzymes to the conventional enzyme pronase for the isolation of bread melanoidins

Bread melanoidins are melanoproteins classically extracted with the proteolytic enzyme pronase E (S. griserus). In this study, the structure and functionality of melanoidins extracted with the proteolytic enzymes papain (PE) and enzymes from B. subtillus (SP) and a mixture from B. subtillus and A. oryzae (MP) were evaluated. PE extracted melanoidins have the highest nitrogen (4.3 %) and protein (29 %) content. FTIR showed that PE had a higher protein content and pronase had higher in carbohydrates. The K420 and K345 values and antioxidant capacities of the PE extract were similar to pronase and higher than the other microbial enzymes. After in vitro digestion, the increased in the antioxidant capacity was most pronounced in the PE extract. No neurotoxicity was observed, as evidenced by no neuronal cell death or changes in neuronal ROS levels. These results indicate that the PE enzyme may be a good alternative to pronase for extraction of melanoidins.

Electrostatic induced Rana chensinensis ovum protein isolates/xanthan gum complex particles stabilized HIPPE for β-carotene loading and dysphagia

Rana chensinensis ovum protein isolates and xanthan gum complex particles were constructed through electrostatic induced aggregation and their ability as an emulsifier for high internal phase Pickering emulsions (HIPPE) was explored. The complex particles showed a clear aggregated structure as the xanthan gum content increased. It also impacted the particle size of the HIPPE droplets, which decreased to 35 μm with a zeta potential of -41.6 ± 1.23 mV. Rheological tests showed that the oscillatory frequency G' increased with increasing xanthan gum. It was higher than G" and appeared to be shear-thinning. In addition, the prepared HIPPE showed impressive stability under freeze-thaw reversible, centrifugal, and heating conditions. The HIPPE also showed notable β-carotene delivery potential with an encapsulation rate of achieved 90.9 %, while improving stability and bioaccessibility. Meanwhile, The HIPPE met the dietary criteria of International Dysphagia Diet Standardization Initiative (IDDSI) Class 4 viscous/extremely dense foods.

Random antimicrobial peptide mixtures as non-antibiotic antimicrobial agents for cultured meat industry

Antibiotics, commonly used in cell culture studies to prevent microbial contamination, cannot be employed in Cultured meat (CM) due to potential residues in the final food products. Hence, there is an urgent need to develop novel and safe non-antibiotic antimicrobial agents. Here, we investigated the potential of random antimicrobial peptide mixtures (RPMs) as non-antibiotic antimicrobial agents. RPMs are synthetic peptide cocktails that have previously shown strong and broad antimicrobial activity; however, their use in cell culture media and their effect on mammalian cells have not yet been explored. Here we show that RPMs had no significant impact on mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) at concentrations that effectively inhibit bacterial growth. RPMs displayed strong bactericidal activity against Gram-positive bacteria, achieving a 6-log reduction of L. monocytogenes in cell culture medium without any cytotoxicity. Additionally, RPMs showed a low occurrence of resistance development with no significant resistance developed in compared with a combination of penicillin and streptomycin. Moreover, LK20 mixture was rapidly digested and a rapid digestion in a simulated digestion model. Our results indicate that RPMs have great potential to serve as safe and effective non antibiotic antimicrobial agents in cultured meat industry.

Revealing the non-enzymatic covalent interaction between neo-/crypto-chlorogenic acid and beta-lactoglobulin under nonthermal process and potential delivery capability

Several studies have shown that the protein-chlorogenic acid covalent complex has better function and stability than the non-covalent. The degree of binding between the proteins and chlorogenic acids (CQA) can be enhanced by the ultrasound process. Herein, the effects of ultrasound-assisted non-enzymatic covalent binding (the free radical induction (Vc)-ultrasound combination and the alkali treatment (Alkali)-ultrasound combination) of two chlorogenic acids (neochlorogenic acid (3-CQA), cryptochlorogenic acid (4-CQA)) and β-lactoglobulin (β-LG) on proteins structure and properties were investigated. Results showed that ULG-Alkali-4CQA exhibited a 5.1 % reduction in α-helices, a 6.8 % increase in random curl and proteins structures becoming loose and disordered. The hydrophilicity and thermal stability of β-LG were effectively enhanced by the addition of 4-CQA and the effect of alkali treatment-ultrasound combination. Curcumin (CUR) and lycopene (LYC) were successfully delivered by the covalent complexes as delivery vehicles. The encapsulation efficiencies of the ULG-Vc/Alkali-4CQA + CUR and ULG-Vc/Alkali-4CQA + LYC complexes were 82.81 %, 84.16 %, 89.56 % and 90.51 %, respectively. The stabilities of CUR and LYC in the ULG-Vc/Alkali-4CQA + CUR/LYC ternary complexes were superior to those of all the measured complexes delivery systems. The study hopes to establish a theoretical foundation and serve as a reference for the advancement of a highly stable food-grade delivery system.

Bioaccessible (Poly)phenols of Winery Byproducts Modulate Pathogenic Mediators of Intestinal Bowel Disease: In Vitro Evidence

Intestinal inflammation entails a multifactorial pathophysiology, frequently treated by using anti-inflammatory drugs with severe side effects. At the same time, bioactive compounds present in plant materials and derived residues could contribute to reducing the use of such medications in terms of dosage and treatment length. Thus, the phytochemicals of winery byproducts, mainly represented by (poly)phenols, display significant anti-inflammatory and antioxidant potential. However, the functionality of bioaccessible fractions remains underexplored. This study uncovers the capacity of bioaccessible (poly)phenols of winery byproducts to modulate inflammatory mediators and secondary oxidative stress (OS). After in vitro simulated digestion, bioaccessible (poly)phenols exhibited significant inhibitory capacity of nitric oxide, interleukin (IL)-6, IL-8, and TNF-α production and prevented OS, lowering reactive oxygen species (ROS) resulting from disturbed cell metabolism while preserving the molecular machinery of cells, involving glutathione, catalase, superoxide dismutase, and glutathione peroxidase. The results retrieved suggested the relevance of specific profiles for efficiently preventing inflammation.

The Effect of Plant Ontogeny on Antioxidant Capacity and Bioaccessibility of Total Phenolic Compounds and Sulforaphane in Broccoli Sprouts

Broccoli sprouts are rich in some antioxidants compounds, such as: phenolic compounds and sulforaphane (SFN). However, little is known about the optimal maturation stage of sprouts to maximise these benefits and the bioaccessibility of these compounds after gastrointestinal digestion. In this study, the influence of plant ontogeny on the antioxidant capacity and bioaccessibility of total phenolic compounds (TPC) and SFN in 2-, 4- and 6-day-old broccoli sprouts was investigated. The antioxidant capacity was measured with Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP), 2,2'-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS) and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assays, the TPC content with the Folin-Ciocalteu method and the SFN content with high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Analyses were performed on both undigested and digested samples following the in vitro digestion protocol (INFOGEST 2.0). The TPC and the antioxidant capacity measured by the ABTS method were higher in the 4-day-old sprouts, while the antioxidant capacity measured by the FRAP and DPPH methods and the SFN content by HPLC were higher in the 2-day-old sprouts. In the digested samples, both TPC and antioxidant capacity by the FRAP and ABTS methods increased as the sprouts matured. However, SFN content remained higher in 2-day-old sprouts, gradually decreasing as germination progressed. Thus, TPC bioaccessibility increased with germination time, while SFN decreased, probably due to degradation or bioconversion during gastrointestinal digestion.

Complementary foods in infants: an in vitro study of the faecal microbial composition and organic acid production

The transition from breastmilk to complementary foods is critical for maturing the colonic microbiota of infants. Dietary choices at weaning can lead to long-lasting microbial changes, potentially influencing health later in life. However, the weaning phase remains underexplored in colonic microbiome research, and the current understanding of how complementary foods impact the infant's colonic microbiota is limited. To address this knowledge gap, this study assessed the influence of 13 food ingredients on the in vitro microbial composition and production of organic acids by the faecal microbiota in New Zealand infants aged 5 to 11 months. To better represent real feeding practices, ingredients were combined with infant formula, other complementary foods, or both infant formula and other foods. Among the individual food ingredients, fermentation with peeled kūmara (sweet potato) increased the production of lactate and the relative abundance of the genus Enterococcus. Fermentation with blackcurrants, strawberries, or raspberries enhanced acetate and propionate production. Additionally, fermentation with blackcurrants increased the relative abundance of the genus Parabacteroides, while raspberry fermentation increased the relative abundance of the genera Parabacteroides and Eubacterium. When combined with infant formula or with blackcurrants, fermenting black beans increased butyrate production and stimulated the relative abundance of Clostridium sensu stricto 1. These foods are promising candidates for future clinical trials.

In vitro protein digestibility of gluten-free climate-smart cowpea-based pasta

Nutritional optimisation of staple food such as pasta with flours from climate-smart crops (i.e. resilient to climatic hazards and requiring minimal inputs) is in line with actual environmental and nutritional challenges. Although the quantity of protein is important, the quality through protein digestibility is essential. The aim of this work was to assess the protein digestibility of four gluten-free climate-smart pasta all based on cowpea flour with or without the addition of teff and/or amaranth leaf flour(s) using two static in vitro methods: static Infogest digestion protocol and Megazyme® enzymatic kit. The effect of both gluten absence and the high fiber content on the in vitro protein digestibility was investigated through the use of three durum wheat semolina pasta controls with increasing fiber content. Statistical analysis were made through ANOVA with p < 0.05. Despite structural differences, induced by protein origin and the disruption of the protein network by fibers, there was no significant difference in in vitro protein digestibility between cowpea-based and traditional durum wheat semolina pasta. Protein quality was then approached with the measurement of the in vitro Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score (i-PDCAAS) for the two methodologies. Thanks to their balanced essential amino acid profile, cowpea-based pasta demonstrated i-PDCAAS that was twice as high as that of wheat-based pasta, as determined by both by the Infogest (68-86 versus 35-44) and enzymatic kit (99-104 versus 49-56) methods. In addition, for the first time both methodologies were compared and Infogest protocol appeared more suitable for more detailed studies.

Akebia trifoliata extracts attenuate liver injury via gut-liver axis in a murine model of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease with low-grade colitis

Perturbations in intestinal homeostasis can significantly influence the pathophysiology of metabolic disorders through the gut-liver axis, with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) being a prime example. Our previous study demonstrated that Akebia trifoliata extracts (APE) exhibit significant anti-inflammatory activity; however, their protective effect on the intestinal barrier and liver remain unclear. In this study, we established a TNF-α-induced Caco-2 cell monolayer model and a mouse model of NAFLD with DSS-induced low grade colitis. Serum, intestinal tissue, and liver samples were used to assess the effects of APE effects on inflammation, gut barrier integrity, and hepatic lipid metabolism. 16S rRNA sequencing, targeted metabolomics, and RNA sequencing were employed to examine gut microbiota composition, short-chain fatty acid metabolism, and liver gene expression profiles. Results indicated that APE effectively alleviates hepatic steatosis induced by HFD and DSS reducing by hepatocellular lipid accumulation. APE treatment also reduced inflammatory cytokine levels, including TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β. Additionally, APE restored the impaired intestinal barrier by reducing intestinal permeability, enhancing tight junction protein expression, and modulating gut microbiota composition. Notably, APE reduced the abundance of Verrucomicrobia and Prevotellaceae, while increasing the abundance of Proteobacteria, Lachnospiraceae, Ruminococcaceae, and Bifidobacterium. Correlation analysis indicated that the abundance of Ruminococcaceae was negatively correlated with levels of d-mannitol, liver LPS, and IL-6, while it was positively correlated with butyrate concentration. Furthermore, liver inflammatory factors, TG, TC, IL-6 and LPS levels were positively correlated with serum d-mannitol levels, but negatively correlated with intestinal ZO-1 expression and acetic and propionic acid levels. This study is the first to explore the hepatoprotective effects of bioactives from Akebia trifoliata via the gut-liver axis, thereby broadening the application value of Akebia trifoliata.

Monitoring furanic and dicarbonyl compounds in pea-based and wheat-based sponge cakes during in vitro digestion

The increasing tendency to use animal-free and gluten-free proteins leads to replacing traditional with legume-based ingredients. Of these, refined pea (Pisum sativum L.) is gaining momentum due to its availability, nutritional value and low allergenicity. However, little is known of the propensity of pea ingredients to generate process-induced compounds in high-temperature processed foods, and the reactivity of contaminant during digestion. This study explored the levels and behavior of selected newly formed compounds (NFCs) (furfural, 5-(hydroxymethyl)furfural (HMF), 3-deoxyglucosone (3-DG), 1-deoxyglucosone (1-DG), glyoxal (GO), methylglyoxal (MGO), dimethylglyoxal (DMGO), glucosone (GCO)) in a pea-based sponge cake baked at 200 °C and subjected to in vitro digestion, by comparison with a reference wheat-based cake. The pea formulation generated the highest levels of furanic and dicarbonyl compounds, with 3-DG and HMF being the most abundant (162.44 ± 2.79 and 270.61 ± 14.91 μg/g dry cake, respectively), compared to the wheat-based formulation (131.43 ± 4.34 and 166.83 ± 0.88 μg/g dry cake, respectively). The differences in NFC levels between pea- and wheat-based cakes were maintained during in vitro digestion. Generally, furanic compounds decreased, glyoxales increased and deoxyglucosones were more stable during digestion. Surprisingly, even after any decrease, NFC levels remained high at the end of digestion in both pea- and wheat-based products (up to 215.18 ± 0.42, 188.96 ± 3.02, and 15.76 ± 0.26 μg/g dry cake for HMF, 3-DG, and MGO, respectively). These amounts resulted from the balance between formation and consumption reactions, influenced by gastric and intestinal environments and cake composition. This study has therefore highlighted key safety aspects by considering the behavior during digestion of process-induced compounds in complex, legume-based food matrices.

Structural and physicochemical properties and changes in vitro digestion and fermentation of soluble dietary fiber from tea residues modified by fermentation

The aim of this study was to investigate the structure, physicochemical properties, and changes in vitro digestion and fermentation between unfermented tea residue dietary fiber (UDF) and fermented tea residue soluble dietary fiber (FSDF). The results showed that soluble dietary fiber in FSDF was increased from 2.54 % to 15.65 % after fermentation modification. Monosaccharide composition analysis showed that xylose and glucose accounted for a higher proportion in FSDF. FSDF had smaller particle size, lower crystallinity and higher thermal stability. The water holding capacity, oil holding capacity and water swelling capacity of FSDF were significantly increased. Rheological properties showed that FSDF exhibited higher viscosity and better elastic than UDF. Furthermore, FSDF generated more short-chain fatty acids, and the structure was looser than UDF, which was easier to be utilized by intestinal flora. These findings provided higher value of dietary fiber in tea residue by fermentation modification as functional products.

Evaluation of a hydrogel platform for encapsulated multivalent Vibrio antigen delivery to enhance immune responses and disease protection against vibriosis in Asian seabass (Lates calcarifer)

This study reports the development and evaluation of a novel multivalent oral hydrogel vaccine designed to protect Asian seabass (Lates calcarifer) against vibriosis caused by multiple Vibrio species. The hydrogel formulation, composed of alginate and bentonite, was engineered to encapsulate three Vibrio pathogens (V. harveyi, V. vulnificus, and P. damsela), and subsequently freeze-dried to yield stable, dry hydrogel beads. Although the process achieved a relatively low yield (approximately 10 %), the dry beads maintained their structural integrity, retained antigenic components with 2.4 ± 1.6 × 107 DNA copies of total cell antigens/mg dry beads, and resisted acidic degradation, ensuring antigen preservation during simulated gastric exposure. Physicochemical characterization (FTIR) confirmed that the encapsulation process preserved the structural and functional properties of alginate, bentonite, and bacterial antigens without introducing new chemical bonds. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed a porous, sponge-like internal architecture that supported antigen entrapment and controlled release. Under simulated gastric conditions (pH 2.0), the hydrogel exhibited remarkable stability for up to 8 h, preventing antigen loss. Upon transitioning to intestinal conditions (pH 7.2), the matrix gradually disintegrated, releasing the antigens in a controlled manner for up to 8 h. Oral vaccination trials demonstrated enhanced immune responses in Asian seabass. Fish receiving the multivalent Vibrio antigen-containing hydrogel vaccine (Hg-mVibrioAg) displayed elevated serum-specific IgM titers against all three Vibrio species, with significantly higher and more sustained antibody levels following a 7-day and 14-day vaccination regimen. Increased lysozyme and bactericidal activity further supported improved innate defense mechanisms. Subsequent pathogen challenge tests confirmed that vaccinated fish, particularly those following the 7-day and 14-day regimens, exhibited significantly higher survival rates and robust protection. Concurrently, immune-related gene expression in the head kidney, peripheral blood leukocytes, gills, and intestines was upregulated, indicating a broad immune activation associated with specific IgM responses. No significant alterations in blood biochemistry or tissue histology were observed, highlighting the vaccine's biocompatibility. Additionally, these findings underscore the potential of this multivalent oral hydrogel vaccine as a promising, safe, and effective prophylactic strategy against Vibrio infections in Asian seabass aquaculture.

Synbiotics of encapsulated Limosilactobacillus fermentum K73 promotes in vitro favorable gut microbiota shifts and enhances short-chain fatty acid production in fecal samples of children with autism spectrum disorder

Modulation of the gut microbiota has emerged as a promising approach for addressing the gastrointestinal and neurodevelopmental symptoms associated with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Consequently, this study aimed to evaluate the impact of four formulated synbiotics comprising Limoscilactobacillus fermentum K73, high-oleic palm oil and whey, on the gut microbiota composition of Colombian children with and without ASD. These components were encapsulated through high-shear emulsification and spray drying. The four synbiotics and their individual components were subjected to in vitro digestion and fermentation using samples of Colombian children gut microbiota. Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), including lactic, acetic, propionic, and butyric acids, were quantified using HPLC-DAD, while serotonin was determined by an ELISA kit after in vitro fermentations. Changes in microbial structure were assessed by the sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene via next-generation sequencing (NGS). The results revealed a decrease in the abundance of genera like Bacteroides and Dorea in ASD-associated samples after the treatment with the synbiotics. Conversely, an increase in the relative abundance of probiotic-related genera, including Lactobacillus, Streptococcus, and Anaerostipes, was observed. Furthermore, the analysis of SCFAs and serotonin indicated that the synbiotic intervention resulted in an elevated butyric acid and microbial serotonin synthesis, alongside a decrease in propionic acid, which is changes considered beneficial in the context of ASD. This evidence suggests that synbiotics of L. fermentum K73 could represent a promising live biotherapeutic strategy for modulating the gut microbiota of children with ASD.

Assessment of the protective potential of coated microparticles in a fluidized bed against the simulated digestion

A strategy to enhance the protective effect of bioactive compounds in spray-dried microparticles is fluidized bed coating. Linseed oil was previously microencapsulated by spray drying using maltodextrin and whey protein as wall materials, and then coated with hydroxypropyl methylcellulose using a fluidized bed. A central composite rotatable design was used to assess the effects of coating solution flow rate (Q) and fluidizing air temperature (T) on the surface oil content and water activity of the coated microparticles. Under optimal conditions (Q = 1.87 mL/min and T = 71 °C), the surface oil content and water activity were 10.4 % and 0.484, respectively. Raman spectroscopy analysis revealed the predominance of wall material peaks in the product spectrum, with attenuation of the linseed oil peaks. Visually, micrographs from fluorescence microscopy suggested homogeneous deposition of the coating material on the surface. The barrier properties of the additional layers against in vitro digestion were evaluated. Regarding simulated digestion, the uncoated material showed a high free fatty acid release rate in the first 30 min of digestion, whereas the coated material showed a reduced lipolysis rate. The maximum release for the coated and uncoated particles was 22.38 and 48.14 %, respectively. Coating with HPMC can form an additional physical barrier, enhance system viscosity, adsorb onto the oil droplet interface, provide steric hindrance, and flocculation depletion, thereby limiting lipase activity. Optimized coated microparticles can be used in special low-calorie diets because of their low release of free fatty acids.

In silico docking, ADMET profiling, and bio-accessibility experimentation on Breynia retusa phytocompounds and in vitro validation for anti-proliferative potencies against ovarian carcinoma

This study aimed to assess the medicinal properties of Breynia retusa, a plant rich in phytocompounds predominantly used as an ethnomedicinal agent in Western Ghats, which appeared to be promising for therapeutic use, especially in the treatment of ovarian cancer. Herein, its cytotoxic potential on ovarian cancer cell lines SKOV-3, neurotoxicity, antioxidant activity, and molecular docking was determined to aid in explaining the mechanisms of interactions with proteins related to ovarian cancer. B . retusa methanolic extract demonstrated exuberant antioxidant activity, with 81.91% scavenging ability of DPPH radicals and efficient reduction of phosphomolybdenum (22.98 mg ascorbic acid equivalents antioxidant capacity/g extract). The extract proved to be an important anti-inflammatory agent through membrane stabilization inhibition of 83%. The cytotoxicity study against the SKOV-3 cell line indicated an IC50 value of 34.01 µg/mL and a very negligible neurotoxicity in SH-SY5Y cell lines. The GC-MS and HPLC profiling indicated many anticancer compounds in the extract such as secalciferol, methyl gallate, ricinoleic acid, gallic acid, and naringenin. The docking study showed significant interactions of secalciferol molecules with the key ovarian cancer proteins, which include IGF1 (-6.758 kcal/mol) and c-ERBB2 (-4.281 kcal/mol). Fatty acid derivatives and methyl gallate showed efficient dock scores (< -5.0 kcal/mol) with antioxidant (catalase and superoxide dismutase) enzymes and inflammatory cytokines (IL-6 and COX-1), respectively, as evidences of antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potentials. The bio-accessibility of phenolics and their antioxidant activity ranged above 90%, indicating the promising bioavailability of phytochemicals expected in vivo. Hence the current study emphasizes the anticancer potential of B. retusa phytocompounds that appeared to interact very strongly with ovarian cancer targets and confirms the dose-dependent cytotoxic and antioxidant activities of B. retusa methanolic extract.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13205-025-04276-8.

Fermentation of Amazonian fruit pulp (bacaba) with distinct probiotics: Impacts on chemical composition, bioaccessibility, and effects on human intestinal microbiota

Bacaba (Oenocarpus bacaba Mart.) is an underexplored Amazonian fruit rich in polyphenols that can serve as a substrate for probiotic survival and may positively impact on the composition and metabolism of the intestinal microbiota. This study aimed to evaluate the bacaba pulp fermented with probiotics Lactobacillus acidophilus 05 (LA-05) and Lacticaseibacillus casei 01 (LC1) regarding the chemical composition and probiotics survivability during fermentation (48 h), and the effect on the modulation of the intestinal microbiota of healthy adults through 16S rRNA sequencing. The probiotic-fermented bacaba pulps showed decreased pH and total soluble solids values and sugar content (maltose, glucose, fructose, and rhamnose), and increased titratable acidity values, organic acid content (lactic and tartaric acids), and phenolic compounds concentration compared to the control pulp. Furthermore, it presented adequate probiotic viability after fermentation and simulated gastrointestinal conditions. The bacaba pulp fermented with LC1 showed a higher concentration of butyric acid and phenolic compounds concentration (trans-resveratrol, cis resveratrol, catechin, procyanidin B2, and pelargonidin 3-glucoside) and bioaccessibility compared to the control pulp. The bacaba pulp fermented with LA-5 showed a higher concentration of pelargonidin 3-glucoside and procyanidin B2 compared to the control pulp and the highest bioaccessibility of some phenolic compounds (trans-resveratrol, cis-resveratrol, catechin, epicatechin, procyanidin B1, procyanidin B2, myricetin, and isorhamnetin). In vitro fecal fermentation reduced the pH and increased the abundance of Desulfovibrionales, Lactobacillales, and Peptostreptococcales-Tissierellales for all treatments. Bacaba pulp with LC1 resulted in the lowest pH values, and increased production of organic acids and concentration of phenolic compounds. Furthermore, both probiotic pulps increased the abundance of Lactobacillales and Acidaminococcales and decreased the abundance of Clostridiales. These findings provide new information about the potential of using bacaba in a functional pulp that may benefit human health through colonic microbiota changes.

Freshwater microalgae biomasses are a source of bioaccessible bioactive compounds and have antioxidant, antihypertensive, and antidiabetic activity

Due to their sustainable production, freshwater microalgae have received attention as an alternative food rich in nutrients and bioactive compounds. This work assessed the composition and bioaccessibility of amino acids (AA), fatty acids (FA), and phenolic compounds (PC) present in the Chlorella vulgaris, Spirulina platensis, Scenedesmus acuminatus, Desmodesmus maximus, and Tetraselmis sp. biomass, and their antioxidant, antihypertensive and antidiabetic in vitro activities. The microalgae had a similar profile of compounds, but the concentration varied significantly between species. Lysine was the most abundant essential AA and palmitic and oleic (ω9) acids were the main FA detected in all microalgae. Moreover, the bioaccessibility was higher than 70 % for most FA, while the bioaccessibility of PC was generally low (<20 %). All microalgae showed significant antidiabetic (∼20-54 % ⍺-amylase inhibition and ∼ 91 % to ∼96 % ⍺-glucosidase inhibition), antihypertensive (∼13-53 % ACE inhibition) and antioxidant (1313.10-1821.60 μM eq Trolox/g) potential. C. vulgaris showed a higher concentration and bioaccessibility of phenolic compounds, resulting in an increased antidiabetic activity (higher α-glucosidase inhibition). S. platensis showed higher concentrations of fatty acids (palmitic, palmitoleic, and linoleic). D. maximus was characterized by higher concentrations and bioaccessibility of amino acids and an increased antioxidant and antidiabetic activities. Finally, Tetraselmis sp. presented improved concentration of tyrosine and increased antihypertensive activity. Therefore, the results can support the application of microalgae biomass in new functional foods for delivering bioactive compounds, primarily essential AA and FA, targeting specific niches that benefit from their potential health advantages. Findings underscore the commercial applicability of microalgae-based products.

Pre-storage treatments of shredded white radish with Lactiplantibacillus plantarum 299v and inulin: untargeted metabolomics, enzymatic browning, antioxidant capacity, nutritional value and microbiological quality

BACKGROUND

The specific structure of low-processed foods places unique demands on technological processes. The study examines an alternative protocol to preserve the quality of shredded radish during cold storage - applying pre-storage treatments with the probiotic Lactiplantibacillus plantarum (SP) alone or in combination with the prebiotic inulin (SPI).

RESULTS

Shredded radish samples were soaked in the functional solutions and, after cold storage, were further tested in terms of colour changes, microbiological quality, nutritional value and antioxidant properties. The treatments not only improve microbiological safety and enhance colour stability but also maintain nutritional value without any adverse effects. The SPI-treated samples showed a 56% reduction in coliforms compared to the control and were rich in probiotics (6.74 log10CFU g-1). Both treatments reduced browning, which was especially visible in the SPI samples (40%). Compared to fresh samples, the application of SPI significantly increased the levels of glucoraphenin (2.19-fold), glucobrassicin (2.48-fold), gluconapoleiferin 1 and 2 isomers (2.97- and 2.17-fold) and oxodihydroxyoctadecenoic acid (29-fold). These changes were reflected in the improved antioxidant properties, including reducing, antiradical and lipid-protecting capacities. Treatments slightly decreased starch and protein content but without any negative impact on digestibility.

CONCLUSION

The results confirm that the pre-storage treatments described may be an alternative to traditional preservation methods and are practical tools for extending the shelf life and overall quality of shredded radish. © 2025 Society of Chemical Industry.

Understanding the molecular mechanism of fumonisin esterases by kinetic and structural studies

Fumonisins are sphingolipid-like mycotoxins that cause serious damage by contaminating food and feed. The tricarballylic acid (TCA) units of fumonisin B1 (FB1; accounting for 70 % of fumonisin contamination) can be removed by fumonisin B1 esterase (FE, EC 3.1.1.87) providing a biotechnological FB1 detoxification possibility. Here, we report the regioselective cleavage of the TCA ester at C6 in the first step of FB1 hydrolysis and kinetic characterization for two FEs. The low KM values (4.76-44.3 μM) are comparable to concentrations of environmental contaminations, and the high catalytic efficiencies are promising for practical applications. The X-ray structure of one of the FEs enabled the understanding of the FB1 hydrolysis at molecular level and revealed an arginine pocket key for substrate binding, and the catalytic role of the glutamate preceding the catalytic serine. Computations showed that this FE is likely capable of detoxifying any fumonisin indicating its potential applicability in food and feed products.

Improving benzyl - isothiocyanate bioaccessibility in white mustard (Sinapis alba) sauce through spray - drying microencapsulation and Pickering emulsions

This study compared the bioaccessibility and behaviour of different formulations of benzyl - isothiocyanate (benzyl - ITC) prepared using different approaches and the INFOGEST in vitro digestion protocol. The aim was to improve the low bioaccessibility of this bioactive compound caused by its lipophilic properties. Spray-dried microparticles were prepared using a matrix of either mannitol or maltodextrin, and compared with Pickering emulsions produced with cellulose nanofibres. The different systems were characterised and their ability to associate benzyl - ITC determined. The in vitro digestion characteristics provided by the different systems was evaluated. Microencapsulation of benzyl-ITC by spray-drying was not successful when mannitol was used as excipient, while maltodextrin resulted in a production yield around 70 % with an ITC association efficiency up to 75 %. Nevertheless, significant improvement of benzyl - ITC bioaccessibility in a mustard sauce was not achieved. In contrast, the formulation of benzyl - ITC in a Pickering emulsion prepared with cellulose nanofibres showed an association efficiency of around 100 % and high bioaccessibility with values up to 77 %. The chemical similarity between the mixed micelles formed for lipid absorption in the small intestine, and the structure of cellulose nanofibre emulsion could justify the observed improvement.

Semi-dynamic in vitro digestion of honey chlorella vulgaris reveals biochemical and structural insights during gastro-intestinal transit

Concerns about current food systems have prompted increased exploration of sustainable alternative protein sources, such as microalgae. This study investigated honey Chlorella vulgaris, a chlorophyll-deficient mutant, distinguished by its consumer-friendly honey colour, milder flavour and improved texture. To facilitate the nutritional transition towards this source, a standardised in vitro semi-dynamic INFOGEST digestion model was employed to analyse the digestive behaviour of C. vulgaris, focusing on the biochemical and structural changes during in vitro digestion. Gastric digestion was conducted over 67.5 min with dynamic fluid addition and gastric emptying. Results indicated slow gastric digestion of C. vulgaris due to the initially low pepsin activity and low protein solubility. Significant protein breakdown commenced when the pH dropped to 3.5. By the end of the gastric phase, 11.8 % of the protein and 3.0 % of free amine groups were released, generating new peptides of 0.3-1 kDa. Followed by 2 h static intestinal digestion, some cell structures remained intact, indicating a barrier to nutrient release. Pancreatic enzymes caused substantial protein hydrolysis, generating a higher fraction of 0.1-0.3 kDa peptides, with a notable release of essential amino acids as well as phenolic compounds. This study highlighted that protein insolubility and the cell wall structure of C. vulgaris may impede enzyme effectiveness, leading to a reduced protein breakdown. Furthermore, introduction of processing steps may enhance bioaccessibility in microalgae-derived foods, thereby contributing to the development of nutritional and sustainable food productions.

Mechanism of the effect of mixing guar gum and fish collagen peptide with rice on in vitro digestibility, gastric emptying and postprandial response

This study investigated the effects of adding guar gum (GG) and fish collagen peptide (FCP) during rice cooking on postprandial blood glucose and satiety of rice and the related mechanisms. The results showed that the combined intervention of GG and FCP (GG-FCP) significantly reduced the postprandial blood glucose levels. The GG increased the viscosity of the digesta, and the physical barrier of GG and FCP formed on the surface of the rice limited the disintegration of the rice granule. The chyme containing GG and FCP displayed a larger particle size and gastric emptying were delayed. GG-FCP alleviated the digestion rate of rice, with the rapidly digestible starch content decreasing from 77.68 % to 65.01 %. Low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR) analysis indicated the GG and FCP reduced the binding water content of starch. DSC analysis showed that the addition of GG and FCP reduced the enthalpy of gelatinization of rice flour from 5.87 to 3.13 J/g, and the gelatinization degree of the rice flour was reduced. This study investigated the mechanisms of exogenous additives in regulating rice digestion and postprandial response. The findings would provide evidence-based strategies for developing rice products with the potential to mitigate the effects of blood glucose.

Enhancing the stability of tocotrienol nanoemulsion developed using ultrasonic treatment with amphiphilic starch nanoparticles serving as the matrix

BACKGROUND

Octenylsuccinic anhydride (OSA) is one of the efficient compounds used in food industries as an emulsifier. The current study describes the augmentation of tocotrienol (T3) bioavailability by combining it with OSA and then converting it into a nanoemulsion. The creation of the nanoemulsions ASG-T3U10, ASG-T3U20 and ASG-T3U30 involved ultrasonication power at 300 W for 10, 20 and 30 cycles, respectively.

RESULT

The nanoemulsion particle sizes of ASG-T3U30, ASG-T3U20 and ASG-T3U10 ranged from 100 to 200, 200 to 300 and >300 nm (P < 0.05), respectively. ASG-T3U30 exhibited enhanced encapsulation efficiency and potential stability in a simulated gastrointestinal environment. A range of models such as zero order, Higuchi, Korsmeyer-Peppas, Peppas-Sahlin and Gompertz were utilized for the study of release kinetics. The models were found to be a good fit (R2 > 0.90) for the release of T3 in the gastrointestinal environment from an amphiphilic starch matrix. Storage stability tests showed that the emulsions were stable for 21 days of storage at 4 °C, but after 14 days, samples with particle diameters greater than 200 nm displayed the onset of Ostwald ripening.

CONCLUSION

The study showed that the stability of the nanoemulsion was effectively enhanced through increased ultrasonication cycles. © 2025 Society of Chemical Industry.

Effects of phenolic acid incorporation on the structure, physicochemical properties, and 3D printing performance of rice starch gel: Exploring underlying mechanisms

This study aimed to investigate the effects of incorporating ferulic acid (FA) or gallic acid (GA) on structural, physicochemical, and 3D printing properties of rice starch gel, while also exploring underlying mechanisms. These phenolic acids were incorporated into rice starch at varying concentrations. The addition of FA or GA reduced the gel's viscoelasticity, leading to significant decline in 3D printing accuracy. The printing accuracy of the starch decreased from 98.64 % for the native starch to 83.85 % for the FA-starch complex and 72.40 % for the GA-starch complex. Structural analysis revealed that FA and GA formed single-helical complexes with starch, disrupting the formation of a double-helical gel network and consequently reducing the gel's viscoelasticity. Additionally, the incorporation of FA and GA significantly increased the resistant starch content in the 3D-printed products, rising from 22.02 % in the native starch to 46.37 % in the FA-starch complex and 53.42 % in the GA-starch complexes. These single-helix complexes improved both the stability and bioavailability of the polyphenols. Findings of this study provide valuable insights for advancing the development of functional 3D-printed foods.

Personalized and precise functional assessment of innovative flatbreads toward the colon microbiota of people with metabolic syndrome: Results from an in vitro simulation

Due to the increasing incidence of individuals with metabolic syndrome and the higher correlations between metabolic syndrome and the gut microbiota, there is a need to formulate functional foods that can promote the development of beneficial microorganisms within the gut microbiota. This study aims to evaluate the possible positive effects of innovative gluten-free flatbread, containing grape and apple antioxidant-rich by-products, on the gut microbiota of patients with metabolic syndrome. The baked products were subjected to gastric digestion using the Infogest system, followed by proximal colonic fermentation in the MICODE (Multi-Unit In vitro Colon Model) intestinal model, where three samplings were performed (baseline, after 16 h and 24 h). The samples were then subjected to 16S rRNA metataxonomy, quantification of shifts in bacterial populations by qPCR analysis and characterization of volatile organic compounds by SPME GC-MS (Solid Phase Micro Extraction Gas-Chromatography Mass-Spectrophotometry). A robust statistical approach based on several tests and multivariate analysis was applied. The results obtained demonstrated the in vitro potential of functional flatbreads in improving the dysbiosis of the microbiota of individuals with metabolic syndrome, due to a reduction in the Firmicutes/Bacteroidota ratio, and highlighted an increase in commensal microorganisms (Bifidobacterium, positive clostridia and Akkermansia muciniphila) and a reduction in negative microorganisms (Enterobacteriaceae, negative clostridia and Collinsella spp.). The analysis of metabolites showed an increase in health-beneficial metabolites (acetate and medium chain organic acids) and a reduction in harmful metabolites (p-cresol and skatole), the degree of this modulation varied based on the flatbread composition. While this study employed an in vitro model of recognized limitations, it nonetheless provides valuable, evidence-based results that can be used for preclinical screening of formulations. Anyhow this work is of high fashion in this running time as it proposes i) in vitro models rather than animal testing; ii) human MetS gut microbiota for high translatability to in vivo condition; iii) approaches of precise and personalized nutrition by the use of specific microbiota and omic technologies, all component that vow to be the future of food assessment.

A study on the qualitative analysis of lotus seedpod oligomeric procyanidins during digestion, absorption and colonic fermentation based on UPLC-Q-Exactive/MS

Polyphenols have potent antioxidant properties, but are easily degraded in the gastrointestinal tract, greatly limiting their application as dietary supplements. Therefore, the composition changes of lotus seedpod oligomeric procyanidins (LSOPC) in the gastrointestinal digestion, colonic fermentation and their absorption in Caco-2 cell monolayer were studied. The extracted LSOPC were identified using UPLC-Q-Exactive/MS, and a total of 47 compounds were identified. After gastrointestinal digestion, succinic acid, protocatechuic acid, p-Hydroxybenzoic acid, azelaic acid, and dihydroxyphenylacetic acid were released. Compared to gastrointestinal digestion, the total phenolic content and antioxidant capacity of LSOPC were significantly higher after colonic fermentation (P < 0.05). In addition, catechin (2.5%) crossed the Caco-2 cell monolayer and entered systemic circulation. Most of the LSOPC were not absorbed but instead entered the colon, where they were degraded to phenolic acids by gut microbiota. At the same time, unabsorbed LSOPC and their metabolites modulated the composition of gut microbiota, decreasing the Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio and promoting the generation of short-chain fatty acids, especially acetic acid. Phenylacetic acid, p-Hydroxyphenylpropionic acid, p-coumaric acid, dihydroxyphenyl-ɤ-valerolactone, and 4-(3,4'-dihydroxyphenyl) valeric acid could not be detected until after colonic fermentation. It is the first time to systematically clarify compositional transformations of LSOPC during gastrointestinal digestion and colonic fermentation, which will pave the way for increasing the economic value of lotus seedpod and provide a theoretical basis for polyphenols as dietary supplements.

Construction and characterisation of mung bean protein isolate/carboxymethyl konjac glucomannan sodium hydrogels: Gel properties, structural properties, microstructure, sodium salt release, and 3D printing

This study proposed a hydrogel system using mung bean protein isolate (MPI) and carboxymethyl konjac glucomannan (CKGM). The effects of CKGM addition on the gel properties, structural characteristics, and Na+ loading capacity of the MPI-CKGM system were investigated. FTIR and molecular docking techniques demonstrated that MPI and CKGM formed hydrogels via hydrogen bonding interactions. The addition of CKGM led to the increase in gel strength of the hydrogel, reaching a peak value at a CKGM concentration of 3.5 %, which was attributed to the formation of a denser network structure. All hydrogels exhibited excellent performance in 3D printing applications. Fluorescence microscopy results demonstrated that the MPI-CKGM hydrogel was capable of loading Na+. Upon increasing the CKGM concentration to 3.5 %, the Na+ loading rate increased from 83.03 % to 91.20 %, thereby increasing Na+ release rate. The findings of this study can provide a foundation for further understanding the salt reduction mechanisms of hydrogels.

Study on the mechanism of protein-polysaccharide complex high viscosity gel and its adhesion in plant meat substitute

This study prepared high viscosity food gels using soybean protein isolate (SPI), coconut oil, potato starch (PS), and Konjac glucomannanone (KGM) to explore the adhesive properties of the gel between the texturized proteins (one of the components of plant meat substitute). The changes in the colloidal properties containing different PS and KGM concentrations were examined by adjusting the ratio to improve the viscosity, texture, and taste of the gel, while the mechanical, rheological, thermal, and microstructural properties were also comprehensively evaluated. The apparent viscosity test, tensile test, and plane observation indicated that the sample containing 7 % PS and 1.5 % KGM (P7K1.5) displayed the highest viscosity after stretching. SEM analysis indicated that the P7K1.5 sample exhibited a relatively uniform structure. After unfolding, the aggregation of protein chains resulted in a dense protein-polysaccharide gel network structure with KGM. The PS aggregates coalesced to create a continuous viscous network structure. DSC results indicated that the sample exhibited the highest melting point temperature of about 139 °C and optimal thermal stability. In conclusion, the P7K1.5 sample yielded the best results in plant meat substitute assembly and other test indexes. These findings establish a theoretical foundation for the research and development of high viscosity food gels, promoting their utilization in plant meat substitute.

Intraluminal enzymatic hydrolysis of API and lipid or polymeric excipients

The role of intraluminal enzymes for the hydrolysis of active pharmaceutical ingredients (API), prodrugs and pharmaceutical excipients will be reviewed. Carboxylesterases may hydrolyze ester-based API, prodrugs and ester-bond containing polymer excipients, whereas lipases digest lipid formulation excipients, such as mono-, di- and triglycerides. To clarify the conditions that should be mimicked when designing in vitro studies, we briefly review the upper gastrointestinal physiology and provide new data on the inter-individual variability of enzyme activities in human intestinal fluids. Afterwards, the methodology for studying enzymatic hydrolysis of API, prodrugs, lipid and polymeric excipients, as well as the main results that have been obtained, are summarized. In vitro digestion models used to characterize lipid formulations are well described, but data about the hydrolysis of lipid excipients (including surfactants) has been scarce and contradictory. Data on API and prodrug hydrolysis by esterases is available; however, inconsistent use of enzyme types and concentrations limits structure-stability relationships. Hydrolysis of polymer excipients in the lumen has not been significantly explored, with only qualitative data available for cellulose derivates, polyesters, starches, etc. Harmonization of the methodology is required in order to curate larger enzymatic hydrolysis datasets, which will enable mechanistic understanding and theoretical prediction.

Exploring the metabolic fate of antioxidant and hypoglycemic compounds from Pistacia vera shells through in vitro simulated digestion and untargeted metabolomics

Pistacia vera L. shells (PS) are a sustainable source of health-promoting ingredients. The metabolic fate of a PS extract with antioxidant/antiradical and hypoglycemic properties prepared by microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) was investigated through in vitro gastrointestinal digestion to consider its potential value as nutraceutical ingredient. The results revealed significant changes in the phytochemical profile, bioactivity, and bioaccessibility of the extract during digestion. According to LC-ESI-LTQ-Orbitrap-MS analysis, compounds were mainly preserved in the oral (40.48 μg/mg DW) and gastric (73.67 μg/mg DW) phases, and less in the intestinal phase (13.24 μg/mg DW). α-Amylase inhibitory properties of PS extract remained consistent during digestion, whereas α-glucosidase inhibition and antioxidant/antiradical effects gradually decreased. Multivariate data analysis confirmed the interdependency between phytochemical composition and bioactivity of undigested extract and its digests. This study represents a step forward for developing PS-based functional foods, providing unique insights into the metabolism of PS bioactive constituents under simulated gastrointestinal conditions.

Pea protein-potato peel starch complex coacervation for the encapsulation of bioactive date seed extract: Bio-functional characterization and in vitro release

The demand for eco-friendly encapsulation systems has boosted interest in the use of plant protein-polysaccharide coacervates to deliver bioactive compounds. This study investigated the potential of pea protein concentrate (PPC) and gelatinized potato peel starch (GPPS) as wall materials for the complex coacervation of date seed extract. The physicochemical properties, stability, bioactive compound retention, in vitro release, and bio-accessibility of the encapsulated extract were evaluated. The coacervates exhibited high encapsulation efficiency (79.43-83.05 %) and low water activity with varied flow properties. FTIR analysis revealed protein-starch molecular interactions, while the retention of total phenolics was significantly affected by pH and ionic strength. The coacervates exhibited high lipid oxidation resistance and antioxidant activity (74.69-87.20 %). In vitro digestion simulations showed a notable controlled release (69.07-96.92 %) and bio-accessibility of up to 62.69 %. The diffusion-controlled release mechanism was best described by the Weibull and Peppas-Sahlin models, where the release rate was influenced by the type and concentration of the matrix. A balanced interaction between protein and starch composition (PPS1) resulted in controlled phenolic release, stability, and enhanced absorption. These findings demonstrate the effectiveness of PPC-GPPS as a sustainable carrier for encapsulating date seed extract, offering controlled release, high antioxidant activity, and enhanced bio-accessibility, highlighting its potential for functional food-nutraceutical applications.

Nutritional and microbiological dynamics in the preparation of prahoc fish paste

Prahoc is a traditional fermented fish widely consumed in Cambodia. Nevertheless, the processing and nutritional values of this daily-consumed product were poorly described. This study offers a detailed analysis of the biochemistry, nutritional composition, and microbiota during the six-month Prahoc incubation. Macronutrients (e.g. lipids, proteins) are rather well preserved during the preparation of the fish paste but the fatty acid and amino acid profiles are slightly modified at the end of the unit operation. Free amino acids increased, which facilitates the in vitro digestibility of the final paste, while beneficial fatty acids, such as eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids, decreased. At the end of the process, the peroxide value was nearly five times greater than the limit set by the Codex Alimentarius (10 meq O2/kg). Biogenic amines, particularly cadaverine, were present but remained within acceptable limits. Metabarcoding analysis revealed that salt-tolerant bacteria dominated the fermentation process, while fungal activity was minimal. Lactic acid bacteria, such as Vagococcus and Streptococcus, were predominant before salt addition, while the fish pathogen Aeromonas established itself immediately after. Clostridium remained steady throughout, and Lentibacillus became dominant after six months. Food safety concerns related to biogenic amines, peroxides, and Clostridium highlight the need for establishing standard operational practices among national processors to mitigate food risks.

A novel approach to assessing the bioavailability of biopeptide inhibitor of HMG CoA reductase from germinated and ungerminated Kara Kratok (Phaseolus lunatus L.)

Background

The bioavailability of biopeptide compounds is a development challenge, mainly because of their resistance to the digestion system. This study aimed to determine the bioavailability of HMG CoA reductase biopeptide inhibitors from germinated and ungerminated Kara Kratok (Phaseolus lunatus L.).

Methods

Germinated and ungerminated brown P. lunatus were simulated for digestion enzyme in vitro (120 minutes for pepsin and pancreatin), followed by an in situ method for absorption. Perfusate samples were measured for the absorption percentage, inhibition of HMG CoA reductase, molecular weight (MW), peptide concentration, and hydrolysis degree (%DH).

Results

The results showed that germinated brown P. lunatus exhibited the highest absorption (32.42%), and the percentage of HMG CoA reductase inhibition during enzymatic digestion was at 210 minutes (87.51%), with MW < 10 kDa, peptide concentration of 2.39 mg/mL, and %DH of 48.90%. These findings suggest that germinated brown P. lunatus is a potent HMG CoA reductase inhibitor with significantly higher bioavailability than that of its ungerminated counterpart. This finding underscores its superiority in this context and open new possibilities for biopeptide research.

Unraveling microplastic behavior in simulated digestion: Methods, insights, and standardization

Despite the rapid expansion of in vitro digestion studies on microplastics (MPs), the field remains fragmented due to inconsistent methodologies, varying analytical approaches, and a lack of standardized protocols. These discrepancies hinder cross-study comparisons, complicate risk assessments, and limit the applicability of in vitro models for understanding MP fate and pollutant interactions in the gastrointestinal environment. A comprehensive synthesis is needed to assess progress, identify research gaps, and establish a unified research direction. This review systematically evaluates 85 studies (2020-2024), consolidating key findings and methodological challenges. It examines disparities in digestion protocols, fluid compositions, and exposure conditions, assessing how factors such as pH, enzyme activity, residence time, and temperature shape MPs' behavior and physicochemical transformations. Key findings on bio-corona formation, structural modifications, contaminant bioaccessibility, and interactions with digestive enzymes are synthesized to provide a clearer picture of MP behavior during digestion. With the field remains dominated by studies on polystyrene and polyethylene MPs in human-based models, inconsistencies persist, highlighting the urgent need for standardized methodologies. By addressing these gaps, this review lays a critical foundation for improving reproducibility, advancing standardization efforts, and strengthening exposure assessments, ultimately enhancing our understanding of MP ingestion risks to human health.

A Review on In Vitro Evaluation of Chemical and Physical Digestion for Controlling Gastric Digestion of Food

Food digestion in the gastrointestinal is a series of processes consisting of chemical and physical digestion. Recently, developing foods with controlled digestion in the stomach may attract more attention. Hydrogel foods are useful tools for designing foods with controlled digestion because it is relatively easy to design their food characteristics by adjusting the type and content of the additives. This review introduces the latest status of in vitro gastric digestion as a food characterization system. The in vitro evaluation of chemical gastric digestion by gastric acid and digestive enzymes focuses on INFOGEST-standardized gastrointestinal digestion protocols for healthy adults, infants, and older adults. For the in vitro evaluation of physical gastric digestion by peristalsis, the current development of gastrointestinal tract devices that precisely or efficiently simulate the shape of the stomach and gastric peristalsis is described. In addition, we introduce studies that have utilized these devices to investigate the gastric digestion behavior of hydrocolloid foods with different mechanical characteristics.

Formation and structural dynamics of Lotus seed starch-linolenic acid complexes under high pressure microfluidization and their evolution during simulated gastrointestinal digestion

Linolenic acid (ALA) can promote the production of intestinal short-chain fatty acids and the growth of beneficial bacteria. However, its polyunsaturated nature makes it prone to oxidation. To address this, lotus seed starch (LS) was used as a carrier to form LS-ALA complexes via dynamic high-pressure microfluidization (DHPM) at 180 MPa. The resulting complex exhibited high crystallinity and thermal stability, with 14.84 ± 0.16 % ALA content. This complexation reduced starch's short-range order and increased its solubility at room temperature, with 17.42 ± 0.49 % being resistant starch. Importantly, during in vitro digestion, the complex's crystal form remained unchanged, the ALA content in the remaining complex increased, and the carboxyl peak of the fatty acid was more obvious after digestion, indicating that ALA was protected during this process. These findings reveal the interaction mechanisms between ALA and starch, establish a basis for efficient LS-ALA complex preparation, and support further interaction studies.

Listeria monocytogenes gut interactions and listeriosis: Gut modulation and pathogenicity

Following ingestion via contaminated food, Listeria monocytogenes faces multiple hurdles through the human digestive system, thereby influencing its capacity to cause infection. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the multifaceted mechanisms employed by L. monocytogenes to overcome gastrointestinal hurdles and interact with the host's microbiota, facing chemical and physical barriers such as saliva, stomach acidity, bile salts and mechanical clearance. Proposed evasion strategies will be highlighted, exploring the bacteriocins produced by L. monocytogenes, such as the well-described bacteriocin Listeriolysin S (LLS), a bacteriocin that inhibits inflammogenic species - Lmo2776, and a phage tail-like bacteriocin, monocin. The competitive dynamic interactions within the gut microbiota, as well as the modulation of microbiota composition and immune responses, will also be explored. Finally, the adhesion and invasion of the intestinal epithelium by L. monocytogenes is described, exploring the mechanism of pathogenesis, biofilm and aggregation capacities and other virulence factors. Unlike previous reviews that may focus on individual aspects of L. monocytogenes pathogenicity, this review offers a holistic perspective on the bacterium's ability to persist and cause infection, integrating information about survival strategies, including bacteriocin production, immune modulation, and virulence factors. By connecting recent findings on microbial interactions and infection dynamics, this review incorporates recent developments in the field and connects various lines of research that explore both host and microbial factors influencing infection outcomes.

Curing strategies and bioactive peptide generation in ham: In vitro digestion and in silico evaluation

This study assessed the impact of curing salts and maturation times on peptide production and bioactivity in dry-cured hams using in vitro and in silico methods. Ninety-six hams underwent six curing treatments and two maturation stages (38 % and 42 % weight loss). Mass spectrometry identified bioactive peptides, while in silico tools predicted their bioactivities. Reduced sodium nitrifying salts (treatment IX) and 42 % weight loss showed the most significant results, enhancing low-molecular-weight peptides generation (EE, VG, VD) linked to high functionality. Antioxidant and antihypertensive activities were prominent in samples with 42 % weight loss. Peptides under 1.5 kDa were more abundant at advanced maturation stages. In silico analyses predicted ACE and DPP-IV inhibition and antioxidant effects. Dipeptides like DG, ES, and DV showed similarities to FDA-approved molecules, suggesting potential therapeutic uses. The study highlights those specific treatments boost biopeptides formation, requiring further research on their potential as functional foods or therapeutic agents.

Structural dynamics of camel milk proteins during digestion: Insights from 2D homo correlation and 2D hetero-correlation spectroscopy

This study investigates camel milk protein structural dynamics during digestion using Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and Two-Dimensional Infrared (2D-IR) homo-correlation and hetero-correlation analysis. The synchronous 2DIR homo-correlation map reveals that NH bending and C-N stretching vibrations (amide II) are sensitive to digestion, indicating significant impacts on secondary structures. The asynchronous 2DIR homo-correlation indicates a stepwise process, where initial disruptions in NH interactions precede changes in CO stretching vibrations (amide I), highlighting the sequence of structural alterations during protein unfolding and degradation. 2DIR hetero-correlation spectroscopy, which examines the correlations between amide A (NH stretching vibrations) and amide I, II, and III bands, offers deeper insights into hydrogen bonding dynamics and its influence on protein conformation. This approach elucidates hydrogen bond dynamics by correlating the fast-changing NH stretching vibrations with the slower amide band vibrations, hetero-correlation reveals how initial hydrogen bond disruptions lead to broader structural changes in the protein backbone. It also elucidates the conformational stability and flexibility by indicating how variations in hydrogen bond intensity correlate with the strength and flexibility of different secondary structural elements, providing a nuanced understanding of the protein's behavior during digestion. These findings indicate the potential of FTIR combined with 2D-IR for monitoring digestive processes.

Quantifying intestinal lipolysis with MRI and TD-NMR: Proof of concept using dairy cream digested in vitro

Understanding lipid digestion is crucial for promoting human health. Traditional methods for studying lipolysis face challenges in sample representativeness and pre-treatment, and cannot measure real-time lipolysis in vivo. Thus, non-invasive techniques like magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) need to be developed. This study assessed the MRI water-fat separation method for monitoring in vitro intestinal digestion of dairy cream, supported by high-performance thin-layer chromatography (HP-TLC) and time-domain nuclear magnetic resonance (TD-NMR). A clear distinction was found between the T2 of undigested lipids (∼120 ms) and lipolytic products (0.1-15 ms). The short T2 of lipolytic products likely results from semi-crystalline structures formed with bile salts. While MRI methods cannot detect such fast-relaxing protons, it effectively quantified lipolysis by tracking the residual undigested lipids, showing high correlation with HP-TLC results (R2 = 0.93 and 0.95 for 13-s and 6-min MRI methods, respectively). The rapid 13-s MRI method offers strong potential for future in vivo applications.

Assessing the impact of food-derived bioactives on digestive proteases by in vitro and in silico approaches

The interactions between food components and digestive tract enzymes can affect nutrient absorption and impact an individual's health. Certain components, particularly polyphenols, are reported to inhibit digestive enzymes and are commonly referred to as anti-nutritional factors. Reports on this subject often contradict each other, highlighting the need for consistent methodologies to assess the potential impact of bioactive compounds. This study evaluated the "in vitro" activity of pepsin, trypsin, and chymotrypsin using ovalbumin, gluten, and haemoglobin as substrates in the presence or absence of twenty-five bioactive natural compounds belonging to different chemical classes at gastro-intestinal physiological concentrations (0.1 mM). The results indicate that bioactives may have opposite effects on proteolytic activity depending on the substrate/enzyme combination and bioactives structure. With ovalbumin as substrate, piceid and resveratrol were described as strong chymotrypsin activators (+1.46- and 1.17-fold change, respectively), phloridzin dihydrate as a weaker activator (+0.41-fold change), while phloretin was a strong inhibitor (-0.65-fold change). A computational approach based on molecular docking and dynamics simulations was used to investigate the interactions between selected bioactives, chymotrypsin and ovalbumin. The "in silico" study included piceid and phloridzin dihydrate, as well as their respective aglycones (resveratrol and phloretin). The results obtained through computational modelling indicate that all four bioactives can interact with chymotrypsin. However, only those bioactives that enhance in vitro proteolytic activity induce a partial unfolding of ovalbumin's structure. This suggests that the effect of bioactive compounds on protein digestion may be substrate-dependent, and may vary depending on the specific protein being digested.

Construction and dynamic in vitro digestive characteristics of whey protein/chlorogenic acid/high methoxy pectin water-in-oil-in-water emulsion

Chlorogenic acid (CGA), while exhibiting diverse bioactive properties, but poor bioavailability and application stability, encapsulation via emulsion delivery systems represents a promising strategy to enhance its bioavailability and achieve sustained-release kinetics. In this study, bovine whey protein (BWP), CGA and high-methoxyl pectin (PEC) formed the water-in-oil-in-water (W/O/W) emulsion through the two-step emulsification. All W/O/W emulsions showed superior particle size, absolute potential, stability, and antioxidants, especially the W/O/W emulsion of BWP: PEC = 1:5 (0.5 % BWP and 2.5 % PEC) had highest encapsulation efficiency (94.52 ± 0.57 %) of CGA and thermal stability, this is related to the strongest hydrogel properties and grafting degree (16.98 ± 1.17 %). Moreover, in dynamically simulated digestion, the hydrolysis of CGA in continuous gastrointestinal digestion was inhibited, demonstrated remarkable slow-release characteristics; and W/O/W emulsion with high pectin content (BWP: PEC = 1:5) demonstrated prolonged gastric retention (9.9 % residual at 90 min) and reduced proteolytic susceptibility (24.12 % digestibility after 3 h). Consequently, W/O/W emulsions stabilized by BWP-PEC complexes can be applied as a prospective delivery system for enhancing the stability, antioxidant and slow-release properties in vivo of CGA.

Production, composition, and calcium and phosphorous in vitro gastrointestinal digestibility of Caciotta cheese (FriP®) with a high ratio Ca/P

This study evaluated the impact of the addition of CaCO3 to milk on cheesemaking, physic-chemical, and microbiological composition of Caciotta cheeses (FriP®), compared with control cheeses without CaCO3. The addition of CaCO3 did not interfere with the production process, but modified some physical properties of FriP cheese, such as surface color and structure, specifically a widespread presence of holes. The higher calcium to phosphorous ratio of FriP cheeses did not substantially impact the other main chemical characteristics of the cheeses. CaCO3 in Caciotta FriP cheese led to a phosphorous trapping during the in vitro simulated digestion of FriP cheese, which explains the lower soluble phosphorous content in the gastric and intestinal digestates.

Effect of zein nanoparticles addition on anthocyanin and lutein dual-loaded nanocomposite hydrogels: Structure, physico-chemical and delivery properties

In this study, lutein-loaded zein nanoparticles (Lu-NPs) were firstly prepared using the antisolvent precipitation method, and the obtained nanoparticles had a spherical shape with an average hydrodynamic diameter of 78.13 nm, a monodispersed distribution and relatively high encapsulation efficiency of 89.11 %. Then, Lu-NPs were added to anthocyanin-loaded arabinoxylan/casein hydrogel (ACN-gel) to fabricate Lu-NPs incorporated nanocomposite hydrogels (Lu-NPs/ACN-gel), which emphasized on the effect of Lu-NPs addition amount (10 %, 20 % and 40 %) on the structure, physico-chemical and delivery properties of nanocomposite hydrogels. It was found that the 10 % or 20 % Lu-NPs addition could not obviously influence the microstructure and gel strength of Lu-NPs/ACN-gel. Meanwhile, hydrophobic and hydrogen bonding interactions were formed between Lu-NPs and the gel matrix. However, with increasing Lu-NPs addition amount to 40 %, the porosity of Lu-NPs/ACN-gel was significantly increased to 48.48 % and the collapsed appearance was observed, which might be due to the formation of Lu-NPs aggregates in the gel network structure. Moreover, 10 % or 20 %Lu-NPs/ACN-gels were found to greatly improve the light and thermal stability of anthocyanin and lutein, and exhibited colon-specific release behavior. These data suggested a possible utilization of Lu-NPs/ACN-gel in gel-related eye care foods.