1
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Müller TR, Schuler C, Hammel M, Köhler A, Jutz S, Leitner J, Schober K, Busch DH, Steinberger P. A T-cell reporter platform for high-throughput and reliable investigation of TCR function and biology. Clin Transl Immunology 2020; 9:e1216. [PMID: 33251011 PMCID: PMC7681835 DOI: 10.1002/cti2.1216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2020] [Revised: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective Transgenic re‐expression enables unbiased investigation of T‐cell receptor (TCR)‐intrinsic characteristics detached from its original cellular context. Recent advancements in TCR repertoire sequencing and development of protocols for direct cloning of full TCRαβ constructs now facilitate large‐scale transgenic TCR re‐expression. Together, this offers unprecedented opportunities for the screening of TCRs for basic research as well as clinical use. However, the functional characterisation of re‐expressed TCRs is still a complicated and laborious matter. Here, we propose a Jurkat‐based triple parameter TCR signalling reporter endogenous TCR knockout cellular platform (TPRKO) that offers an unbiased, easy read‐out of TCR functionality and facilitates high‐throughput screening approaches. Methods As a proof‐of‐concept, we transgenically re‐expressed 59 human cytomegalovirus‐specific TCRs and systematically investigated and compared TCR function in TPRKO cells versus primary human T cells. Results We demonstrate that the TPRKO cell line facilitates antigen‐HLA specificity screening via sensitive peptide‐MHC‐multimer staining, which was highly comparable to primary T cells. Also, TCR functional avidity in TPRKO cells was strongly correlating to primary T cells, especially in the absence of CD8αβ co‐receptor. Conclusion Overall, our data show that the TPRKO cell lines can serve as a surrogate of primary human T cells for standardised and high‐throughput investigation of TCR biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas R Müller
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene Technical University of Munich (TUM) Munich Germany.,German Center for Infection Research (DZIF) Munich Germany
| | - Corinna Schuler
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene Technical University of Munich (TUM) Munich Germany
| | - Monika Hammel
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene Technical University of Munich (TUM) Munich Germany
| | - Amelie Köhler
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene Technical University of Munich (TUM) Munich Germany
| | - Sabrina Jutz
- Division of Immune Receptors and T Cell Activation Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology, and Immunology Institute of Immunology Medical University of Vienna Vienna Austria
| | - Judith Leitner
- Division of Immune Receptors and T Cell Activation Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology, and Immunology Institute of Immunology Medical University of Vienna Vienna Austria
| | - Kilian Schober
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene Technical University of Munich (TUM) Munich Germany
| | - Dirk H Busch
- Institute for Medical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene Technical University of Munich (TUM) Munich Germany.,German Center for Infection Research (DZIF) Munich Germany.,Focus Group 'Clinical Cell Processing and Purification' Institute for Advanced Study TUM Munich Germany
| | - Peter Steinberger
- Division of Immune Receptors and T Cell Activation Center for Pathophysiology, Infectiology, and Immunology Institute of Immunology Medical University of Vienna Vienna Austria
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2
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FACS isolation of low percentage human antigen-specific CD8 + T cells based on activation-induced CD3 and CD8 downregulation. J Immunol Methods 2019; 472:35-43. [PMID: 31201792 DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2019.06.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2019] [Revised: 06/11/2019] [Accepted: 06/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
As T cell activation leads to downregulation of T cell receptor (TCR) and coreceptor CD8, we developed a novel FACS-based sorting method to enrich activated antigen-specific CD8+ T cells. Using multiple established or low percentage T cell cultures, with either single antigen specificity or multiple influenza A virus antigen specificities, we have optimized the sorting method for T cell activation time and stimulating antigen dose. We have also sorted various numbers of antigen-specific CD8+ T cells into 96-well plates to demonstrate these T cells are capable of expanding into nearly pure CD8+ T cell lines. Our approach has the advantage of sorting antigen-specific T cells without knowing their specific antigenic epitopes or restricting HLA. We believe this method can be very helpful for successfully establishing CD8+ T cell lines for various purpose, including immunotherapy.
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3
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Rius C, Attaf M, Tungatt K, Bianchi V, Legut M, Bovay A, Donia M, Thor Straten P, Peakman M, Svane IM, Ott S, Connor T, Szomolay B, Dolton G, Sewell AK. Peptide-MHC Class I Tetramers Can Fail To Detect Relevant Functional T Cell Clonotypes and Underestimate Antigen-Reactive T Cell Populations. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2018; 200:2263-2279. [PMID: 29483360 PMCID: PMC5857646 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1700242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2017] [Accepted: 01/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Peptide-MHC (pMHC) multimers, usually used as streptavidin-based tetramers, have transformed the study of Ag-specific T cells by allowing direct detection, phenotyping, and enumeration within polyclonal T cell populations. These reagents are now a standard part of the immunology toolkit and have been used in many thousands of published studies. Unfortunately, the TCR-affinity threshold required for staining with standard pMHC multimer protocols is higher than that required for efficient T cell activation. This discrepancy makes it possible for pMHC multimer staining to miss fully functional T cells, especially where low-affinity TCRs predominate, such as in MHC class II–restricted responses or those directed against self-antigens. Several recent, somewhat alarming, reports indicate that pMHC staining might fail to detect the majority of functional T cells and have prompted suggestions that T cell immunology has become biased toward the type of cells amenable to detection with multimeric pMHC. We use several viral- and tumor-specific pMHC reagents to compare populations of human T cells stained by standard pMHC protocols and optimized protocols that we have developed. Our results confirm that optimized protocols recover greater populations of T cells that include fully functional T cell clonotypes that cannot be stained by regular pMHC-staining protocols. These results highlight the importance of using optimized procedures that include the use of protein kinase inhibitor and Ab cross-linking during staining to maximize the recovery of Ag-specific T cells and serve to further highlight that many previous quantifications of T cell responses with pMHC reagents are likely to have considerably underestimated the size of the relevant populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Rius
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, University Hospital Wales, Cardiff CF14 4XN, United Kingdom
| | - Meriem Attaf
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, University Hospital Wales, Cardiff CF14 4XN, United Kingdom
| | - Katie Tungatt
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, University Hospital Wales, Cardiff CF14 4XN, United Kingdom
| | - Valentina Bianchi
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, University Hospital Wales, Cardiff CF14 4XN, United Kingdom
| | - Mateusz Legut
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, University Hospital Wales, Cardiff CF14 4XN, United Kingdom
| | - Amandine Bovay
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, University Hospital Wales, Cardiff CF14 4XN, United Kingdom.,Department of Oncology and Ludwig Cancer Research, Lausanne University Hospital, Epalinges VD 1066, Switzerland
| | - Marco Donia
- Centre for Cancer Immune Therapy, Herlev University Hospital, DK-2730 Herlev, Denmark
| | - Per Thor Straten
- Centre for Cancer Immune Therapy, Herlev University Hospital, DK-2730 Herlev, Denmark
| | - Mark Peakman
- Department of Immunobiology, Guy's Hospital, King's College London, London SE1 9RT, United Kingdom
| | - Inge Marie Svane
- Centre for Cancer Immune Therapy, Herlev University Hospital, DK-2730 Herlev, Denmark
| | - Sascha Ott
- Department of Computer Science, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Tom Connor
- Systems Immunity Research Institute, Cardiff University School of Medicine, University Hospital Wales, Cardiff CF14 4XN, United Kingdom; and.,Cardiff University School of Biosciences, Cardiff CF10 3AX, United Kingdom
| | - Barbara Szomolay
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, University Hospital Wales, Cardiff CF14 4XN, United Kingdom
| | - Garry Dolton
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, University Hospital Wales, Cardiff CF14 4XN, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew K Sewell
- Division of Infection and Immunity, Cardiff University School of Medicine, University Hospital Wales, Cardiff CF14 4XN, United Kingdom; .,Systems Immunity Research Institute, Cardiff University School of Medicine, University Hospital Wales, Cardiff CF14 4XN, United Kingdom; and
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4
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Martinez RJ, Evavold BD. Lower Affinity T Cells are Critical Components and Active Participants of the Immune Response. Front Immunol 2015; 6:468. [PMID: 26441973 PMCID: PMC4564719 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2015.00468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2015] [Accepted: 08/28/2015] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Kinetic and biophysical parameters of T cell receptor (TCR) and peptide:MHC (pMHC) interaction define intrinsic factors required for T cell activation and differentiation. Although receptor ligand kinetics are somewhat cumbersome to assess experimentally, TCR:pMHC affinity has been shown to predict peripheral T cell functionality and potential for forming memory. Multimeric forms of pMHC monomers have often been used to provide an indirect readout of higher affinity T cells due to their availability and ease of use while allowing simultaneous definition of other functional and phenotypic characteristics. However, multimeric pMHC reagents have introduced a bias that underestimates the lower affinity components contained in the highly diverse TCR repertoires of all polyclonal T cell responses. Advances in the identification of lower affinity cells have led to the examination of these cells and their contribution to the immune response. In this review, we discuss the identification of high- vs. low-affinity T cells as well as their attributed signaling and functional differences. Lastly, mechanisms are discussed that maintain a diverse range of low- and high-affinity T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan J. Martinez
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Brian D. Evavold
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
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5
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Reguzova AY, Karpenko LI, Mechetina LV, Belyakov IM. Peptide-MHC multimer-based monitoring of CD8 T-cells in HIV-1 infection and AIDS vaccine development. Expert Rev Vaccines 2014; 14:69-84. [PMID: 25373312 DOI: 10.1586/14760584.2015.962520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
The use of MHC multimers allows precise and direct detecting and analyzing of antigen-specific T-cell populations and provides new opportunities to characterize T-cell responses in humans and animals. MHC-multimers enable us to enumerate specific T-cells targeting to viral, tumor and vaccine antigens with exceptional sensitivity and specificity. In the field of HIV/SIV immunology, this technique provides valuable information about the frequencies of HIV- and SIV-specific CD8(+) cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) in different tissues and sites of infection, AIDS progression, and pathogenesis. Peptide-MHC multimer technology remains a very sensitive tool in detecting virus-specific T -cells for evaluation of the immunogenicity of vaccines against HIV-1 in preclinical trials. Moreover, it helps to understand how immune responses are formed following vaccination in the dynamics from priming point until T-cell memory is matured. Here we review a diversity of peptide-MHC class I multimer applications for fundamental immunological studies in different aspects of HIV/SIV infection and vaccine development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alena Y Reguzova
- State Research Center of Virology and Biotechnology "Vector", Koltsovo, Novosibirsk region, 630559, Russia
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6
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Wendoh J, Waihenya R, Saya R, Awino E, Nene V, Steinaa L. Perforin Expression in <i>Theileria parva</i> Specific Cytotoxic T Cells Correlates with Cytotoxicity. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.4236/oji.2014.43014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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7
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Hombrink P, Raz Y, Kester MGD, de Boer R, Weißbrich B, von dem Borne PA, Busch DH, Schumacher TNM, Falkenburg JHF, Heemskerk MHM. Mixed functional characteristics correlating with TCR-ligand koff -rate of MHC-tetramer reactive T cells within the naive T-cell repertoire. Eur J Immunol 2013; 43:3038-50. [PMID: 23893393 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201343397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2013] [Revised: 06/05/2013] [Accepted: 07/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The low frequency of antigen-specific naïve T cells has challenged numerous laboratories to develop various techniques to study the naïve T-cell repertoire. Here, we combine the generation of naïve repertoire-derived antigen-specific T-cell lines based on MHC-tetramer staining and magnetic-bead enrichment with in-depth functional assessment of the isolated T cells. Cytomegalovirus (CMV) specific T-cell lines were generated from seronegative individuals. Generated T-cell lines consisted of a variety of immunodominant CMV-epitope-specific oligoclonal T-cell populations restricted to various HLA-molecules (HLA-A1, A2, B7, B8, and B40), and the functional and structural avidity of the CMV-specific T cells was studied. Although all CMV-specific T cells were isolated based on their reactivity toward a specific peptide-MHC complex, we observed a large variation in the functional avidity of the MHC-tetramer positive T-cell populations, which correlated with the structural avidity measured by the recently developed Streptamer koff -rate assay. Our data demonstrate that MHC-tetramer staining is not always predictive for specific T-cell reactivity, and challenge the sole use of MHC-tetramers as an indication of the peripheral T-cell repertoire, independent of the analysis of functional activity or structural avidity parameters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pleun Hombrink
- Department of Hematology, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands
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8
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Tubo NJ, Pagán AJ, Taylor JJ, Nelson RW, Linehan JL, Ertelt JM, Huseby ES, Way SS, Jenkins MK. Single naive CD4+ T cells from a diverse repertoire produce different effector cell types during infection. Cell 2013; 153:785-96. [PMID: 23663778 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2013.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 344] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2012] [Revised: 11/05/2012] [Accepted: 04/04/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
A naive CD4(+) T cell population specific for a microbial peptide:major histocompatibility complex II ligand (p:MHCII) typically consists of about 100 cells, each with a different T cell receptor (TCR). Following infection, this population produces a consistent ratio of effector cells that activate microbicidal functions of macrophages or help B cells make antibodies. We studied the mechanism that underlies this division of labor by tracking the progeny of single naive T cells. Different naive cells produced distinct ratios of macrophage and B cell helpers but yielded the characteristic ratio when averaged together. The effector cell pattern produced by a given naive cell correlated with the TCR-p:MHCII dwell time or the amount of p:MHCII. Thus, the consistent production of effector cell subsets by a polyclonal population of naive cells results from averaging the diverse behaviors of individual clones, which are instructed in part by the strength of TCR signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noah J Tubo
- Department of Microbiology, Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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9
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Wilde S, Sommermeyer D, Leisegang M, Frankenberger B, Mosetter B, Uckert W, Schendel DJ. Human antitumor CD8+ T cells producing Th1 polycytokines show superior antigen sensitivity and tumor recognition. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2012; 189:598-605. [PMID: 22689880 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1102165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Adoptive transfer of T cells expressing transgenic TCR with antitumor specificity provides a hopeful new therapy for patients with advanced cancer. To fulfill a large need for TCR with high affinity and specificity for various tumor entities, we sought to identify parameters for rapid selection of CTL clones with suitable characteristics. Twelve CTL clones displaying different Ag sensitivities for the same peptide-MHC epitope of the melanoma-associated Ag tyrosinase were analyzed in detail. Better MHC-multimer binding and slower multimer release are thought to reflect stronger TCR-peptide-MHC interactions; thus, these parameters would seem well suited to identify higher avidity CTL. However, large disparities were found comparing CTL multimer binding with peptide sensitivity. In contrast, CD8(+) CTL with superior Ag sensitivity mediated good tumor cytotoxicity and also secreted the triple combination of IFN-γ, IL-2, and TNF-α, representing a Th1 pattern often missing in lower avidity CTL. Furthermore, recipient lymphocytes were imbued with high Ag sensitivity, superior tumor recognition, as well as capacity for Th1 polycytokine secretion after transduction with the TCR of a high-avidity CTL. Thus, Th1 polycytokine secretion served as a suitable parameter to rapidly demark cytotoxic CD8(+) T cell clones for further TCR evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne Wilde
- Institute of Molecular Immunology, Helmholtz Center Munich, German
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10
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Keane NM, Roberts SG, Almeida CAM, Krishnan T, Chopra A, Demaine E, Laird R, Tschochner M, Carlson JM, Mallal S, Heckerman D, James I, John M. High-avidity, high-IFNγ-producing CD8 T-cell responses following immune selection during HIV-1 infection. Immunol Cell Biol 2012; 90:224-34. [PMID: 21577229 PMCID: PMC3173576 DOI: 10.1038/icb.2011.34] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
HIV-1 mutations, which reduce or abolish CTL responses against virus-infected cells, are frequently selected in acute and chronic HIV infection. Among population HIV-1 sequences, immune selection is evident as human leukocyte antigen (HLA) allele-associated substitutions of amino acids within or near CD8 T-cell epitopes. In these cases, the non-adapted epitope is susceptible to immune recognition until an escape mutation renders the epitope less immunogenic. However, several population-based studies have independently identified HLA-associated viral changes, which lead to the formation of a new T-cell epitope, suggesting that the immune responses that these variants or 'neo-epitopes' elicit provide an evolutionary advantage to the virus rather than the host. Here, we examined the functional characteristics of eight CD8 T-cell responses that result from viral adaptation in 125 HLA-genotyped individuals with chronic HIV-1 infection. Neo-epitopes included well-characterized immunodominant epitopes restricted by common HLA alleles, and in most cases the T-cell responses against the neo-epitope showed significantly greater functional avidity and higher IFNγ production than T cells for non-adapted epitopes, but were not more cytotoxic. Neo-epitope formation and emergence of cognate T-cell response coincident with a rise in viral load was then observed in vivo in an acutely infected individual. These findings show that HIV-1 adaptation not only abrogates the immune recognition of early targeted epitopes, but may also increase immune recognition to other epitopes, which elicit immunodominant but non-protective T-cell responses. These data have implications for immunodominance associated with polyvalent vaccines based on the diversity of chronic HIV-1 sequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niamh M Keane
- Centre for Clinical Immunology and Biomedical Statistics, Institute for Immunology and Infectious Diseases, Murdoch University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
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11
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Sharma SK, Alexander-Miller MA. Increased sensitivity to antigen in high avidity CD8(+) T cells results from augmented membrane proximal T-cell receptor signal transduction. Immunology 2011; 133:307-17. [PMID: 21501160 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2567.2011.03440.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The functional avidity of a cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) is known to be a critical determinant of the efficacy with which it clears pathogens. High avidity cells, which are by definition highly sensitive to peptide antigen, are superior for elimination of viruses and tumours. Our studies have established the ability of T cells to undergo avidity modulation as a result of antigen encounter. High and low avidity cells established in this manner exhibit significant differences in the amount of peptide required to elicit effector function. However, how signalling is regulated in these cells as it relates to the control of peptide sensitivity remains to be defined. To address this question, we compared T-cell receptor (TCR) signal transduction events in high and low avidity CTL generated from OT-I(rag2-) TCR transgenic mice. Our data suggest that divergent signalling is initiated at the TCR-associated CD3ζ, with low avidity CTL requiring higher amounts of pMHC to achieve threshold levels of phosphorylated CD3ζ compared with high avidity CTL. Further, this difference is transduced further downstream to mitogen-activated protein kinase and Ca(2+) signalling pathways. These results suggest that regulated control of the initiation of TCR signalling in high versus low avidity cells determines the amount of peptide required for T-cell activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharad K Sharma
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, NC 27157, USA
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12
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Uram JN, Black CM, Flynn E, Huang L, Armstrong TD, Jaffee EM. Nondominant CD8 T cells are active players in the vaccine-induced antitumor immune response. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2011; 186:3847-57. [PMID: 21346233 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1000361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
We previously reported that CD8(+) T cells are directed predominantly toward the immunodominant Her-2/neu (neu) epitope RNEU(420-429) in nontolerized FVB/N but not tolerized HER-2/neu (neu-N) mice. In this study, we screened overlapping peptides of the entire neu protein and identified six new epitopes recognized by vaccine-induced neu-N-derived T cells. Evaluation of individual nondominant responses by tetramer staining and IFN-γ secretion demonstrate that this repertoire is peripherally tolerized. To address the role that the complete CD8(+) T cell repertoire plays in vaccine-induced antitumor immunity, we created a whole-cell vaccine-expressing neu cDNA that has been mutated at the RNEU(420-429) anchor residue, thereby abrogating activation of immunodominant epitope responses. Studies comparing the mutated and nonmutated vaccines indicate that nondominant CD8(+) T cells can induce antitumor immunity when combined with regulatory T cell-depleting agents in both neu-N and FVB/N mice. Collectively, these studies demonstrate that the neu-directed T cell repertoire is not intrinsically incapable of eradicating tumors. Rather, they are suppressed by mechanisms of peripheral tolerance. Thus, these studies provide new insights into the function of the complete T cell repertoire directed toward a clinically relevant tumor Ag in tumor-bearing hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer N Uram
- Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21231, USA
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13
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Predominant clonal accumulation of CD8+ T cells with moderate avidity in the central nervous systems of Theiler's virus-infected C57BL/6 mice. J Virol 2010; 84:2774-86. [PMID: 20071578 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01948-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Induction of antigen-specific CD8(+) T cells bearing a high-avidity T-cell receptor (TCR) is thought to be an important factor in antiviral and antitumor immune responses. However, the relationship between TCR diversity and functional avidity of epitope-specific CD8(+) T cells accumulating in the central nervous system (CNS) during viral infection is unknown. Hence, analysis of T-cell diversity at the clonal level is important to understand the fate and function of virus-specific CD8(+) T cells. In this study, we examined the Vbeta diversity and avidity of CD8(+) T cells specific to the predominant epitope (VP2(121-130)) of Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus. We found that Vbeta6(+) CD8(+) T cells, associated with epitope specificity, predominantly expanded in the CNS during viral infection. Further investigations of antigen-specific Vbeta6(+) CD8(+) T cells by CDR3 spectratyping and sequencing indicated that distinct T-cell clonotypes are preferentially increased in the CNS compared to the periphery. Among the epitope-specific Vbeta6(+) CD8(+) T cells, MGX-Jbeta1.1 motif-bearing cells, which could be found at a high precursor frequency in naïve mice, were expanded in the CNS and tightly associated with gamma interferon production. These T cells displayed moderate avidity for the cognate epitope rather than the high avidity normally observed in memory/effector T cells. Therefore, our findings provide new insights into the CD8(+) T-cell repertoire during immune responses to viral infection in the CNS.
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14
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Walker LJ, Sewell AK, Klenerman P. T cell sensitivity and the outcome of viral infection. Clin Exp Immunol 2009; 159:245-55. [PMID: 19968665 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2249.2009.04047.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The importance of CD8(+) T cells in the control of viral infections is well established. However, what differentiates CD8(+) T cell responses in individuals who control infection and those who do not is not well understood. 'Functional sensitivity' describes an important quality of the T cell response and is determined in part by the affinity of the T cell receptor for antigen. A more sensitive T cell response is generally believed to be more efficient and associated with better control of viral infection, yet may also drive viral mutation and immune escape. Various in vitro techniques have been used to measure T cell sensitivity; however, rapid ex vivo analysis of this has been made possible by the application of the 'magic' tetramer technology. Such tools have potentially important applications in the design and evaluation of vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- L J Walker
- Nuffield Department of Medicine and NIHR Biomedical Research Centre Programme, Peter Medawar Building for Pathogen Research, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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15
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Levin D, DiPaolo RJ, Brinster C, Revilleza MJR, Boyd LF, Teyton L, Natarajan K, Mage MG, Shevach EM, Margulies DH. Availability of autoantigenic epitopes controls phenotype, severity, and penetrance in TCR Tg autoimmune gastritis. Eur J Immunol 2009; 38:3339-53. [PMID: 19039784 DOI: 10.1002/eji.200838584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
We examined TCR:MHC/peptide interactions and in vivo epitope availability to explore the Th1- or Th2-like phenotype of autoimmune disease in two TCR Tg mouse models of autoimmune gastritis (AIG). The TCR of strains A23 and A51 recognize distinct IA(d)-restricted peptides from the gastric parietal cell H/K-ATPase. Both peptides form extremely stable MHC/peptide (MHC/p) complexes. All A23 animals develop a Th1-like aggressive, inflammatory AIG early in life, while A51 mice develop indolent Th2-like AIG at 6-8 wk with incomplete penetrance. A51 T cells were more sensitive than A23 to low doses of soluble antigen and to MHC/p complexes. Staining with IA(d)/peptide tetramers was only detectable on previously activated T cells from A51. Thus, despite inducing a milder AIG, the A51 TCR displays a higher avidity for its cognate IA(d)/peptide. Nonetheless, in vivo proliferation of adoptively transferred A51 CFSE-labeled T cells in the gastric lymph node was relatively poor compared with A23 T cells. Also, DC from WT gastric lymph node, presenting processed antigen available in vivo, stimulated proliferation of A23 T cells better than A51. Thus, the autoimmune potential of these TCR in their respective Tg lines is strongly influenced by the availability of the peptide epitope, rather than by differential avidity for their respective MHC/p complexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ditza Levin
- Department of Biotechnology Engineering, Ort Braude College, Karmiel, Israel
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16
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Hou Y, Kavanagh B, Fong L. Distinct CD8+ T cell repertoires primed with agonist and native peptides derived from a tumor-associated antigen. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 180:1526-34. [PMID: 18209048 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.180.3.1526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Heteroclitic peptides are used to enhance the immunogenicity of tumor-associated Ags to break T cell tolerance to these self-proteins. One such altered peptide ligand (Cap1-6D) has been derived from an epitope in human carcinoembryonic Ag, CEA(605-613) (Cap1). Clinical responses have been seen in colon cancer patients receiving a tumor vaccine comprised of this altered peptide. Whether Cap1-6D serves as a T cell agonist for Cap1-specific T cells or induces different T cells is unknown. We, therefore, examined the T cell repertoires elicited by Cap1-6D and Cap1. Human CTL lines and clones were generated with either Cap1-6D peptide (6D-CTLs) or Cap1 peptide (Cap1-CTLs). The TCR Vbeta usage and functional avidity of the T cells induced in parallel against these target peptides were assessed. The predominant CTL repertoire induced by agonist Cap1-6D is limited to TCR Vbeta1-J2 with homogenous CDR3 lengths. In contrast, the majority of Cap1-CTLs use different Vbeta1 genes and also had diverse CDR3 lengths. 6D-CTLs produce IFN-gamma in response to Cap1-6D peptide with high avidity, but respond with lower avidity to the native Cap1 peptide when compared with the Cap1-CTLs. Nevertheless, 6D-CTLs could still lyse targets bearing the native epitope. Consistent with these functional results, 6D-CTLs possess TCRs that bind Cap-1 peptide/MHC tetramer with higher intensity than Cap1-CTLs but form less stable interactions with peptide/MHC as measured by tetramer decay. These results demonstrate that priming with this CEA-derived altered peptide ligand can induce distinct carcinoembryonic Ag-reactive T cells with different functional capacities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yafei Hou
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Department of Medicine, University of California-San Francisco, 513 Parnassus Avenue, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
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17
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Age-dependent tolerance to an endogenous tumor-associated antigen. Vaccine 2008; 26:1863-1873. [PMID: 18329760 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.01.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2007] [Revised: 01/25/2008] [Accepted: 01/29/2008] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Immunologic tolerance to endogenous antigens reduces antitumor responses. Gp70 is an endogenous tumor-associated antigen (TAA) of the BALB/c-derived colon carcinoma CT26. We found that expression of gp70 mRNA is detectable in tissues of mice 8 months of age and older. We showed that expression of gp70 establishes immunologic tolerance and affects antitumor immunity in a similarly age-dependent manner using gp70-deficient mice. We found that tumors grew in all gp70-sufficient mice, while approximately half of gp70-deficient mice controlled tumor growth with endogenous T-cell responses. Protection in gp70-deficient mice correlated with more robust gp70-specific CTL responses, and increased numbers and avidity of responding antigen-specific T cells after vaccination. We conclude that immunosurveillance may decline with age due to increased or de novo peripheral expression of endogenous TAAs.
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18
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Dzutsev AK, Belyakov IM, Isakov DV, Gagnon SJ, Margulies DH, Berzofsky JA. Estimation of low frequency antigen-presenting cells with a novel RELISPOT assay. J Immunol Methods 2008; 333:71-8. [PMID: 18294650 DOI: 10.1016/j.jim.2008.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2007] [Revised: 12/23/2007] [Accepted: 01/09/2008] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Adequate presentation of self and foreign antigens is a key factor for efficient T-cell immunosurveillance against pathogens and tumors. Cells presenting foreign antigens usually comprise a rare population and are difficult to detect even at the peak of infection. Here we demonstrate a CD8(+) T-cell-based approach that allows detection of specific antigen-presenting cells (APC) at a frequency of less than 0.0005%. When T cells are in excess, they form rosettes with rare APCs, which appear as single spots in an IFN-gamma ELISPOT assay. Using this RELISPOT (Rosette ELISPOT) method we demonstrate the dynamic interplay between CD8 T cells and professional and non-professional APCs following virus challenge.
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19
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Nishimura MI, Roszkowski JJ, Moore TV, Brasic N, McKee MD, Clay TM. Antigen recognition and T-cell biology. Cancer Treat Res 2007; 123:37-59. [PMID: 16211865 DOI: 10.1007/0-387-27545-2_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Despite the wealth of information that has been acquired regarding the way T cells recognize their targets, we are left with far more questions than answers regarding how to manipulate the immune response to better treat cancer patients. Clearly, most patients have a broad repertoire of T cells capable of recognizing their tumor cells. Despite the presence of these tumor reactive T cells and our ability to increase their frequency though vaccination or adoptive transfer, patients still progress. From the T cell side, defects in T cell signaling may account for much of our failure to achieve significant numbers of objective clinical responses. In spite of these negatives, the horizon does remain bright for T cell based immune therapy of cancer. The periodic objective clinical response tells us that immune therapy can work. Now that we know that cancer patients have the capacity to mount immune responses against their tumors, current and future investigations with agents which alter T cell function combined with vaccination or adoptive T cell transfer may help tip the balance towards effective immune therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael I Nishimura
- Department of Surgery, University of Chicago Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
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20
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McMahan RH, Slansky JE. Mobilizing the low-avidity T cell repertoire to kill tumors. Semin Cancer Biol 2007; 17:317-29. [PMID: 17651986 PMCID: PMC2040124 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2007.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2007] [Revised: 03/08/2007] [Accepted: 06/07/2007] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Optimally, T cells destroy infected and transformed cells of the host. To be effective the T cell repertoire must have a sufficiently diverse number of T cell receptors (TCRs) to recognize the abundance of foreign and tumor antigens presented by MHC molecules. The T cell repertoire must also not be reactive toward self-antigens on healthy cells to prevent autoimmunity. Unlike antigens derived from pathogens, most tumor-associated antigens (TAA) are also self-antigens. Therefore, central and peripheral tolerance mechanisms delete or inhibit tumor-reactive T cells. Although there are T cells within the peripheral repertoire that recognize TAA, these T cells are not sufficient to prevent growth of clinically relevant tumors. We will discuss how this dysfunction results, in part, from the low functional avidity of T cells for tumor, or antigen presenting cells (APC) displaying TAA. We discuss the limitations of these low-avidity tumor-reactive T cells and review current immunotherapies aimed at enhancing the avidity and antitumor activity of the tumor-specific T cell repertoire.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel H. McMahan
- Integrated Department of Immunology, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Denver, CO 80206, USA
| | - Jill E. Slansky
- Integrated Department of Immunology, University of Colorado at Denver and Health Sciences Center, Denver, CO 80206, USA
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21
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Alajez NM, Eghtesad S, Finn OJ. Cloning and expression of human membrane-bound and soluble engineered T cell receptors for immunotherapy. J Biomed Biotechnol 2006; 2006:68091. [PMID: 16883054 PMCID: PMC1510948 DOI: 10.1155/jbb/2006/68091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
We report here the design and construction of several gene vectors for expression in mammalian cells of membrane-bound and soluble human T cell receptors (TR). We designed a vector (TR-ALPHA-IRES-TR-BETA pEF4) that encodes high-level expression of the full-length TR on the surface of T cells. Furthermore, we engineered TR that does not require the presence of endogenous CD3 molecules for surface expression and thus expression is not limited to T cells. We also constructed a vector encoding a single-chain TR (scTR) as a fusion protein of V-ALPHA-V-BETA-C-BETA with CD3Z. Since it is encoded and expressed as a single molecule, this scTR is well suited for gene therapy. Lastly, we successfully used a mammalian expression vector for generation of soluble human TR. The approaches we used here for manipulation of a human tumor-specific TR can be useful for other investigators interested in TR-based immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nehad M Alajez
- Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
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22
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Yang S, Tsang KY, Schlom J. Induction of higher-avidity human CTLs by vector-mediated enhanced costimulation of antigen-presenting cells. Clin Cancer Res 2006; 11:5603-15. [PMID: 16061879 PMCID: PMC1351007 DOI: 10.1158/1078-0432.ccr-05-0670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The efficacy of antigen-specific CD8(+) CTLs depends not only on the quantity of CTLs generated but also perhaps, more importantly, on the avidity of the CTLs. To date, however, no strategy has been shown to preferentially induce higher-avidity human CTLs. In the present study, antigen-presenting cells (APC) generated from human peripheral blood mononuclear cells were infected with a recombinant avipox vector (rF-) containing the transgenes for a triad of costimulatory molecules (human B7.1, intercellular adhesion molecule-1, and LFA-3, designated as rF-TRICOM) and then used to elicit peptide-specific CTLs from autologous T cells. Compared with peptide-pulsed noninfected APCs or peptide-pulsed APCs infected with wild-type vector, peptide-pulsed APCs infected with rF-TRICOM induced not only more CTLs but also higher-avidity CTLs; this was shown by tetramer staining, tetramer dissociation, IFN-gamma production, and cytolytic assays. Peptide-pulsed rF-TRICOM-infected dendritic cells were also shown to induce CTLs with a >10-fold higher avidity than CTLs induced using CD40L-matured dendritic cells; the use of peptide-pulsed CD40L-matured dendritic cells infected with rF-TRICOM as APCs induced CTLs of even greater avidity. To our knowledge, these studies are the first to show a methodology to induce higher-avidity human CTLs and have implications for the development of more efficient vaccines for a range of human cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jeffrey Schlom
- Requests for reprints: Jeffrey Schlom, Laboratory of Tumor Immunology and Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, NIH, 10 Center Drive, Room 8B09, Bethesda, MD 20892-1750. Phone: (301) 496-4343; Fax: (301) 496-2756; E-mail:
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23
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Abstract
Recognition of a peptide-MHC complex by the T cell receptor (TCR) is a key interaction that initiates T lymphocyte activation or silencing during an immune response. Fluorochrome-labeled recombinant MHC class II-peptide reagents function as soluble mimetics of this interaction, bind to their specific TCR, and allow for detection of antigen-specific CD4+ T cells. These reagents are now under scrutiny for "immune staging" of patients at risk of type 1 diabetes, in an effort to diagnose islet autoimmunity early enough to block immune-mediated beta cell destruction. Several issues are currently being addressed to improve the performance of these T cell assays: enrichment steps for better sensitivity, multiplexing of several islet epitopes, simultaneous monitoring of CD4+ and CD8+ responses, detection of low avidity T cells, combination of quantitative (number of positive cells) and qualitative (cytokine secretion, naive/memory phenotype) readouts. CD4+ T cells are key effectors of autoimmunity, and these MHC class II peptide reagents, through their signaling properties, might also provide therapeutics to block the autoimmune process at its onset, analogous to the use of OKT3gammao1(AlaAla) anti-CD3 antibody but in an antigen-specific fashion. The aim of such therapeutics is to potentiate different physiological control mechanisms to restore immune tolerance. Mechanisms initiated by this pathway may be capable of triggering elimination of pathogenic T cells through antigen-specific apoptosis and anergy, combined with the induction of regulatory T cells with broad suppressive function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Mallone
- Benaroya Research Institute at Virginia Mason and Department of Immunology
University of Washington School of MedicineUS
| | - Gerald T. Nepom
- Benaroya Research Institute at Virginia Mason and Department of Immunology
University of Washington School of MedicineUS
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24
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McKee MD, Roszkowski JJ, Nishimura MI. T cell avidity and tumor recognition: implications and therapeutic strategies. J Transl Med 2005; 3:35. [PMID: 16174302 PMCID: PMC1262785 DOI: 10.1186/1479-5876-3-35] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2005] [Accepted: 09/20/2005] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In the last two decades, great advances have been made studying the immune response to human tumors. The identification of protein antigens from cancer cells and better techniques for eliciting antigen specific T cell responses in vitro and in vivo have led to improved understanding of tumor recognition by T cells. Yet, much remains to be learned about the intricate details of T cell – tumor cell interactions. Though the strength of interaction between T cell and target is thought to be a key factor influencing the T cell response, investigations of T cell avidity, T cell receptor (TCR) affinity for peptide-MHC complex, and the recognition of peptide on antigen presenting targets or tumor cells reveal complex relationships. Coincident with these investigations, therapeutic strategies have been developed to enhance tumor recognition using antigens with altered peptide structures and T cells modified by the introduction of new antigen binding receptor molecules. The profound effects of these strategies on T cell – tumor interactions and the clinical implications of these effects are of interest to both scientists and clinicians. In recent years, the focus of much of our work has been the avidity and effector characteristics of tumor reactive T cells. Here we review concepts and current results in the field, and the implications of therapeutic strategies using altered antigens and altered effector T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark D McKee
- Department of Surgery, The University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
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25
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Hodge JW, Chakraborty M, Kudo-Saito C, Garnett CT, Schlom J. Multiple costimulatory modalities enhance CTL avidity. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2005; 174:5994-6004. [PMID: 15879092 PMCID: PMC1924685 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.174.10.5994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies in both animal models and clinical trials have demonstrated that the avidity of T cells is a major determinant of antitumor and antiviral immunity. In this study, we evaluated several different vaccine strategies for their ability to enhance both the quantity and avidity of CTL responses. CD8(+) T cell quantity was measured by tetramer binding precursor frequency, and avidity was measured by both tetramer dissociation and quantitative cytolytic function. We have evaluated a peptide, a viral vector expressing the Ag transgene alone, with one costimulatory molecule (B7-1), and with three costimulatory molecules (B7-1, ICAM-1, and LFA-3), with anti-CTLA-4 mAb, with GM-CSF, and combinations of the above. We have evaluated these strategies in both a foreign Ag model using beta-galactosidase as immunogen, and in a "self" Ag model, using carcinoembryonic Ag as immunogen in carcinoembryonic Ag transgenic mice. The combined use of several of these strategies was shown to enhance not only the quantity, but, to a greater magnitude, the avidity of T cells generated; a combination strategy is also shown to enhance antitumor effects. The results reported in this study thus demonstrate multiple strategies that can be used in both antitumor and antiviral vaccine settings to generate higher avidity host T cell responses.
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MESH Headings
- Adjuvants, Immunologic/administration & dosage
- Adjuvants, Immunologic/genetics
- Animals
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/administration & dosage
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/immunology
- Antigens, CD
- Antigens, Differentiation/immunology
- CTLA-4 Antigen
- Cancer Vaccines/administration & dosage
- Cancer Vaccines/genetics
- Cancer Vaccines/immunology
- Carcinoembryonic Antigen/administration & dosage
- Carcinoembryonic Antigen/genetics
- Carcinoembryonic Antigen/immunology
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Colonic Neoplasms/immunology
- Colonic Neoplasms/pathology
- Colonic Neoplasms/prevention & control
- Combined Modality Therapy
- Cytotoxicity Tests, Immunologic/methods
- Female
- Genetic Vectors
- Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor/administration & dosage
- Lymphocyte Activation/genetics
- Lymphocyte Activation/immunology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Mice, Transgenic
- Peptide Fragments/administration & dosage
- Peptide Fragments/immunology
- Peptide Fragments/metabolism
- Protein Binding/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/metabolism
- beta-Galactosidase/administration & dosage
- beta-Galactosidase/genetics
- beta-Galactosidase/immunology
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Affiliation(s)
- James W Hodge
- Laboratory of Tumor Immunology and Biology, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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26
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Kohrt HE, Shu CT, Stuge TB, Holmes SP, Weber J, Lee PP. Rapid assessment of recognition efficiency and functional capacity of antigen-specific T-cell responses. J Immunother 2005; 28:297-305. [PMID: 16000947 DOI: 10.1097/01.cji.0000162780.96310.e4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
It is increasingly recognized that cells within an antigen-specific CD8 T-cell population may be diverse in recognition efficiency for target, which may significantly affect the overall efficacy of the response in clinical settings such as viral infections and cancer. CD8 T cells with seemingly identical antigen specificity, particularly those elicited by cancer vaccines, may be heterogeneous for sensitivity and recognition efficiency for the cognate peptide and functional state in vivo. Analysis of individual T-cell clones derived from an antigen-specific T-cell population would provide an accurate assessment of the overall response; however, this is time- and labor-intensive, preventing rapid and routine assessment of patient samples from clinical trials. By stimulating antigen-specific T cells that otherwise appear homogeneous on tetramer staining with graded amounts of cognate peptides, the authors show that individual cells downmodulate surface T-cell receptors (TCR) and thus lose tetramer reactivity with variable dynamics within the T-cell population. The dynamics of TCR downregulation represent an accurate assessment of an individual cell's antigen sensitivity, recognition efficiency, and relative functional state within an antigen-specific population and have direct correlation to killing capacity by chromium release as well as degranulation by CD107 mobilization. Furthermore, despite correlation of average T-cell function by all three techniques, TCR downregulation uncovered heterogeneity in T-cell responses after vaccination among patient samples directly ex vivo. When examined using this novel technique, antigen-specific T cells elicited by vaccination with heteroclitic peptides exhibited significantly different recognition efficiencies for the heteroclitic versus native peptides, translating into differences in functional responses. With advancing cancer vaccine trials, the capacity to detect and functionally characterize antigen-specific T-cell responses in detail is critical. Techniques, as presented here, that rapidly assess the overall antigen sensitivity, recognition efficiency, and functional status of patients' T-cell responses will guide future vaccine trials and immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holbrook E Kohrt
- Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
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27
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Ercolini AM, Ladle BH, Manning EA, Pfannenstiel LW, Armstrong TD, Machiels JPH, Bieler JG, Emens LA, Reilly RT, Jaffee EM. Recruitment of latent pools of high-avidity CD8(+) T cells to the antitumor immune response. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2005; 201:1591-602. [PMID: 15883172 PMCID: PMC2212915 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20042167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 349] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
A major barrier to successful antitumor vaccination is tolerance of high-avidity T cells specific to tumor antigens. In keeping with this notion, HER-2/neu (neu)-targeted vaccines, which raise strong CD8+ T cell responses to a dominant peptide (RNEU420-429) in WT FVB/N mice and protect them from a neu-expressing tumor challenge, fail to do so in MMTV-neu (neu-N) transgenic mice. However, treatment of neu-N mice with vaccine and cyclophosphamide-containing chemotherapy resulted in tumor protection in a proportion of mice. This effect was specifically abrogated by the transfer of neu-N–derived CD4+CD25+ T cells. RNEU420-429-specific CD8+ T cells were identified only in neu-N mice given vaccine and cyclophosphamide chemotherapy which rejected tumor challenge. Tetramer-binding studies demonstrated that cyclophosphamide pretreatment allowed the activation of high-avidity RNEU420-429-specific CD8+ T cells comparable to those generated from vaccinated FVB/N mice. Cyclophosphamide seemed to inhibit regulatory T (T reg) cells by selectively depleting the cycling population of CD4+CD25+ T cells in neu-N mice. These findings demonstrate that neu-N mice possess latent pools of high-avidity neu-specific CD8+ T cells that can be recruited to produce an effective antitumor response if T reg cells are blocked or removed by using approaches such as administration of cyclophosphamide before vaccination.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antigens, Neoplasm/immunology
- CD4-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- Cancer Vaccines/administration & dosage
- Cancer Vaccines/genetics
- Cell Communication/drug effects
- Cell Communication/immunology
- Cyclophosphamide/administration & dosage
- Cytotoxicity, Immunologic
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/genetics
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/immunology
- Female
- Genes, erbB-2/immunology
- Immunosuppressive Agents/administration & dosage
- Immunotherapy, Adoptive
- Lymphocyte Activation/immunology
- Mammary Neoplasms, Experimental/immunology
- Mammary Neoplasms, Experimental/therapy
- Mice
- Mice, Transgenic
- Receptors, Interleukin-2/immunology
- Vaccination
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne M Ercolini
- Johns Hopkins, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21231, USA
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28
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Pecht I, Gakamsky DM. Spatial coordination of CD8 and TCR molecules controls antigen recognition by CD8+ T-cells. FEBS Lett 2005; 579:3336-41. [PMID: 15913613 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2005.04.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/18/2005] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The interactions between the TCR and peptides bound to class I MHC encoded molecules (pMHC) and a mechanism for CD8 cooperation in this process are reviewed. Observation of two TCR/CD8 populations with different lateral diffusion rate constants as well as two distinct association phases of class I MHC tetramers ((pMHC)4) with T-cells suggest that the most efficient pMHC-T-cell association route corresponds to a fast tetramer binding to a colocalized CD8/TCR population, which apparently resides within membrane rafts. Thus, ligand-cell association starts by pMHC binding to the CD8. This rather fast step promotes pMHC association with CD8-proximal TCRs and thereby enhances the overall association process. The model suggests that this raft-associated CD8-TCR subpopulation is responsible for evoking T-cell activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Israel Pecht
- Department of Immunology, The Weizmann Institute of Science, 76100 Rehovot, Israel.
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29
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Truckenmiller ME, Princiotta MF, Norbury CC, Bonneau RH. Corticosterone impairs MHC class I antigen presentation by dendritic cells via reduction of peptide generation. J Neuroimmunol 2005; 160:48-60. [PMID: 15710457 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2004.10.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2004] [Revised: 10/28/2004] [Accepted: 10/29/2004] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The presentation of viral peptide-MHC class I complexes by antigen presenting cells, such as dendritic cells (DCs), is obligatory for the generation of antiviral effector and memory CD8(+) cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL) responses. Prolonged psychological stress is immunosuppressive and undermines primary and memory CTL-mediated antiviral immunity; however, the mechanisms involved are unknown. Using a panel of novel reagents and techniques, we quantitatively measured the effect of the stress-induced hormone corticosterone (CORT) on the efficiency of DCs to process and present virally expressed antigen, characterized the conditions for this CORT-mediated effect, and delineated the components of the MHC class I pathway that were affected. We found that physiologically relevant levels of CORT, prior to infection and acting via the glucocorticoid receptor, suppressed the formation of peptide-MHC class I complexes on the surface of infected DCs. We further showed that this suppression of peptide-MHC class I complexes is via the action of CORT on elements of the class I pathway upstream from TAP that are involved in the generation of antigenic peptides. This CORT-mediated suppression of peptide-class I complexes on DCs also resulted in a marked reduction of their ability to activate a specific T cell hybridoma. These findings offer a mechanism contributing to the stress-induced suppression of host defenses against viral diseases and have implications for the efficacy of antiviral vaccines. At the most fundamental cellular level, this impairment of antigen processing has implications for the regulation of protein degradation in all cells, which is critical to many aspects of immune function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary E Truckenmiller
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Milton S. Hershey Medical Center, Hershey, PA 17033, USA.
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30
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Engelhardt KR, Richter K, Baur K, Staeheli P, Hausmann J. The functional avidity of virus-specific CD8+ T?cells is down-modulated in Borna disease virus-induced immunopathology of the central nervous system. Eur J Immunol 2005; 35:487-97. [PMID: 15627979 DOI: 10.1002/eji.200425232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Borna disease virus (BDV) infection of the central nervous system (CNS) leads to severe neurological symptoms in susceptible MRL mice. The disease is mainly mediated by CD8+ T cells specific for the immunodominant epitope TELEISSI in the BDV nucleoprotein. In this study, TELEISSI/MHC class I tetramers were used to directly visualize antigen-specific CD8+ T cells. We found that on average approximately 30% of the ex vivo analyzed CD8+ T cells in the CNS of diseased mice were specific for TELEISSI. Unexpectedly, the frequency of tetramer-reactive brain-derived CD8+ T cells doubled following overnight culture in the absence of antigen. The majority of CD8+ T cells showed enhanced tetramer binding without up-regulation of T cell receptor surface expression. The frequency of IFN-gamma-secreting CD8+ T cells after antigen-specific stimulation was higher in overnight cultures than in freshly isolated BDV-specific brain lymphocytes, and enhanced tetramer binding correlated with elevated sensitivity to lower levels of peptide antigen in cytotoxicity assays. These results indicate that the functional avidity of virus-specific CD8+ T cells was down-modulated in vivo. Thus, quantification of tissue-infiltrating CD8+ T cells by the tetramer technique must be interpreted with caution as it may underestimate the real frequency of antigen-specific CD8+ T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin R Engelhardt
- Department of Virology, Institute of Medical Microbiology and Hygiene, University of Freiburg, Freiburg, Germany
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31
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Stuge TB, Holmes SP, Saharan S, Tuettenberg A, Roederer M, Weber JS, Lee PP. Diversity and recognition efficiency of T cell responses to cancer. PLoS Med 2004; 1:e28. [PMID: 15578105 PMCID: PMC529423 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.0010028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2004] [Accepted: 08/24/2004] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Melanoma patients vaccinated with tumor-associated antigens frequently develop measurable peptide-specific CD8+ T cell responses; however, such responses often do not confer clinical benefit. Understanding why vaccine-elicited responses are beneficial in some patients but not in others will be important to improve targeted cancer immunotherapies. METHODS AND FINDINGS We analyzed peptide-specific CD8+ T cell responses in detail, by generating and characterizing over 200 cytotoxic T lymphocyte clones derived from T cell responses to heteroclitic peptide vaccination, and compared these responses to endogenous anti-tumor T cell responses elicited naturally (a heteroclitic peptide is a modification of a native peptide sequence involving substitution of an amino acid at an anchor residue to enhance the immunogenicity of the peptide). We found that vaccine-elicited T cells are diverse in T cell receptor variable chain beta expression and exhibit a different recognition profile for heteroclitic versus native peptide. In particular, vaccine-elicited T cells respond to native peptide with predominantly low recognition efficiency--a measure of the sensitivity of a T cell to different cognate peptide concentrations for stimulation--and, as a result, are inefficient in tumor lysis. In contrast, endogenous tumor-associated-antigen-specific T cells show a predominantly high recognition efficiency for native peptide and efficiently lyse tumor targets. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that factors that shape the peptide-specific T cell repertoire after vaccination may be different from those that affect the endogenous response. Furthermore, our findings suggest that current heteroclitic peptide vaccination protocols drive expansion of peptide-specific T cells with a diverse range of recognition efficiencies, a significant proportion of which are unable to respond to melanoma cells. Therefore, it is critical that the recognition efficiency of vaccine-elicited T cells be measured, with the goal of advancing those modalities that elicit T cells with the greatest potential of tumor reactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tor B Stuge
- 1Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology, Stanford UniversityStanford, CaliforniaUnited States of America
| | - Susan P Holmes
- 2Department of Statistics, Stanford UniversityStanford, CaliforniaUnited States of America
| | - Sahdev Saharan
- 1Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology, Stanford UniversityStanford, CaliforniaUnited States of America
| | | | - Mario Roederer
- 4ImmunoTechnology Section, Vaccine Research Center, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of HealthBethesda, MarylandUnited States of America
| | - Jeffrey S Weber
- 5Norris Cancer Center, University of Southern CaliforniaLos Angeles, CaliforniaUnited States of America
| | - Peter P Lee
- 1Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology, Stanford UniversityStanford, CaliforniaUnited States of America
- *To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
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32
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Oh S, Perera LP, Burke DS, Waldmann TA, Berzofsky JA. IL-15/IL-15Ralpha-mediated avidity maturation of memory CD8+ T cells. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2004; 101:15154-9. [PMID: 15477598 PMCID: PMC524066 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0406649101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
T cell avidity is critical to viral clearance, but mechanisms of CD8(+) T cell avidity maturation are poorly understood. Here, we find that IL-15 mediates two mechanisms of avidity maturation. (i) By selection at the population level, IL-15 promotes greater survival of high- compared with low-avidity cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs). High-avidity CTLs express higher levels of IL-15Ralpha and persist longer by homeostatic proliferation. (ii) At the individual cell level, IL-15 induces higher levels of surface coreceptor CD8alphabeta, increasing functional avidity. IL-15 during priming selects or induces higher-avidity CTLs. Conversely, high-avidity CTLs are diminished in IL-15Ralpha knockout mice. These results provide an explanation of CD8+ T cell avidity maturation and may contribute to the design of novel vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- SangKon Oh
- Vaccine Branch and Metabolism Branch, Center for Cancer Research, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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33
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Maus MV, Kovacs B, Kwok WW, Nepom GT, Schlienger K, Riley JL, Allman D, Finkel TH, June CH. Extensive replicative capacity of human central memory T cells. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2004; 172:6675-83. [PMID: 15153483 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.172.11.6675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
To characterize the replicative capacity of human central memory (T(CM)) CD4 T cells, we have developed a defined culture system optimized for the ex vivo expansion of Ag-specific CD4(+) T cells. Artificial APCs (aAPCs) consisting of magnetic beads coated with Abs to HLA class II and a costimulatory Ab to CD28 were prepared; peptide-charged HLA class II tetramers were then loaded on the beads to provide Ag specificity. Influenza-specific DR*0401 CD4 T(CM) were isolated from the peripheral blood of normal donors by flow cytometry. Peptide-loaded aAPC were not sufficient to induce resting CD4 T(CM) to proliferate. In contrast, we found that the beads efficiently promoted the growth of previously activated CD4 T(CM) cells, yielding cultures with >80% Ag-specific CD4 cells after two stimulations. Further stimulation with peptide-loaded aAPC increased purity to >99% Ag-specific T cells. After in vitro culture for 3-12 wk, the flu-specific CD4 T(CM) had surface markers that were generally consistent with an effector phenotype described for CD8 T cells, except for the maintenance of CD28 expression. The T(CM) were capable of 20-40 mean population doublings in vitro, and the expanded cells produced IFN-gamma, IL-2, and TNF-alpha in response to Ag, and a subset of cells also secreted IL-4 with PMA/ionomycin treatment. In conclusion, aAPCs expand T(CM) that have extensive replicative capacity, and have potential applications in adoptive immunotherapy as well as for studying the biology of human MHC class II-restricted T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcela V Maus
- Abramson Family Cancer Research Institute, University of Pennsylvania Cancer Center,University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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34
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Lee PP. T-cell responses to cancer. Methods Cell Biol 2004; 75:513-32. [PMID: 15603440 DOI: 10.1016/s0091-679x(04)75021-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Peter P Lee
- Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305, USA
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35
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Choi EML, Chen JL, Wooldridge L, Salio M, Lissina A, Lissin N, Hermans IF, Silk JD, Mirza F, Palmowski MJ, Dunbar PR, Jakobsen BK, Sewell AK, Cerundolo V. High Avidity Antigen-Specific CTL Identified by CD8-Independent Tetramer Staining. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2003; 171:5116-23. [PMID: 14607910 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.171.10.5116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Tetrameric MHC/peptide complexes are important tools for enumerating, phenotyping, and rapidly cloning Ag-specific T cells. It remains however unclear whether they can reliably distinguish between high and low avidity T cell clones. In this report, tetramers with mutated CD8 binding site selectively stain higher avidity human and murine CTL capable of recognizing physiological levels of Ag. Furthermore, we demonstrate that CD8 binding significantly enhances the avidity as well as the stability of interactions between CTL and cognate tetramers. The use of CD8-null tetramers to identify high avidity CTL provides a tool to compare vaccination strategies for their ability to enhance the frequency of high avidity CTL. Using this technique, we show that DNA priming and vaccinia boosting of HHD A2 transgenic mice fail to selectively expand large numbers of high avidity NY-ESO-1(157-165)-specific CTL, possibly due to the large amounts of antigenic peptide delivered by the vaccinia virus. Furthermore, development of a protocol for rapid identification of high avidity human and murine T cells using tetramers with impaired CD8 binding provides an opportunity not only to monitor expansion of high avidity T cell responses ex vivo, but also to sort high avidity CTL clones for adoptive T cell transfer therapy.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antigens, Neoplasm/analysis
- Antigens, Neoplasm/metabolism
- Binding Sites/genetics
- Binding Sites/immunology
- CD8 Antigens/analysis
- CD8 Antigens/genetics
- CD8 Antigens/metabolism
- Cell Line
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Clone Cells
- Cytotoxicity, Immunologic/genetics
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/analysis
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/genetics
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/metabolism
- H-2 Antigens/genetics
- H-2 Antigens/metabolism
- HLA-A2 Antigen/genetics
- HLA-A2 Antigen/metabolism
- Humans
- Immunization, Secondary
- Jurkat Cells
- Lymphocyte Activation/genetics
- Membrane Proteins
- Mice
- Mice, Transgenic
- Plasmids/administration & dosage
- Proteins/analysis
- Proteins/genetics
- Proteins/metabolism
- Staining and Labeling
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/chemistry
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/metabolism
- Vaccinia/genetics
- Vaccinia/immunology
- beta 2-Microglobulin/analysis
- beta 2-Microglobulin/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Ed Man-Lik Choi
- Tumour Immunology Unit, Nuffield Department of Medicine, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, United Kingdom
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36
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Rubio V, Stuge TB, Singh N, Betts MR, Weber JS, Roederer M, Lee PP. Ex vivo identification, isolation and analysis of tumor-cytolytic T cells. Nat Med 2003; 9:1377-82. [PMID: 14528297 DOI: 10.1038/nm942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 328] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2003] [Accepted: 09/03/2003] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
We isolated pure, viable populations of tumor-cytolytic T cells directly from patient blood samples using flow cytometric quantification of the surface mobilization of CD107a-an integral membrane protein in cytolytic granules-as a marker for degranulation after tumor stimulation. We show that tumor-cytolytic T cells are indeed elicited in patients after cancer vaccination, and that tumor reactivity is strongly correlated with efficient T-cell recognition of peptide-bearing targets. We combined CD107a mobilization with peptide-major histocompatibility complex (P-MHC) tetramer staining to directly correlate antigen specificity and cytolytic ability on a single-cell level. This showed that tumor-cytolytic T cells with high recognition efficiency represent only a minority of peptide-specific T cells elicited in patients after heteroclitic peptide vaccination. We were also able to expand these cells to high numbers ex vivo while maintaining their cytolytic potential. These techniques will be useful not only for immune monitoring of cancer vaccine trials, but also for adoptive cellular immunotherapy after ex vivo expansion. The ability to rapidly identify and isolate tumor-cytolytic T cells would be very useful in cancer immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valerie Rubio
- Department of Medicine, Stanford University, 269 Campus Drive, Stanford, California 94305, USA
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37
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Cheng WF, Hung CF, Lin KY, Ling M, Juang J, He L, Lin CT, Wu TC. CD8+ T cells, NK cells and IFN-gamma are important for control of tumor with downregulated MHC class I expression by DNA vaccination. Gene Ther 2003; 10:1311-20. [PMID: 12883527 DOI: 10.1038/sj.gt.3301982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
One of the major hurdles facing cancer immunotherapy is that cancers may downregulate expression of MHC class I molecules. The development of a suitable tumor model with downregulated MHC class I expression is critical for designing vaccines and immunotherapeutic strategies to control such tumors. We developed an E7-expressing murine tumor model with downregulated MHC class I expression, TC-1 P3 (A15). Using this model, we tested DNA and vaccinia vaccines for their ability to control tumors with downregulated MHC class I expression. We found that vaccination with DNA encoding E7 linked to Mycobacterial heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) generated a significant antitumor effect against TC-1 P3 (A15), while vaccination with E7/HSP70 vaccinia did not generate an appreciable antitumor effect. Lymphocyte depletion experiments revealed that both CD8+ T cells and NK cells were essential for the antitumor effect generated by E7/HSP70 DNA against TC-1 P3 (A15). Furthermore, tumor protection experiments using IFN-gamma knockout mice revealed that IFN-gamma was essential for the antitumor effect generated by E7/HSP70 DNA against TC-1 P3 (A15). Our results demonstrate that vaccination with E7/HSP70 DNA results in a significant antitumor effect against a neoplasm with downregulated MHC class I expression and the importance of CD8+ T cells, NK cells, and IFN-gamma in generating this antitumor effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- W F Cheng
- Department of Pathology, Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, Baltimore, MD, USA
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38
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Oh S, Hodge JW, Ahlers JD, Burke DS, Schlom J, Berzofsky JA. Selective induction of high avidity CTL by altering the balance of signals from APC. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2003; 170:2523-30. [PMID: 12594278 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.170.5.2523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 103] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
High avidity CTL are most effective at clearing viruses and cancer cells. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms involved in induction of high avidity CTL is critical for effective vaccines. However, no vaccine approach to selectively induce high avidity CTL in vivo has been discovered. In a new approach, signals from MHC class I (signal 1) and costimulatory molecules (signal 2) were adjusted by varying Ag dose and by use of recombinant poxvirus expressing a triad of costimulatory molecules (B7-1, ICAM-1, and LFA-3), respectively. Independent of CTL avidity, a strong signal 1 resulted in an increased frequency of CD8(+) CTL. However, a strong signal 2 was necessary for the induction of high avidity CD8(+) CTL that killed target cells more efficiently, and signal 2 played a more crucial role in the absence of a strong signal 1. Only CTL induced with strong signal 2 killed tumor cells endogenously expressing low levels of Ag. Signal 2 contributed to the induction of high avidity CD8(+) CTL in both primary and secondary responses. Thus, although signal 2 has been known to increase the quantity of CTL response, in this study we show that it also improves the quality of CTL response. Our data also suggested that dendritic cells play an important role in induction of high avidity CD8(+) CTL in vivo. This strategy to selectively induce higher avidity CTL may lead to more effective vaccines for viruses and cancer.
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MESH Headings
- 3T3 Cells
- Animals
- Antigen Presentation/genetics
- B7-1 Antigen/genetics
- B7-1 Antigen/physiology
- CD58 Antigens/genetics
- CD58 Antigens/physiology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/cytology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/immunology
- CD8-Positive T-Lymphocytes/metabolism
- Cancer Vaccines
- Cell Division/genetics
- Cell Division/immunology
- Cytotoxicity Tests, Immunologic/methods
- Cytotoxicity, Immunologic/genetics
- Dendritic Cells/immunology
- Dendritic Cells/metabolism
- Dendritic Cells/transplantation
- Dendritic Cells/virology
- Dose-Response Relationship, Immunologic
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/analysis
- Female
- Humans
- Immunization, Secondary
- Intercellular Adhesion Molecule-1/genetics
- Intercellular Adhesion Molecule-1/physiology
- Interferon-gamma/biosynthesis
- Lymphocyte Activation/genetics
- Lymphocyte Count
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mice, Inbred C57BL
- Peptides/immunology
- Peptides/metabolism
- Poxviridae/genetics
- Poxviridae/immunology
- Signal Transduction/genetics
- Signal Transduction/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/cytology
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/metabolism
- Tumor Cells, Cultured
- Vaccines, Synthetic/genetics
- Vaccines, Synthetic/pharmacology
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Affiliation(s)
- SangKon Oh
- Molecular Immunogenetics and Vaccine Research Section, Metabolism Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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39
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Oxenius A, Sewell AK, Dawson SJ, Günthard HF, Fischer M, Gillespie GM, Rowland-Jones SL, Fagard C, Hirschel B, Phillips RE, Price DA. Functional discrepancies in HIV-specific CD8+ T-lymphocyte populations are related to plasma virus load. J Clin Immunol 2002; 22:363-74. [PMID: 12462336 DOI: 10.1023/a:1020656300027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The potent ability of current antiretroviral drug regimens to control human immunodeficiency Virus-1 (HIV-1) replication, in conjunction with the clinical practice of structured therapeutic interruptions, provides a system in which virus levels are manipulated during a persistent infection in humans. Here, we exploit this system to examine the impact of variable plasma virus load (pVL) on the functionality of HIV-specific CD8+ T-lymphocyte populations. Using both ELISpot methodology and intracellular cytokine staining for interferon (IFN)-gamma to assess functional status, together with fluorochrome-labeled peptide-major histocompatibility complex (pMHC) class I tetramer analysis to detect the physical presence of CD8+ T lymphocytes expressing cognate T-cell receptors (TCRs), we observed that the proportion of HIV-specific CD8+ T lymphocytes capable of mounting an effector response to antigen challenge directly ex vivo is related to the kinetics of virus exposure. Specifically, (a) after prolonged suppression of pVL with antiretroviral therapy (ART), physical and functional measures of HIV-specific CD8+ T-lymphocyte frequencies approximated; and (b) the percentage of functionally responsive cells in the HIV-specific CD8+ T lymphocyte populations declined substantially when therapy was discontinued and pVL recrudesced in the same patients. These results corroborate and extend observations in animal models that describe nonresponsive CD8+ T lymphocytes in the presence of high levels of antigen load and have implications for the interpretation of quantitative data generated by methods that rely on functional readouts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annetie Oxenius
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, England.
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40
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Al-Harthi L, Landay A. Immune recovery in HIV disease: role of the thymus and T cell expansion in immune reconstitution strategies. JOURNAL OF HEMATOTHERAPY & STEM CELL RESEARCH 2002; 11:777-86. [PMID: 12427284 DOI: 10.1089/152581602760404586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
While the progressive depletion of CD4(+) T cells is the hallmark of the impact of HIV on the immune system, considerable data also point to the loss of T cell function. The question is: Can the immune system recover from this insult and what are the therapeutic strategies available to us to mediate this immune recovery? This review will focus on our current knowledge of immune recovery following treatment with highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART). Enhancement of thymic function in generating de novo T cell synthesis post-HAART has also emerged as a viable immune recovery strategy. Advances in molecular (T cell receptor excision circle assay) and conventional (computed tomography scans of the thymus) approaches to evaluate the role of the thymus in immune recovery as well as potential agents that might enhance thymic output (interleukin-7, IL-7) will contribute greatly to the assessment of the success of these approaches as immune recovery strategies. In this review, we will integrate this new information in the context of the current strategies for HIV therapy leading to long-term immune reconstitution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lena Al-Harthi
- Department of Immunology/Microbiology, Rush University, Rush-Presbyterian-St. Luke's Medical Center, Chicago, IL 60612, USA.
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41
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Palermo B, Campanelli R, Garbelli S, Mantovani S, Robustelli Della Cuna G, Necker A, Manganoni AM, Carella G, Rivoltini L, Lantelme E, Giachino C. Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte responses in melanoma through in vitro stimulation with the Melan-A peptide analogue A27L: a qualitative analysis. Melanoma Res 2002; 12:491-8. [PMID: 12394191 DOI: 10.1097/00008390-200209000-00011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Modifications in tumour antigen-derived epitopes that stabilize the major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-peptide complex result in enhanced stimulatory capacity and improved immunogenicity of the altered peptide. These epitope analogues are attractive candidates for the development of peptide-based vaccine trials. Any modification, however, in tumour antigens may induce T-cell responses that could either fail to react against the naturally occurring peptides or represent only a subset of the total antigen-specific repertoire. In the present study, we performed a critical analysis of the ability of cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) clones, derived from two melanoma patients through stimulation with the A27L peptide analogue, to cross-react with the naturally processed Melan-A/MART-1 (Melan-A) peptides in terms of T-cell receptor (TCR) affinity, functional avidity and fine antigen specificity. We found that all the A27L-specific clones analysed possessed a very low avidity for the natural Melan-A peptides, and that their binding affinity for human leukocyte antigen (HLA) tetramers complexed with both the modified and the natural Melan-A peptides did not strictly correlate with their functional avidity. We also observed that these clones were able to cross-recognize both natural Melan-A peptides in one patient, but only one peptide in the second patient. We discuss the capability of the A27L peptide analogue to stimulate all the available Melan-A-specific repertoire.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Palermo
- Experimental Immunology, IRCCS Maugeri Foundation, Pavia, Italy
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42
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O'Connor DH, Allen TM, Watkins DI. Cytotoxic T-lymphocyte escape monitoring in simian immunodeficiency virus vaccine challenge studies. DNA Cell Biol 2002; 21:659-64. [PMID: 12396608 DOI: 10.1089/104454902760330192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Several vaccine studies have ameliorated disease progression in simian-human immunodeficiency virus (SHIV) infections. The successes of these vaccines have been largely attributed to protective effects of cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) responses, although the precise correlates of immune protection remain poorly defined. It is now well established that vigorous CTL and antibody responses can rapidly select for viral escape variants after HIV and SIV infection. Here we suggest that viral variation analyses should be performed on viruses derived from vaccinated, SIV-, or SHIV-challenged animals as a routine component of vaccine evaluation to determine the contribution of immune responses to the success (or failure) of the vaccine regimen. To illustrate the importance of escape analysis, we show that rapid emergence of escape variants postchallenge contributed to the failure of a DNA prime/MVA boost vaccine regimen encoding SIV Tat.
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Affiliation(s)
- David H O'Connor
- University of Wisconsin at Madison, Department of Pathology, Madison, Wisconsin 53709, USA.
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43
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Cheng WF, Hung CF, Pai SI, Hsu KF, He L, Ling M, Wu TC. Repeated DNA vaccinations elicited qualitatively different cytotoxic T lymphocytes and improved protective antitumor effects. J Biomed Sci 2002. [DOI: 10.1007/bf02254996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
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44
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Yang S, Linette GP, Longerich S, Haluska FG. Antimelanoma activity of CTL generated from peripheral blood mononuclear cells after stimulation with autologous dendritic cells pulsed with melanoma gp100 peptide G209-2M is correlated to TCR avidity. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2002; 169:531-9. [PMID: 12077285 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.169.1.531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
Anchor residue-modified peptides derived from tumor-associated Ag have demonstrated success in engendering immune responses in clinical studies. However, tumor regression does not always correlate with immune responses. One hypothesis to explain this is that CTL resulting from such immunization approaches are variable in antitumor potency. In the present study, we evaluated this hypothesis by characterizing the activity of tumor-associated Ag-specific CTL. We chose an anchor residue-modified peptide from gp100, G209-2M, and used peptide-pulsed dendritic cells to generate CTL from PBMC of HLA-A2(+) normal donors. The specificities and avidities of the resulting CTL were evaluated. The results demonstrate that CTL generated by G209-2M can be classified into three categories: G209-2M-specific CTL which are cytotoxic only to G209-2M-pulsed targets; peptide-specific CTL which recognize both G209 and G209-2M peptides but not melanomas; and melanoma-reactive CTL which recognize peptide-pulsed targets as well as HLA-A2(+)gp100(+) melanomas. CTL that kill only peptide-pulsed targets require a higher peptide concentration to mediate target lysis, whereas CTL that lyse melanomas need a lower peptide concentration. Increasing peptide density on melanomas by loading exogenous G209 peptide enhances their sensitivity to peptide-specific CTL. High avidity CTL clones also demonstrate potent antimelanoma activity in melanoma model in nude mice. Injection of G209 peptide around transplanted tumors significantly enhances the antitumor activity of low avidity CTL. These results suggest that peptide stimulation causes expansion of T cell populations with a range of avidities. Successful immunotherapy may require selective expansion of the higher-avidity CTL and intratumor injection of the peptide may enhance the effect of peptide vaccines.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Cancer Vaccines
- Cytotoxicity Tests, Immunologic/methods
- Dendritic Cells/immunology
- Dendritic Cells/metabolism
- Dose-Response Relationship, Immunologic
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/immunology
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/pharmacology
- HLA-A2 Antigen/immunology
- Humans
- Immunotherapy, Adoptive
- Injections, Subcutaneous
- Leukocytes, Mononuclear/immunology
- Leukocytes, Mononuclear/metabolism
- Lymphocyte Activation
- Melanoma/immunology
- Melanoma/metabolism
- Melanoma/therapy
- Membrane Glycoproteins/administration & dosage
- Membrane Glycoproteins/pharmacology
- Mice
- Mice, Inbred BALB C
- Mice, Nude
- Neoplasm Proteins/administration & dosage
- Neoplasm Proteins/pharmacology
- Neoplasm Transplantation
- Peptide Fragments/administration & dosage
- Peptide Fragments/pharmacology
- Peptides
- Protein Binding/immunology
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/metabolism
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/metabolism
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/transplantation
- Tumor Cells, Cultured/transplantation
- gp100 Melanoma Antigen
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Affiliation(s)
- Sixun Yang
- Division of Hematology-Oncology, Massachusetts General Hospital, and Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
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45
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Reignat S, Webster GJM, Brown D, Ogg GS, King A, Seneviratne SL, Dusheiko G, Williams R, Maini MK, Bertoletti A. Escaping high viral load exhaustion: CD8 cells with altered tetramer binding in chronic hepatitis B virus infection. THE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE 2002. [PMID: 11994415 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20011723].] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Deletion, anergy, and a spectrum of functional impairments can affect virus-specific CD8 cells in chronic viral infections. Here we characterize a low frequency population of CD8 cells present in chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection which survive in the face of a high quantity of viral antigen. Although they do not appear to exert immunological pressure in vivo, these CD8 cells are not classically "tolerant" since they proliferate, lyse, and produce antiviral cytokines in vitro. They are characterized by altered HLA/peptide tetramer reactivity, which is not explained by TCR down-regulation or reduced functional avidity and which can be reversed with repetitive stimulation. CD8 cells with altered tetramer binding appear to have a specificity restricted to envelope antigen and not to other HBV antigens, suggesting that mechanisms of CD8 cell dysfunction are differentially regulated according to the antigenic form and presentation of individual viral antigens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Reignat
- Institute of Hepatology, University College London, London WC1 E6HX, United Kingdom
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Reignat S, Webster GJM, Brown D, Ogg GS, King A, Seneviratne SL, Dusheiko G, Williams R, Maini MK, Bertoletti A. Escaping high viral load exhaustion: CD8 cells with altered tetramer binding in chronic hepatitis B virus infection. J Exp Med 2002; 195:1089-101. [PMID: 11994415 PMCID: PMC2193712 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20011723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 189] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Deletion, anergy, and a spectrum of functional impairments can affect virus-specific CD8 cells in chronic viral infections. Here we characterize a low frequency population of CD8 cells present in chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection which survive in the face of a high quantity of viral antigen. Although they do not appear to exert immunological pressure in vivo, these CD8 cells are not classically "tolerant" since they proliferate, lyse, and produce antiviral cytokines in vitro. They are characterized by altered HLA/peptide tetramer reactivity, which is not explained by TCR down-regulation or reduced functional avidity and which can be reversed with repetitive stimulation. CD8 cells with altered tetramer binding appear to have a specificity restricted to envelope antigen and not to other HBV antigens, suggesting that mechanisms of CD8 cell dysfunction are differentially regulated according to the antigenic form and presentation of individual viral antigens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Reignat
- Institute of Hepatology, University College London, London WC1 E6HX, United Kingdom
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47
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Reignat S, Webster GJM, Brown D, Ogg GS, King A, Seneviratne SL, Dusheiko G, Williams R, Maini MK, Bertoletti A. Escaping high viral load exhaustion: CD8 cells with altered tetramer binding in chronic hepatitis B virus infection. THE JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE 2002. [PMID: 11994415 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20011723]] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Deletion, anergy, and a spectrum of functional impairments can affect virus-specific CD8 cells in chronic viral infections. Here we characterize a low frequency population of CD8 cells present in chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection which survive in the face of a high quantity of viral antigen. Although they do not appear to exert immunological pressure in vivo, these CD8 cells are not classically "tolerant" since they proliferate, lyse, and produce antiviral cytokines in vitro. They are characterized by altered HLA/peptide tetramer reactivity, which is not explained by TCR down-regulation or reduced functional avidity and which can be reversed with repetitive stimulation. CD8 cells with altered tetramer binding appear to have a specificity restricted to envelope antigen and not to other HBV antigens, suggesting that mechanisms of CD8 cell dysfunction are differentially regulated according to the antigenic form and presentation of individual viral antigens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Reignat
- Institute of Hepatology, University College London, London WC1 E6HX, United Kingdom
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48
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Dutoit V, Rubio-Godoy V, Doucey MA, Batard P, Liénard D, Rimoldi D, Speiser D, Guillaume P, Cerottini JC, Romero P, Valmori D. Functional avidity of tumor antigen-specific CTL recognition directly correlates with the stability of MHC/peptide multimer binding to TCR. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2002; 168:1167-71. [PMID: 11801651 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.168.3.1167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Avidity of Ag recognition by tumor-specific T cells is one of the main parameters that determines the potency of a tumor rejection Ag. In this study we show that the relative efficiency of staining of tumor Ag-specific T lymphocytes with the corresponding fluorescent MHC class I/peptide multimeric complexes can considerably vary with staining conditions and does not necessarily correlate with avidity of Ag recognition. Instead, we found a clear correlation between avidity of Ag recognition and the stability of MHC class I/peptide multimeric complexes interaction with TCR as measured in dissociation kinetic experiments. These findings are relevant for both identification and isolation of tumor-reactive CTL.
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MESH Headings
- Antigens, Neoplasm/immunology
- Antigens, Neoplasm/metabolism
- Clone Cells
- Cytotoxicity Tests, Immunologic/methods
- Cytotoxicity, Immunologic
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/immunology
- Epitopes, T-Lymphocyte/metabolism
- Flow Cytometry/methods
- HLA-A2 Antigen/immunology
- HLA-A2 Antigen/metabolism
- Humans
- Kinetics
- Peptide Fragments/immunology
- Peptide Fragments/metabolism
- Protein Binding/immunology
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/immunology
- Receptors, Antigen, T-Cell/metabolism
- Staining and Labeling
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/immunology
- T-Lymphocytes, Cytotoxic/metabolism
- Tumor Cells, Cultured
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Affiliation(s)
- Valérie Dutoit
- Division of Clinical Onco-Immunology, Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research, Hôpital Orthopédique, Niveau 5, Avenue Pierre-Decker 4, CH 1005 Lausanne, Switzerland
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49
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Kumaraguru U, Gierynska M, Norman S, Bruce BD, Rouse BT. Immunization with chaperone-peptide complex induces low-avidity cytotoxic T lymphocytes providing transient protection against herpes simplex virus infection. J Virol 2002; 76:136-41. [PMID: 11739679 PMCID: PMC135705 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.76.1.136-141.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Heat shock proteins loaded with viral peptides were shown to induce a CD8+ T cell response and confer protective immunity against challenge with herpes simplex virus (HSV). The delivery system consisted of recombinant human hsp70 coupled to the peptide SSIEFARL, which is the immunodominant peptide epitope, recognized by HSV specific T cells in C57BL/6 mice. Immunization resulted in CD8+ T-cell responses, measured by peptide-specific tetramers and peptide-induced intracellular gamma interferon expression and cytotoxicity, similar to responses resulting from immunization with a recombinant vaccinia virus that expressed SSIEFARL as a minigene (VvgB) and UV-inactivated HSV. However, the durability of the hsp70-SSIEFARL response was less than that resulting from VvgB and HSV immunization and in addition the CD8+ T-cell responses in the memory phase were functionally less effective. Mice challenged soon after immunization showed excellent immunity, but by 90 days postimmunization this had waned to be significantly less than the level of immunity in both VvgB- and HSV-immunized mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Udayasankar Kumaraguru
- Department of Microbiology and Department of Biochemistry, Cellular and Molecular Biology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996-0845, USA
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Berzofsky JA, Ahlers JD, Belyakov IM. Strategies for designing and optimizing new generation vaccines. Nat Rev Immunol 2001; 1:209-19. [PMID: 11905830 DOI: 10.1038/35105075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 253] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Although the field of immunology developed in part from the early vaccine studies of Edward Jenner, Louis Pasteur and others, vaccine development had largely become the province of virologists and other microbiologists, because the model for classic vaccines was to isolate the pathogen and prepare a killed or attenuated pathogen vaccine. Only recently has vaccinology returned to the realm of immunology, because a new understanding of immune mechanisms has allowed translation of basic discoveries into vaccine strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- J A Berzofsky
- Molecular Immunogenetics and Vaccine Research Section, Metabolism Branch, National Cancer Institute, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland 20892-1578, USA.
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