Strategies to Enhance Drug Absorption via Nasal and Pulmonary Routes

Intranasal and inhaled delivery systems for targeting circadian dysfunction in neurodegenerative disorders, perspective and future outlook

Synchronisation of the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) driven endogenous clock, located within the central nervous system (CNS), and exogenous time cues, is essential for maintaining circadian rhythmicity, homeostasis and overall wellbeing. Disordered circadian rhythms have been associated with various conditions, inclusive of neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. Traditional pharmacological approaches to circadian dysfunction in neurodegenerative disorders have primarily focused on oral drug delivery. Oral medications often face challenges in achieving the necessary systemic circulation to effectively bypass the blood brain barrier (BBB) and reach the CNS, primarily due to low or variable bioavailability. Advancements in non-invasive delivery methods, such as orally inhaled and intranasal formulations, present promising alternatives for targeting the CNS. Orally inhaled and intranasal drug delivery allows for medications to rapidly achieve high systemic circulation through increased bioavailability and fast onset of action. Additionally, intranasal delivery allows for therapies to bypass the BBB through the olfactory or trigeminal nerve pathways to directly enter the CNS. This review assesses the potential for orally inhaled and intranasal therapies to treat circadian disorders in neurodegenerative conditions. In addition, this review will explore melatonin as an example of enhancing therapeutic outcomes by adopting inhaled or intranasal drug delivery formulations to improve drug absorption and target circadian disorder more effectively.

Stearyl amine coated liposome of rotigotine alleviates cognitive deficit in Parkinson's disease induced mice model: modulation of oxidative stress, and motor coordination

OBJECTIVE

The study was conducted to evaluate the brain targeted delivery of cationic liposomes of rotigotine via nasal route, addressing the limitations in brain penetration for Parkinson's disease intervention.

METHODS

Cationic liposomes were fabricated and optimized using a Box-Behnken design to improve the excipient composition for effective intranasal delivery. The optimized liposome, LR12, was surface modified with stearylamine at three concentrations to confer a cationic charge. The final formulation, RTG-LP3, was evaluated for physicochemical parameters, including size, entrapment efficiency, and zeta potential. A morphological study was performed within the 100-200 nm size range. The cytotoxicity of RTG-LP3 was determined in SH-SY5Y cell lines, whereas pharmacodynamic studies were evaluated in C57BL/6 mice following nasal administration.

RESULTS

The formulation RTG-LP3 exhibited a minimal vesicle size of 162 ± 2.94 nm, a high entrapment efficiency of 86.53 ± 0.33%, and a positive zeta potential of +19.8 ± 2.45 mV. Morphological investigation indicated spherical shape of liposomes in the size range of 100-200 nm. Cytotoxicity study showed fivefold safety margin for RTG-LP3 when compared with rotigotine. Pharmacodynamic assessments in PD-induced C57BL6 mice showed increased motor coordination and antioxidant benefits following nasal treatment. Histological study of brain regions treated with RTG-LP3 demonstrated improved neuronal architecture, indicating reduced neurodegeneration and improved disease condition.

CONCLUSION

The cationic liposome RTG-LP3 demonstrated effective delivery of liposomes with superior therapeutic effects in treating PD via nasal route. These findings highlight the potential of cationic liposomes as a viable method for improving brain penetration and neuroprotection in PD therapy.

Bioengineered metastatic cancer nanovaccine with a TLR7/8 agonist for needle-free intranasal immunization

Recent outbreaks and the global spread of infectious diseases increased the need for the development of mucosal vaccines because of their ability to induce both an antigen-specific humoral and cellular immune response. Vaccines are commonly administered via a systemic route which is ineffective at inducing mucosal immunity. Therefore, developing mucosal vaccines is necessary to prevent and treat diseases that could not only elicit mucosal immune responses but also facilitate mass vaccination via a needle-free approach. Despite the benefits of mucosal vaccines, inducing mucosal immunity remains difficult due to the low antigen stability at mucosal sites. Herein, we developed a co-delivery platform using a polymeric nanoparticle carrier to upregulate the immune responses by improving the antigen's stability. Through hydrophobic and ionic interactions, the cationic polymeric nanoparticle composed of secondary bile acid conjugated polyethyleneimine (DA3) can load both TLR7/8 agonist resiquimod (R848) and anionic ovalbumin (OVA) antigen. The DA3/R848/OVA nanovaccine based co-delivery system can boost immune responses through binding affinity with dendritic cells (DCs). The results showed that DA3/R848/OVA could activate DCs better than OVA or OVA + R848. Furthermore, the nanovaccine demonstrated a strong therapeutic effect by significantly suppressing tumor growth in a B16-OVA melanoma model. Additionally, prophylactic immunization with the nanovaccine effectively induced immunological memory, leading to sustained tumor suppression upon challenge. Intranasal delivery of DA3/R848/OVA upregulates the antitumor effect in the metastatic lung tumor foci and the survival rates. These results suggest that intranasal immunization using the DA3/R848/OVA nanovaccine can promote needle-free vaccination.

Olfaction and drug delivery to the human olfactory airspace: current challenges and recent advances

INTRODUCTION

Olfactory function, despite its critical role in human survival and quality of life, is often underappreciated. This could be associated with the fact that symptoms of olfactory dysfunction rarely occur in isolation as they are frequently concomitant with comorbidities. Furthermore, effective treatments for olfactory dysfunction largely remain elusive, and no standardized clinical practice for treating this dysfunction currently exist, thus complicating the initiation of appropriate therapeutic modalities. Intranasal administration of topical medication targeting the olfactory cleft represents a safe, noninvasive and potentially efficacious approach, but several challenges impede effective drug delivery.

AREAS COVERED

This review highlights the importance of human olfaction, assessment of olfactory function, underlying sources of olfactory dysfunction, and challenges involved in developing long-term and effective treatment modalities, particularly in the administration of topical medication to the olfactory cleft intranasally. Advancements in both device-related and administration-related modalities designed to enhance intranasal drug delivery are discussed.

EXPERT OPINION

Clinical management typically prioritizes comorbid conditions, relegating symptoms pertaining olfactory dysfunction to ancillary concerns. Device manufacturers for intranasal administration likewise underestimate the complexity and variabilities of the nasal cavity, and how these impact drug transport. Synergistic implementation of device and formulation strategies can potentially yield enhanced olfactory cleft drug delivery.

Elucidating structure of endogenous phospholipids on in vivo absorption of octreotide following lung administration

Phospholipids as endogenous pulmonary components have received extensive attention on promoting the transmembrane absorption of peptides and proteins. However, considering their diversified structure, influence of phospholipid structural characteristics on drug absorption across lung epithelial cells, together with the underlying absorption-promoting mechanisms, remain unclear. Therefore, in this study, taking octreotide as a model drug, phospholipids with different "tail" and "head" structures were adopted in the form of blank liposomes to investigate their structural characteristics on drug absorption utilizing both 3D Transwell cell models and Sprague Dawley rats. It was demonstrated that indeed the absorption-enhancing capacity of phospholipids was their structure-dependent. Among the tail (non-polar) structures, a moderately increased alkyl chain length could facilitate drug absorption across the pulmonary epithelium, with the highest enhancement ratio observed for Dipalmitoyl Phosphatidylcholine (DPPC) containing a palmitoyl group of 16 carbons, and its apparent permeability coefficient (Papp) increased 2.4 times compared to octreotide solution. Among the head (polar) structures, charged functional groups could contribute to better drug permeation, and Dipalmitoyl Phosphatidylserine (DPPS) containing a protonated amino (NH3+) and a deprotonated carboxyl (COO-) exhibited a 4.6-fold increase in Papp compared to octreotide solution. Mechanism studies disclosed a paracellular pathway-mediated drug transport across lung epithelial cells. In summary, phospholipids can serve as biosafe absorption enhancers for pulmonary drug delivery, with the extent depending on their structure, which could provide a theoretical basis for pulmonary delivery of macromolecules for systemic absorption.

Advances of dual-organ and multi-organ systems for gut, lung, skin and liver models in absorption and metabolism studies

Drug development is a costly and timely process with high risks of failure during clinical trials. Although in vitro tissue models have significantly advanced over the years, thus fostering a transition from animal-derived models towards human-derived models, failure rates still remain high. Current cell-based assays are still not able to provide an accurate prediction of the clinical success or failure of a drug candidate. To overcome the limitations of current methods, a variety of microfluidic systems have been developed as powerful tools that are capable of mimicking (micro)physiological conditions more closely by integrating physiological fluid flow conditions, mechanobiological cues and concentration gradients, to name only a few. One major advantage of these biochip-based tissue cultures, however, is their ability to seamlessly connect different organ models, thereby allowing the study of organ-crosstalk and metabolic byproduct effects. This is especially important when assessing absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME) processes of drug candidates, where an interplay between various organs is a prerequisite. In the current review, a number of in vitro models as well as microfluidic dual- and multi-organ systems are summarized with a focus on absorption (skin, lung, gut) and metabolism (liver). Additionally, the advantage of multi-organ chips in identifying a drug's on and off-target toxicity is discussed. Finally, the potential high-throughput implementation and modular chip design of multi-organ-on-a-chip systems within the pharmaceutical industry is highlighted, outlining the necessity of reducing handling complexity.

Enhancing non-viral DNA delivery systems: Recent advances in improving efficiency and target specificity

DNA-based therapies are often limited by challenges such as stability, long-term integration, low transfection efficiency, and insufficient targeted DNA delivery. This review focuses on recent progress in the design of non-viral delivery systems for enhancing targeted DNA delivery and modulation of therapeutic efficiency. Cellular uptake and intracellular trafficking mechanisms play a crucial role in optimizing gene delivery efficiency. There are two main strategies employed to improve the efficiency of gene delivery vectors: (i) explore different administration routes (e.g., mucosal, intravenous, intramuscular, subcutaneous, intradermal, intratumoural, and intraocular) that best facilitates optimal uptake into the targeted cells and organs and (ii) modify the delivery vectors with cell-specific ligands (e.g., natural ligands, antibodies, peptides, carbohydrates, or aptamers) that enable targeted uptake to specific cells with higher specificity and improved biodistribution. We describe how recent progress in employing these DNA delivery strategies is advancing the field and increasing the clinical translation and ultimate clinical application of DNA therapies.

Nanosystems at Nexus: Navigating Nose-to-Brain Delivery for Glioblastoma Treatment

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is considered to be one of the most devastating brain tumors with a shorter life expectancy. Several factors contribute to the dismal prognosis of GBM patients including the complicated nature of GBM, the ability of tumor cells to resist treatment, and the difficulty of delivering drugs to the brain because of barriers like the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and blood-tumor barrier (BTB). The unique challenges posed by the BBB in delivering therapeutic agents to the brain have led to the development of innovative nanotechnology-based approaches. By exploiting the olfactory/trigeminal pathway, nanosystems offer a promising strategy for targeted drug delivery to the brain, glioblastoma tumors in particular. This review contemplates varied nanocarriers, including polymeric nanoparticles, lipid-based nanosystems, in situ gel formulations, peptide, and stem cell-based nanoformulations, signifying their utility in brain targeting with minimal systemic side effects. Emerging trends in gene therapy and immunotherapy in the context of GBM treatment have also been discussed. Since safety is a paramount aspect for any drug product to get approved, this review also delves into toxicological considerations associated with intranasal delivery of nanosystems. Regulatory aspects and critical factors for the successful development of intranasal products are also explored in this review. Overall, this review underscores the significant advancements in nanotechnology for nose-to-brain delivery and its potential impact on GBM management.

Evaluation of Drug Permeation Enhancement by Using In Vitro and Ex Vivo Models

Drugs administered by means of extravascular routes of drug administration must be absorbed into the systemic circulation, which involves the movement of the drug molecules across biological barriers such as epithelial cells that cover mucosal surfaces or the stratum corneum that covers the skin. Some drugs exhibit poor permeation across biological membranes or may experience excessive degradation during first-pass metabolism, which tends to limit their bioavailability. Various strategies have been used to improve drug bioavailability. Absorption enhancement strategies include the co-administration of chemical permeation enhancers, enzymes, and/or efflux transporter inhibitors, chemical changes, and specialized dosage form designs. Models with physiological relevance are needed to evaluate the efficacy of drug absorption enhancement techniques. Various in vitro cell culture models and ex vivo tissue models have been explored to evaluate and quantify the effectiveness of drug permeation enhancement strategies. This review deliberates on the use of in vitro and ex vivo models for the evaluation of drug permeation enhancement strategies for selected extravascular drug administration routes including the nasal, oromucosal, pulmonary, oral, rectal, and transdermal routes of drug administration.

Next-generation pediatric care: nanotechnology-based and AI-driven solutions for cardiovascular, respiratory, and gastrointestinal disorders

BACKGROUND

Global pediatric healthcare reveals significant morbidity and mortality rates linked to respiratory, cardiac, and gastrointestinal disorders in children and newborns, mostly due to the complexity of therapeutic management in pediatrics and neonatology, owing to the lack of suitable dosage forms for these patients, often rendering them "therapeutic orphans". The development and application of pediatric drug formulations encounter numerous challenges, including physiological heterogeneity within age groups, limited profitability for the pharmaceutical industry, and ethical and clinical constraints. Many drugs are used unlicensed or off-label, posing a high risk of toxicity and reduced efficacy. Despite these circumstances, some regulatory changes are being performed, thus thrusting research innovation in this field.

DATA SOURCES

Up-to-date peer-reviewed journal articles, books, government and institutional reports, data repositories and databases were used as main data sources.

RESULTS

Among the main strategies proposed to address the current pediatric care situation, nanotechnology is specially promising for pediatric respiratory diseases since they offer a non-invasive, versatile, tunable, site-specific drug release. Tissue engineering is in the spotlight as strategy to address pediatric cardiac diseases, together with theragnostic systems. The integration of nanotechnology and theragnostic stands poised to refine and propel nanomedicine approaches, ushering in an era of innovative and personalized drug delivery for pediatric patients. Finally, the intersection of drug repurposing and artificial intelligence tools in pediatric healthcare holds great potential. This promises not only to enhance efficiency in drug development in general, but also in the pediatric field, hopefully boosting clinical trials for this population.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite the long road ahead, the deepening of nanotechnology, the evolution of tissue engineering, and the combination of traditional techniques with artificial intelligence are the most recently reported strategies in the specific field of pediatric therapeutics.

Secretoglobin 3A2 peptides have therapeutic potential for allergic airway inflammation

Three isoforms of secretoglobin (SCGB) 3A2, namely type A, B, and C, are endogenously produced through alternative splicing. SCGB3A2 type A, the correctly spliced major type, begins to be expressed from embryonic day 11.5 in mice and shows various physiological activities such as promoting lung maturation and bronchial branching, anti-inflammatory effects, and ameliorating induced pulmonary fibrosis. To investigate the potential of SCGB3A2 peptides as a therapeutic to treat respiratory diseases, in this study, serially overlapping nine peptides were synthesized to cover the entire type C isoform, and five and one peptides covering the C-terminal region of type A and B, respectively. To evaluate their biological activities, each peptide was subjected to cell proliferation and apoptosis analyses in vitro using mouse lung fibroblast-derived MLg cells, bronchial branching rate using ex vivo mouse fetal lung organ cultures, and in vivo allergic airway inflammation mouse model. Among type A and C peptides, those corresponding to the C-terminal region of the SCGB3A2 sequence exhibited its unique biological activities of promoting cell proliferation and bronchial branching, and/or inhibiting apoptosis. The type B peptide did not show any proliferative effect while inhibited apoptosis. In a mouse model of allergic airway inflammation, lung inflammation was improved by the administration of most of the C-terminal region-derived type A and type C peptides. The results suggest that the bioactivity resides towards the C-terminal region of SCGB3A2 sequence, and the peptides covering this region could be used as a therapeutic in treating lung inflammation.

Advancements in Antiviral Therapy: Favipiravir Sodium in Nasal Formulation

Favipiravir (FPV) is an Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient (API) known to have lower solubility in aqueous solvents. In the current study, efforts were made to generate a crystalline Favipiravir Sodium Salt (NaFPV) for enhanced solubility in aqueous media. The in-house generated NaFPV was characterized by NMR studies and its sodium content was determined by Flame Emission Spectroscopy (FES) as a confirmation of salt formation. Its solubility was determined where-in the solubility of NaFPV in water was about 100 times greater than FVP. FPV and NaFPV nasal spray formulations were prepared and its activity was determined against human coronavirus (hCoV) 229E strain. In the anti-hCoV assay as compared to FPV, NaFPV showed almost threefold higher anti-viral activity than its unmodified counterpart. Accelerated stability and spray pattern characteristics of both the formulations were studied. Interestingly, NaFPV showed higher physical stability during storage at conditions 40 ± 2 °C/ 75% ± 5% RH. The nasal spray formulations of both FPV and NaFPV showed ideal plume geometry and spray pattern of acceptable specifications. Due to its improvement in terms of solubility, NaFPV will have higher rate and extent of absorption, and faster onset of the therapeutic effect and may appear to be a feasible alternative to regular favipiravir for use in solid dosage forms.

Silence is not always golden: A closer look at potential environmental and ecotoxicological impacts of large-scale dsRNA application

RNA interference (RNAi) technology has emerged as a pivotal strategy in sustainable pest management, offering a targeted approach that significantly mitigates the environmental and health risks associated with traditional insecticides. Originally implemented through genetically modified organisms (GMOs) to produce specific RNAi constructs, the technology has evolved in response to public and regulatory concerns over GMOs. This evolution has spurred the development of non-transgenic RNAi applications such as spray-induced gene silencing (SIGS), which employs double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) to silence pest genes directly without altering the plant's genetic makeup. Despite its advantages in specificity and reduced ecological footprint, SIGS faces significant obstacles, particularly the instability of dsRNA in field conditions, which limits its practical efficacy. To overcome these limitations, innovative delivery mechanisms have been developed. These include nanotechnology-based systems, minicells, and nanovesicles, which are designed to protect dsRNA from degradation and enhance its delivery to target organisms. While these advancements have improved the stability and application efficiency of dsRNA, comprehensive assessments of their environmental safety and the potential for increased exposure risks to non-target organisms remain incomplete. This comprehensive review aims to elucidate the environmental fate of dsRNA and evaluate the potential risks associated with its widespread application on non-target organisms, encompassing soil microorganisms, beneficial insects, host plants, and mammals. The objective is to establish a more refined framework for RNAi risk assessment within environmental and ecotoxicological contexts, thereby fostering the development of safer, non-transgenic RNAi-based pest control strategies.

Intratracheal Administration of Itraconazole-Loaded Hyaluronated Glycerosomes as a Promising Nanoplatform for the Treatment of Lung Cancer: Formulation, Physiochemical, and In Vivo Distribution

BACKGROUND

Itraconazole (ITZ) is an antiangiogenic agent recognized as a potent suppressor of endothelial cell growth that suppresses angiogenesis. Nevertheless, its exploitation is significantly restricted by its low bioavailability and systematic side effects. The objective of this study was to utilize glycerosomes (GLY), glycerol-developed vesicles, as innovative nanovesicles for successful ITZ pulmonary drug delivery.

METHODS

The glycerosomes were functionalized with hyaluronic acid (HA-GLY) to potentiate the anticancer efficacy of ITZ and extend its local bio-fate. ITZ-HA-GLY were fabricated using soybean phosphatidylcholine, tween 80, HA, and sonication time via a thin-film hydration approach according to a 24 full factorial design. The impact of formulation parameters on ITZ-HA-GLY physicochemical properties, as well as the optimal formulation option, was evaluated using Design-Expert®. Sulphorhodamine-B (SRB) colorimetric cytotoxicity assay of the optimized ITZ-HA-GLY versus ITZ suspension was explored in the human A549 cell line. The in vivo pharmacokinetics and bio-distribution examined subsequent to intratracheal administrations of ITZ suspension, and ITZ-HA-GLY were scrutinized in rats.

RESULTS

The optimized ITZ-HA-GLY unveiled vesicles of size 210.23 ± 6.43 nm, zeta potential of 41.06 ± 2.62 mV, and entrapment efficiency of 73.65 ± 1.76%. Additionally, ITZ-HA-GLY manifested a far lower IC50 of 13.03 ± 0.2 µg/mL on the A549 cell line than that of ITZ suspension (28.14 ± 1.6 µg/mL). Additionally, the biodistribution analysis revealed a higher concentration of ITZ-HA-GLY within the lung tissues by 3.64-fold as compared to ITZ suspension. Furthermore, the mean resistance time of ITZ-HA-GLY declined more slowly with 14 h as compared to ITZ suspension, confirming the accumulation of ITZ inside the lungs and their promising usage as a target for the treatment of lung disease.

CONCLUSIONS

These data indicate that the improved ITZ-HA-GLY demonstrates significant promise and represents an exciting prospect in intratracheal delivery systems for lung cancer treatment, meriting further investigation.

Formulation strategies, preparation methods, and devices for pulmonary delivery of biologics

Biological products, including vaccines, blood components, and recombinant therapeutic proteins, are derived from natural sources such as humans, animals, or microorganisms and are typically produced using advanced biotechnological methods. The success of biologics, particularly monoclonal antibodies, can be attributed to their favorable safety profiles and target specificity. However, their large molecular size presents significant challenges in drug delivery, particularly in overcoming biological barriers. Pulmonary delivery has emerged as a promising route for administering biologics, offering non-invasive delivery with rapid absorption, high systemic bioavailability, and avoidance of first-pass metabolism. This review first details the anatomy and physiological barriers of the respiratory tract and the associated challenges of pulmonary drug delivery (PDD). It further discusses innovations in PDD, the impact of particle size on drug deposition, and the use of secondary particles, such as nanoparticles, to enhance bioavailability and targeting. The review also explains various devices used for PDD, including dry powder inhalers (DPIs) and nebulizers, highlighting their advantages and limitations in delivering biologics. The role of excipients in improving the stability and performance of inhalation products is also addressed. Since dry powders are considered the suitable format for delivering biomolecules, particular emphasis is placed on the excipients used in DPI development. The final section of the article reviews and compares various dry powder manufacturing methods, clarifying their clinical relevance and potential for future applications in the field of inhalable drug formulation.

Non-Invasive Techniques of Nose to Brain Delivery Using Nanoparticulate Carriers: Hopes and Hurdles

Intranasal drug delivery route has emerged as a promising non-invasive method of administering drugs directly to the brain, bypassing the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and blood-cerebrospinal fluid barriers (BCSF). BBB and BCSF prevent many therapeutic molecules from entering the brain. Intranasal drug delivery can transport drugs from the nasal mucosa to the brain, to treat a variety of Central nervous system (CNS) diseases. Intranasal drug delivery provides advantages over invasive drug delivery techniques such as intrathecal or intraparenchymal which can cause infection. Many strategies, including nanocarriers liposomes, solid-lipid NPs, nano-emulsion, nanostructured lipid carriers, dendrimers, exosomes, metal NPs, nano micelles, and quantum dots, are effective in nose-to-brain drug transport. However, the biggest obstacles to the nose-to-brain delivery of drugs include mucociliary clearance, poor drug retention, enzymatic degradation, poor permeability, bioavailability, and naso-mucosal toxicity. The current review aims to compile current approaches for drug delivery to the CNS via the nose, focusing on nanotherapeutics and nasal devices. Along with a brief overview of the related pathways or mechanisms, it also covers the advantages of nasal drug delivery as a potential method of drug administration. It also offers several possibilities to improve drug penetration across the nasal barrier. This article overviews various in-vitro, ex-vivo, and in-vivo techniques to assess drug transport from the nasal epithelium into the brain.

Multilayer Nanocarrier for the Codelivery of Interferons: A Promising Strategy for Biocompatible and Long-Acting Antiviral Treatment

Background: Interferons (IFNs) are cytokines involved in the immune response with a synergistic regulatory effect on the immune response. They are therapeutics for various viral and proliferative conditions, with proven safety and efficacy. Their clinical application is challenging due to the molecules' size, degradation, and pharmacokinetics. We are working on new drug delivery systems that provide adequate therapeutic concentrations for these cytokines and prolong their half-life in the circulation, such as nanoformulations. Methods: Through nanoencapsulation using electrospray technology and biocompatible and biodegradable polymers, we are developing a controlled release system based on nanoparticles for viral infections of the respiratory tract. Results: We developed a controlled release system for viral respiratory tract infections. A prototype nanoparticle with a core was created, which hydrolyzed the polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) shell , releasing the active ingredients interferon-alpha (IFN-α) and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ). The chitosan (QS) core degraded slowly, with a controlled release of IFN-α. The primary and rapid effect of the interferon combination ensured an antiviral and immunoregulatory response from day one, induced by IFN-α and enhanced by IFN-γ. The multilayer design demonstrated an optimal toxicity profile. Conclusions: This formulation is an inhaled dry powder intended for the non-invasive intranasal route. The product does not require a cold chain and has the potential for self-administration in the face of emerging viral infections. This novel drug has applications in multiple infectious, oncological, and autoimmune conditions, and further development is proposed for its therapeutic potential. This prototype would ensure greater bioavailability, controlled release, fewer adverse effects, and robust biological action through the simultaneous action of both molecules.

Review of Intranasal Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient Delivery Systems

In recent decades, there has been an increased interest in the development of intranasal delivery systems for active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) not only for treating local nasal diseases but also for treating systemic diseases, central nervous system (CNS) disorders, and vaccine delivery. The nasal cavity possesses a unique set of anatomical characteristics for delivering active pharmaceutical ingredients, but there are several limitations that recent research in the field of the intranasal administration of APIs aims to overcome. For the effective delivery of nasal preparations, active pharmaceutical ingredients are incorporated into various micro- and nanosystems. Some of the most commonly encountered API delivery systems in the scientific literature include liposomal systems, polymer particles with mucoadhesive properties, in situ gels, nano- and microemulsions, and solid lipid particles. This article provides a review of research on the development of nasal preparations for treating local nasal cavity diseases (in particular, for antibiotic delivery), systemic diseases (analgesics, drugs for cardiovascular diseases, antiviral and antiemetic drugs), CNS disorders (Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, epilepsy, schizophrenia, depression), and vaccine delivery. The literature data show that active research is underway to reformulate drugs of various pharmacotherapeutic groups into a nasal form.

Engineered nanoparticles in non-invasive insulin delivery for precision therapeutics of diabetes

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic disease leading to the death of millions a year across the world. Insulin is required for Type 1, Type 2, and gestational diabetic patients, however, there are various modes of insulin delivery out of which oral delivery is noninvasive and convenient. Moreover, factors like insulin degradation and poor intestinal absorption play a crucial role in its bioavailability and effectiveness. This review discusses various types of engineered nanoparticles used in-vitro, in-vivo, and ex-vivo insulin delivery along with their administration routes and physicochemical properties. Injectable insulin formulations, currently in use have certain limitations, leading to invasiveness, low patient compliance, causing inflammation, and side effects. Based on these drawbacks, this review emphasizes more on the non-invasive route, particularly oral delivery. The article is important because it focuses on how engineered nanoparticles can overcome the limitations of free therapeutics (drugs alone), navigate the barriers, and accomplish precision therapeutics in diabetes. In future, more drugs could be delivered with a similar strategy to cure various diseases and resolve challenges in drug delivery. This review significantly describes the role of various engineered nanoparticles in improving the bioavailability of insulin by protecting it from various barriers during non-invasive routes of delivery.

The Role of Inhaled Chitosan-Based Nanoparticles in Lung Cancer Therapy

Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer-related mortality worldwide, largely due to the limited efficacy of anticancer drugs, which is primarily attributed to insufficient doses reaching the lungs. Additionally, patients undergoing treatment experience severe systemic adverse effects due to the distribution of anticancer drugs to non-targeted sites. In light of these challenges, there has been a growing interest in pulmonary administration of drugs for the treatment of lung cancer. This route allows drugs to be delivered directly to the lungs, resulting in high local concentrations that can enhance antitumor efficacy while mitigating systemic toxic effects. However, pulmonary administration poses the challenge of overcoming the mechanical, chemical, and immunological defenses of the respiratory tract that prevent the inhaled drug from properly penetrating the lungs. To overcome these drawbacks, the use of nanoparticles in inhaler formulations may be a promising strategy. Nanoparticles can assist in minimizing drug clearance, increasing penetration into the lung epithelium, and enhancing cellular uptake. They can also facilitate increased drug stability, promote controlled drug release, and delivery to target sites, such as the tumor environment. Among them, chitosan-based nanoparticles demonstrate advantages over other polymeric nanocarriers due to their unique biological properties, including antitumor activity and mucoadhesive capacity. These properties have the potential to enhance the efficacy of the drug when administered via the pulmonary route. In view of the above, this paper provides an overview of the research conducted on the delivery of anticancer drug-loaded chitosan-based nanoparticles incorporated into inhaled drug delivery devices for the treatment of lung cancer. Furthermore, the article addresses the use of emerging technologies, such as siRNA (small interfering RNA), in the context of lung cancer therapy. Particularly, recent studies employing chitosan-based nanoparticles for siRNA delivery via the pulmonary route are described.

Validation of the Absorption-Enhancing Ability of Oligoarginines Grafted onto a Backbone of Hyaluronic Acid through Animal Studies from Rodents to Primates

The purpose of our research is to develop functional additives that enhance mucosal absorption of biologics, such as peptide/protein and antibody drugs, to provide their non-to-poor invasive dosage forms self-managed by patients. Our previous in vivo and in vitro studies demonstrated that the intranasal absorption of biologics in mice was significantly improved when coadministered with oligoarginines anchored chemically to hyaluronic acid via a glycine spacer, presumably through syndecan-4-mediated macropinocytosis under activation by oligoarginines. The present mouse experiments first revealed that diglycine-L-tetraarginine-linked hyaluronic acid significantly enhanced the intranasal absorption of sulpiride, which is a poor-absorptive organic compound with a low molecular weight. However, similar enhancement was not observed for levofloxacin, which has a similarly low molecular weight but is a well-absorptive organic compound, probably because its absorption was mostly dominated by passive diffusion. The subsequent monkey experiments revealed that there was no species difference in the absorption-enhancing ability of diglycine-L-tetraarginine-linked hyaluronic acid for not only organic compounds but also biologics. This was presumably because the expression levels of endocytosis-associated membrane proteins on the nasal mucosa in monkeys were almost equivalent to those in mice, and poorly membrane-permeable/membrane-impermeable drugs were mainly absorbed via syndecan-4-mediated macropinocytosis, regardless of animal species. Drug concentrations in the brain assessed in mice and monkeys and those in the cerebral spinal fluids (CSFs) assessed in monkeys indicated that drugs would be delivered from the systemic circulation to the central nervous system by crossing the blood-brain and the blood-CSF barriers under coadministration with the hyaluronic acid derivative. In line with our original hypothesis, this new set of data supported that our oligoarginine-linked hyaluronic acid would locally perform on the mucosal surface and enhance the membrane permeation of drugs under its colocalization.

Intranasal delivery of glucagon-like peptide-1 to the brain for obesity treatment: opportunities and challenges

INTRODUCTION

Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1 RAs), approved by the US FDA for obesity treatment, are typically administered subcutaneously, an invasive method leading to suboptimal patient adherence and peripheral side effects. Additionally, this route requires the drug to cross the restrictive blood-brain barrier (BBB), limiting its safety and effectiveness in weight management and cognitive addiction disorders. Delivering the drug intranasally could overcome these drawbacks.

AREAS COVERED

This review summarizes GLP-1 RAs used as anti-obesity agents, focusing on the intranasal route as a potential pathway to deliver these biomolecules to the brain. It also discusses strategies to overcome challenges associated with nasal delivery.

EXPERT OPINION

Nose-to-brain (N2B) pathways can address limitations of the subcutaneous route for GLP-1 RAs. However, peptide delivery to the brain is challenging due to nasal physiological barriers and the drug's physicochemical properties. Innovative approaches, such as cell permeation enhancers, mucoadhesive systems, and nanocarriers in nasal formulations, along with efficient drug delivery devices, show promising preclinical results. Despite this, successful preclinical data does not guarantee clinical effectiveness, highlighting the need for comprehensive clinical investigations to optimize formulations and fully utilize the nose-to-brain interface for peptide delivery.

Unravelling the in vivo dynamics of liposomes: Insights into biodistribution and cellular membrane interactions

Liposomes, as a colloidal drug delivery system dating back to the 1960s, remain a focal point of extensive research and stand as a highly efficient drug delivery method. The amalgamation of technological and biological advancements has propelled their evolution, elevating them to their current status. The key attributes of biodegradability and biocompatibility have been instrumental in driving substantial progress in liposome development. Demonstrating a remarkable ability to surmount barriers in drug absorption, enhance stability, and achieve targeted distribution within the body, liposomes have become pivotal in pharmaceutical research. In this comprehensive review, we delve into the intricate details of liposomal drug delivery systems, focusing specifically on their pharmacokinetics and cell membrane interactions via fusion, lipid exchange, endocytosis etc. Emphasizing the nuanced impact of various liposomal characteristics, we explore factors such as lipid composition, particle size, surface modifications, charge, dosage, and administration routes. By dissecting the multifaceted interactions between liposomes and biological barriers, including the reticuloendothelial system (RES), opsonization, enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect, ATP-binding cassette (ABC) phenomenon, and Complement Activation-Related Pseudoallergy (CARPA) effect, we provide a deeper understanding of liposomal behaviour in vivo. Furthermore, this review addresses the intricate challenges associated with translating liposomal technology into practical applications, offering insights into overcoming these hurdles. Additionally, we provide a comprehensive analysis of the clinical adoption and patent landscape of liposomes across diverse biomedical domains, shedding light on their potential implications for future research and therapeutic developments.

Advances in Nanotechnology for Enhancing the Solubility and Bioavailability of Poorly Soluble Drugs

This manuscript offers a comprehensive overview of nanotechnology's impact on the solubility and bioavailability of poorly soluble drugs, with a focus on BCS Class II and IV drugs. We explore various nanoscale drug delivery systems (NDDSs), including lipid-based, polymer-based, nanoemulsions, nanogels, and inorganic carriers. These systems offer improved drug efficacy, targeting, and reduced side effects. Emphasizing the crucial role of nanoparticle size and surface modifications, the review discusses the advancements in NDDSs for enhanced therapeutic outcomes. Challenges such as production cost and safety are acknowledged, yet the potential of NDDSs in transforming drug delivery methods is highlighted. This contribution underscores the importance of nanotechnology in pharmaceutical engineering, suggesting it as a significant advancement for medical applications and patient care.

Distribution and suitability of pulmonary surfactants as a vehicle for topically applied antibodies in healthy and SARS-CoV-2 infected rodent lungs

The use of natural pulmonary surfactants (PS) as a drug delivery vehicle for biologics is a more recent therapeutic modality. Herein, we tested different contents of PS regarding their physicochemical properties under stress conditions. The PS content of 12.25 mg/ml (Formulation B) showed desired properties such as an isotonic osmolality ∼300 mOsm/kg and an acceptable viscosity of 8.61 cSt, being lower than in commercially available PS solutions. Formulation B passed the specifications of surface lowering capacities of >80 % total lung capacity and physiologically desired formulation properties were independent of the antibody used in the composition. The identified formulation showed the capability of significantly increasing the oxygen saturation in ex vivo isolated perfused rat lungs, compared to a control and up to 30 min post lavage. In the in vivo setting, we showed that intratracheal administration of a human mAB with and without pulmonary surfactant led to higher amounts of delivered antibody within the alveolar tissue compared to intravenous administration. The antibody with the PS formulation remained longer in the alveolar tissues than the antibody without the PS formulation. Further, SARS-CoV-2 infected Golden Syrian hamsters showed that the intranasally applied antibody reached the site of infection in the alveoli and could be detected in the alveolar region 24 h after the last administration. With this work, we demonstrated that pulmonary surfactants can be used as a pulmonary drug delivery mechanism for antibodies and may subsequently improve the antibody efficacy by increasing the residence time at the desired site of action in the alveolar tissue.

Optimized mucoadhesive niosomal carriers for intranasal delivery of carvedilol: A quality by design approach

Carvedilol (CV), a β-blocker essential for treating cardiovascular diseases, faces bioavailability challenges due to poor water solubility and first-pass metabolism. This study developed and optimized chitosan (CS)-coated niosomes loaded with CV (CS/CV-NS) for intranasal (IN) delivery, aiming to enhance systemic bioavailability. Utilizing a Quality-by-Design (QbD) approach, the study investigated the effects of formulation variables, such as surfactant type, surfactant-to-cholesterol (CHOL) ratio, and CS concentration, on CS/CV-NS properties. The focus was to optimize specific characteristics including particle size (PS), polydispersity index (PDI), zeta potential (ZP), entrapment efficiency (EE%), and mucin binding efficiency (MBE%). The optimal formulation (Opt CS/CV-NS), achieved with a surfactant: CHOL ratio of 0.918 and a CS concentration of 0.062 g/100 mL, using Span 60 as the surfactant, exhibited a PS of 305 nm, PDI of 0.36, ZP of + 33 mV, EE% of 63 %, and MBE% of 57 %. Opt CS/CV-NS was characterized for its morphological and physicochemical properties, evaluated for stability under different storage conditions, and assessed for in vitro drug release profile. Opt CS/CV-NS demonstrated a 1.7-fold and 4.8-fold increase in in vitro CV release after 24 h, compared to uncoated CV-loaded niosomes (Opt CV-NS) and free CV, respectively. In vivo pharmacokinetic (PK) study, using a rat model, demonstrated that Opt CS/CV-NS achieved faster Tmax and higher Cmax compared to free CV suspension indicating enhanced absorption rate. Additionally, Opt CV-NS showed a 1.68-fold higher bioavailability compared to the control. These results underscore the potential of niosomal formulations in enhancing IN delivery of CV, offering an effective strategy for improving drug bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy.

Enhanced brain distribution of Ginsenoside F1 via intranasal administration in combination with absorption enhancers

Ginsenoside F1 (GF1) is a potential drug candidate for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Nevertheless, its low oral bioavailability and poor solubility limit clinical application. By utilizing either a direct or indirect approach, intranasal administration is a non-invasive drug delivery method that can deliver drugs to the brain rapidly. But large molecule drug delivered to the brain through intranasal administration may be insufficient to reach required concentration for therapeutic effect. In this study, using GF1 as a model drug, the feasibility of intranasal administration in combination with absorption enhancers to increase brain distribution of GF1 was explored. First of all, the appropriate absorption enhancers were screened by in situ nasal perfusion study. GF1-HP-β-CD inclusion complex was prepared and characterized. Thereafter, in vivo absorption of GF1 after intranasal or intravenous administration of its inclusion complex with/without absorption enhancers was investigated, and safety of the formulations was evaluated. The results showed that 2% Solutol HS 15 was a superior absorption enhancer. HP-β-CD inclusion complex improved GF1 solubility by 150 fold. Following intranasal delivery, the absolute bioavailability of inclusion complex was 46%, with drug brain targeting index (DTI) 247% and nose-to-brain direct transport percentage (DTP) 58%. Upon further addition of 2% Solutol HS 15, the absolute bioavailability was increased to 75%, with DTI 315% and DTP 66%. Both nasal cilia movement and biochemical substances (total protein and lactate dehydrogenase) leaching studies demonstrated 2% Solutol HS 15 was safe to the nasal mucosa. In conclusion, intranasal administration combining with safe absorption enhancers is an effective strategy to enhance drug distribution in the brain, showing promise for treating disorders related to the central nervous system.

Nanomedicines for intranasal delivery: understanding the nano-bio interactions at the nasal mucus-mucosal barrier

INTRODUCTION

Intranasal administration is an effective drug delivery routes in modern pharmaceutics. However, unlike other in vivo biological barriers, the nasal mucosal barrier is characterized by high turnover and selective permeability, hindering the diffusion of both particulate drug delivery systems and drug molecules. The in vivo fate of administrated nanomedicines is often significantly affected by nano-biointeractions.

AREAS COVERED

The biological barriers that nanomedicines encounter when administered intranasally are introduced, with a discussion on the factors influencing the interaction between nanomedicines and the mucus layer/mucosal barriers. General design strategies for nanomedicines administered via the nasal route are further proposed. Furthermore, the most common methods to investigate the characteristics and the interactions of nanomedicines when in presence of the mucus layer/mucosal barrier are briefly summarized.

EXPERT OPINION

Detailed investigation of nanomedicine-mucus/mucosal interactions and exploration of their mechanisms provide solutions for designing better intranasal nanomedicines. Designing and applying nanomedicines with mucus interaction properties or non-mucosal interactions should be customized according to the therapeutic need, considering the target of the drug, i.e. brain, lung or nose. Then how to improve the precise targeting efficiency of nanomedicines becomes a difficult task for further research.

Intranasal drug delivery: The interaction between nanoparticles and the nose-to-brain pathway

Intranasal delivery provides a direct and non-invasive method for drugs to reach the central nervous system. Nanoparticles play a crucial role as carriers in augmenting the efficacy of brain delivery. However, the interaction between nanoparticles and the nose-to-brain pathway and how the various biopharmaceutical factors affect brain delivery efficacy remains unclear. In this review, we comprehensively summarized the anatomical and physiological characteristics of the nose-to-brain pathway and the obstacles that hinder brain delivery. We then outlined the interaction between nanoparticles and this pathway and reviewed the biomedical applications of various nanoparticulate drug delivery systems for nose-to-brain drug delivery. This review aims at inspiring innovative approaches for enhancing the effectiveness of nose-to-brain drug delivery in the treatment of different brain disorders.

Intranasal administration of antiseizure medications in chronic and emergency treatment: Hopes and challenges

Despite the availability of many antiseizure medications (ASMs), 30 % of patients experience pharmacoresistant seizures. High-throughput screening methods undoubtedly remain one of the most important approaches for discovering new molecules to treat seizures. However, the costly and time-consuming nature of drug development prompts us to explore alternative strategies to counteract drug-resistant seizures. One such approach is to consider intranasal administration of known molecules for seizure treatment. In the case of treating epileptic seizures, administering ASMs intranasally may enhance treatment effectiveness and minimize adverse effects. A good example of changes in drug administration is the intranasal administration of fentanyl, which has become a clinical standard in the emergency setting to treat moderate to severe pain in adults and children. This review discusses the utilization of intranasally administered ASMs for both acute and chronic seizures. It addresses various targeted pharmacokinetic approaches, challenges and prospects associated with these regimens. Brief neuroanatomical and molecular rationale for nose-to-brain drug transport is also presented. Furthermore, recent preclinical studies validating the efficacy and brain distribution following intranasal administration of the most commonly used drugs in chronic treatment are also discussed.

Nebulised delivery of RNA formulations to the lungs: From aerosol to cytosol

In the past decade RNA-based therapies such as small interfering RNA (siRNA) and messenger RNA (mRNA) have emerged as new and ground-breaking therapeutic agents for the treatment and prevention of many conditions from viral infection to cancer. Most clinically approved RNA therapies are parenterally administered which impacts patient compliance and adds to healthcare costs. Pulmonary administration via inhalation is a non-invasive means to deliver RNA and offers an attractive alternative to injection. Nebulisation is a particularly appealing method due to the capacity to deliver large RNA doses during tidal breathing. In this review, we discuss the unique physiological barriers presented by the lung to efficient nebulised RNA delivery and approaches adopted to circumvent this problem. Additionally, the different types of nebulisers are evaluated from the perspective of their suitability for RNA delivery. Furthermore, we discuss recent preclinical studies involving nebulisation of RNA and analysis in in vitro and in vivo settings. Several studies have also demonstrated the importance of an effective delivery vector in RNA nebulisation therefore we assess the variety of lipid, polymeric and hybrid-based delivery systems utilised to date. We also consider the outlook for nebulised RNA medicinal products and the hurdles which must be overcome for successful clinical translation. In summary, nebulised RNA delivery has demonstrated promising potential for the treatment of several lung-related conditions such as asthma, COPD and cystic fibrosis, to which the mode of delivery is of crucial importance for clinical success.

Post-exposure intranasal IFNα suppresses replication and neuroinvasion of Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis virus within olfactory sensory neurons

BACKGROUND

Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis virus (VEEV) may enter the central nervous system (CNS) within olfactory sensory neurons (OSN) that originate in the nasal cavity after intranasal exposure. While it is known that VEEV has evolved several mechanisms to inhibit type I interferon (IFN) signaling within infected cells, whether this inhibits virologic control during neuroinvasion along OSN has not been studied.

METHODS

We utilized an established murine model of intranasal infection with VEEV and a repository of scRNAseq data from IFN-treated OSN to assess the cellular targets and IFN signaling responses after VEEV exposure.

RESULTS

We found that immature OSN, which express higher levels of the VEEV receptor LDLRAD3 than mature OSN, are the first cells infected by VEEV. Despite rapid VEEV neuroinvasion after intranasal exposure, olfactory neuroepithelium (ONE) and olfactory bulb (OB) IFN responses, as assessed by evaluation of expression of interferon signaling genes (ISG), are delayed for up to 48 h during VEEV neuroinvasion, representing a potential therapeutic window. Indeed, a single intranasal dose of recombinant IFNα triggers early ISG expression in both the nasal cavity and OB. When administered at the time of or early after infection, IFNα treatment delayed onset of sequelae associated with encephalitis and extended survival by several days. VEEV replication after IFN treatment was also transiently suppressed in the ONE, which inhibited subsequent invasion into the CNS.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results demonstrate a critical and promising first evaluation of intranasal IFNα for the treatment of human encephalitic alphavirus exposures.

Mucin-mediated mucosal retention via end-terminal modified Pluronic F127-based hydrogel to increase drug accumulation in the lungs

Noninvasive lung drug delivery is critical for treating respiratory diseases. Pluronic-based copolymers have been used as multifunctional materials for medical and biological applications. However, the Pluronic F127-based hydrogel is rapidly degraded, adversely affecting the mechanical stability for prolonged drug release. Therefore, this study designed two thermosensitive copolymers by modifying the Pluronic F127 terminal groups with carboxyl (ADF127) or amine groups (EDF127) to improve the viscosity and storage modulus of drug formulations. β-alanine and ethylenediamine were conjugated at the terminal of Pluronic F127 using a two-step acetylation process, and the final copolymers were characterized using 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (1H NMR) and Fourier-transform infrared spectra. According to the 1H NMR spectra, Pluronic F127 was functionalized to form ADF127 and EDF127 with 85 % and 71 % functionalization degrees, respectively. Rheological studies revealed that the ADF127 (15 wt%) and EDF127 (15 wt%) viscosities increased from 1480 Pa.s (Pluronic F127) to 1700 Pa.s and 1800 Pa.s, respectively. Furthermore, the elastic modulus of ADF127 and EDF127 increased, compared with that of native Pluronic F127 with the addition of 5 % mucin, particularly for ADF127, thereby signifying the stronger adhesive nature of ADF127 and EDF127 with mucin. Additionally, ADF127 and EDF127 exhibited a decreased gelation temperature, decreasing from 33 °C (Pluronic F127 at 15 wt%) to 24 °C. Notably, the in vitro ADF127 and EDF127 drug release was prolonged (95 %; 48 h) by the hydrogel encapsulation of the liposome-Bdph combined with mucin, and the intermolecular hydrogen bonding between the mucin and the hydrogel increased the retention time and stiffness of the hydrogels. Furthermore, ADF127 and EDF127 incubated with NIH-3T3 cells exhibited biocompatibility within 2 mg/mL, compared with Pluronic F127. The nasal administration method was used to examine the biodistribution of the modified hydrogel carrying liposomes or exosomes with fluorescence using the IVIS system. Drug accumulation in the lungs decreased in the following order: ADF127 > EDF127 > liposomes or exosomes alone. These results indicated that the carboxyl group-modified Pluronic F127 enabled well-distributed drug accumulation in the lungs, which is beneficial for intranasal administration routes in treating diseases such as lung fibrosis.

A Comprehensive Study on Nanoparticle Drug Delivery to the Brain: Application of Machine Learning Techniques

The delivery of drugs to specific target tissues and cells in the brain poses a significant challenge in brain therapeutics, primarily due to limited understanding of how nanoparticle (NP) properties influence drug biodistribution and off-target organ accumulation. This study addresses the limitations of previous research by using various predictive models based on collection of large data sets of 403 data points incorporating both numerical and categorical features. Machine learning techniques and comprehensive literature data analysis were used to develop models for predicting NP delivery to the brain. Furthermore, the physicochemical properties of loaded drugs and NPs were analyzed through a systematic analysis of pharmacodynamic parameters such as plasma area under the curve. The analysis employed various linear models, with a particular emphasis on linear mixed-effect models (LMEMs) that demonstrated exceptional accuracy. The model was validated via the preparation and administration of two distinct NP formulations via the intranasal and intravenous routes. Among the various modeling approaches, LMEMs exhibited superior performance in capturing underlying patterns. Factors such as the release rate and molecular weight had a negative impact on brain targeting. The model also suggests a slightly positive impact on brain targeting when the drug is a P-glycoprotein substrate.

Nano vs Resistant Tuberculosis: Taking the Lung Route

Tuberculosis (TB) is among the top 10 infectious diseases worldwide. It is categorized among the leading killer diseases that are the reason for the death of millions of people globally. Although a standardized treatment regimen is available, non-adherence to treatment has increased multi-drug resistance (MDR) and extensive drug-resistant (XDR) TB development. Another challenge is targeting the death of TB reservoirs in the alveoli via conventional treatment. TB Drug resistance may emerge as a futuristic restraint of TB with the scarcity of effective Anti-tubercular drugs. The paradigm change towards nano-targeted drug delivery systems is mostly due to the absence of effective therapy and increased TB infection recurrent episodes with MDR. The emerging field of nanotechnology gave an admirable opportunity to combat MDR and XDR via accurate diagnosis with effective treatment. The new strategies targeting the lung via the pulmonary route may overcome the new incidence of MDR and enhance patient compliance. Therefore, this review highlights the importance and recent research on pulmonary drug delivery with nanotechnology along with prevalence, the need for the development of nanotechnology, beneficial aspects of nanomedicine, safety concerns of nanocarriers, and clinical studies.

Absorption enhancer approach for protein delivery by various routes of administration: a rapid review

As bioactive molecules, peptides and proteins are essential in living organisms, including animals and humans. Defects in their function lead to various diseases in humans. Therefore, the use of proteins in treating multiple diseases, such as cancers and hepatitis, is increasing. There are different routes to administer proteins, which have limitations due to their large and hydrophilic structure. Another limitation is the presence of biological and lipophilic membranes that do not allow proteins to pass quickly. There are different strategies to increase the absorption of proteins from these biological membranes. One of these strategies is to use compounds as absorption enhancers. Absorption enhancers are compounds such as surfactants, phospholipids and cyclodextrins that increase protein passage through the biological membrane and their absorption by different mechanisms. This review focuses on using other absorption enhancers and their mechanism in protein administration routes.

Sugar-Based Monoester Surfactants: Synthetic Methodologies, Properties, and Biological Activities

Glycolipids are biocompatible and biodegradable amphiphilic compounds characterized by a great scientific interest for their potential applications in various technological areas, including pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, agriculture, and food production. This report summarizes the available synthetic methodologies, physicochemical properties, and biological activity of sugar fatty acid ester surfactants, with a particular focus on 6-O-glucose, 6-O-mannose, 6-O-sucrose, and 6'-O-lactose ones. In detail, the synthetic approaches to this class of compounds, such as enzymatic lipase-catalyzed and traditional chemical (e.g., acyl chloride, Steglich, Mitsunobu) esterifications, are reported. Moreover, aspects related to the surface activity of these amphiphiles, such as their ability to decrease surface tension, critical micelle concentration, and emulsifying and foaming ability, are described. Biological applications with a focus on the permeability-enhancing effect across the skin or mucosa, antimicrobial and antifungal activities, as well as antibiofilm properties, are also presented. The information reported here on sugar-based ester surfactants is helpful to broaden the interest and the possible innovative applications of this class of amphiphiles in different technological fields in the future.

Biomedical applications of artificial exosomes for intranasal drug delivery

Intranasal administration offers a feasible, non-invasive method of delivering therapeutic drugs to the brain, allowing therapeutic pharmaceuticals to be administered directly to the central nervous system by bypassing the blood-brain barrier. Furthermore, exosomes are naturally occurring cell-derived nanovesicles that can serve as carriers for a variety of chemical compounds. Many studies have focused on artificial exosomes as innovative medication delivery methods. As a result, trans-nasal delivery of artificial exosomes might be employed to treat brain illnesses in a novel method. This review will outline the drug delivery mechanism of artificial extracellular vesicles, emphasize its advantages as a nasal drug carrier, particularly its application as a novel nanocarriers in brain diseases, and focus on its prospective application in chronic inflammatory nose disorders. Finally, artificial exosomes may become a unique drug delivery mode for clinical therapeutic usage.

Intranasal nanoparticulate delivery systems for neurodegenerative disorders: a review

Neurodegenerative diseases are a significant cause of mortality worldwide, and the blood-brain barrier (BBB) poses a significant challenge for drug delivery. An intranasal route is a prominent approach among the various methods to bypass the BBB. There are different pathways involved in intranasal drug delivery. The drawbacks of this method include mucociliary clearance, enzymatic degradation and poor drug permeation. Novel nanoformulations and intranasal drug-delivery devices offer promising solutions to overcome these challenges. Nanoformulations include polymeric nanoparticles, lipid-based nanoparticles, microspheres, liposomes and noisomes. Additionally, intranasal devices could be utilized to enhance drug-delivery efficacy. Therefore, intranasal drug-delivery systems show potential for treating neurodegenerative diseases through trigeminal or olfactory pathways, which can significantly improve patient outcomes.

Transnasal-brain delivery of nanomedicines for neurodegenerative diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) have become a serious global health problem as the population ages. Traditionally, treatment strategies for NDs have included oral and intravenous administration; however, the blood–brain barrier (BBB) can prevent drugs from reaching the brain, rendering the treatment incomplete and the effect unsatisfactory. Additionally, the prolonged or excessive use of drugs that can cross the BBB can damage liver and kidney function. Recent studies have shown that nose-to-brain drug delivery can noninvasively bypass the BBB, allowing drugs to enter the brain through the olfactory or trigeminal nerve pathways; additionally, nanoparticle carriers can enhance drug delivery. This review introduces drug carrier nanoparticles for nose-to-brain delivery systems, compares the advantages and disadvantages of different nanoparticles, and discusses the factors influencing nose-to-brain nanomedicine delivery and enhancement strategies. We also summarize nose-to-brain delivery and nanomedicines for treating NDs, the current challenges of this approach, and the future promise of nanomedicine-based ND treatment.

The Potential of the Nose-to-Brain Delivery of PACAP for the Treatment of Neuronal Disease

Research on the neuroprotective effect of pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) and its use as a therapeutic agent has grown over the past 30 years. Both in vitro and in vivo experiments have shown that PACAP exerts a strong neuroprotective effect in many central and peripheral neuronal diseases. Various delivery routes have been employed from intravenous (IV) injections to intracerebroventricular (ICV) administration, leading either to systemic or topical delivery of the peptide. Over the last decade, a growing interest in the use of intranasal (IN) administration of PACAP and other therapeutic agents has emerged as an alternative delivery route to target the brain. The aim of this review is to summarize the findings on the neuroprotective effect of PACAP and to discuss how the IN administration of PACAP could contribute to target the effects of this pleiotropic peptide.

Paclitaxel Delivery to the Brain for Glioblastoma Treatment

The development of paclitaxel-loaded polymeric nanoparticles for the treatment of brain tumors was investigated. Poly(lactide-glycolide) (PLGA) nanoparticles containing 10% w/w paclitaxel with a particle size of 216 nm were administered through intranasal and intravenous routes to male Sprague-Dawley rats at a dose of 5 mg/kg. Both routes of administration showed appreciable accumulation of paclitaxel in brain tissue, liver, and kidney without any sign of toxicity. The anti-proliferative effect of the nanoparticles on glioblastoma tumor cells was comparable to that of free paclitaxel.

Strategies for overcoming the biological barriers associated with the administration of inhaled monoclonal antibodies for lung diseases

INTRODUCTION

Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) should be administered by inhalation rather than parenterally to improve their efficiency in lung diseases. However, the pulmonary administration of mAbs in terms of aerosol technology and the formulation for inhalation is difficult.

AREAS COVERED

The feasible or suitable strategies for overcoming the barriers associated with administering mAbs are described.

EXPERT OPINION

Providing mAbs via inhalation to individuals with lung disorders is still difficult. However, inhalation is a desirable method for mAb delivery. Inhaled mAb production needs to be well thought out. The illness, the patient group(s), the therapeutic molecule selected, its interaction with the biological barriers in the lungs, the formulation, excipients, and administration systems must all be thoroughly investigated. Therefore, to create inhaled mAbs that are stable and efficacious, it will be essential to thoroughly examine the problems linked to instability and protein aggregation. More excipients will also need to be manufactured, expanding the range of formulation design choices. Another crucial requirement is for novel carriers for topical delivery to the lungs since carriers might significantly enhance proteins' stability and pharmacokinetic profile.

Post-exposure intranasal IFNα suppresses replication and neuroinvasion of Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis virus within olfactory sensory neurons

Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis virus (VEEV) may enter the central nervous system (CNS) within olfactory sensory neurons (OSN) that originate in the nasal cavity after intranasal exposure. While it is known that VEEV has evolved several mechanisms to inhibit type I interferon (IFN) signaling within infected cells, whether this inhibits virologic control during neuroinvasion along OSN has not been studied. Here, we utilized an established murine model of intranasal infection with VEEV to assess the cellular targets and IFN signaling responses after VEEV exposure. We found that immature OSN, which express higher levels of the VEEV receptor LDLRAD3 than mature OSN, are the first cells infected by VEEV. Despite rapid VEEV neuroinvasion after intranasal exposure, olfactory neuroepithelium (ONE) and olfactory bulb (OB) IFN responses, as assessed by evaluation of expression of interferon signaling genes (ISG), are delayed for up to 48 hours during VEEV neuroinvasion, representing a potential therapeutic window. Indeed, a single intranasal dose of recombinant IFNα triggers early ISG expression in both the nasal cavity and OB. When administered at the time of or early after infection, IFNα treatment delayed onset of sequelae associated with encephalitis and extended survival by several days. VEEV replication after IFN treatment was also transiently suppressed in the ONE, which inhibited subsequent invasion into the CNS. Our results demonstrate a critical and promising first evaluation of intranasal IFNα for the treatment of human encephalitic alphavirus exposures.

Chitosan-Based Thermogelling System for Nose-to-Brain Donepezil Delivery: Optimising Formulation Properties and Nasal Deposition Profile

Donepezil nasal delivery strategies are being continuously investigated for advancing therapy in Alzheimer's disease. The aim of this study was to develop a chitosan-based, donepezil-loaded thermogelling formulation tailored to meet all the requirements for efficient nose-to-brain delivery. A statistical design of the experiments was implemented for the optimisation of the formulation and/or administration parameters, with regard to formulation viscosity, gelling and spray properties, as well as its targeted nasal deposition within the 3D-printed nasal cavity model. The optimised formulation was further characterised in terms of stability, in vitro release, in vitro biocompatibility and permeability (using Calu-3 cells), ex vivo mucoadhesion (using porcine nasal mucosa), and in vivo irritability (using slug mucosal irritation assay). The applied research design resulted in the development of a sprayable donepezil delivery platform characterised by instant gelation at 34 °C and olfactory deposition reaching a remarkably high 71.8% of the applied dose. The optimised formulation showed prolonged drug release (t_1/2 about 90 min), mucoadhesive behaviour, and reversible permeation enhancement, with a 20-fold increase in adhesion and a 1.5-fold increase in the apparent permeability coefficient in relation to the corresponding donepezil solution. The slug mucosal irritation assay demonstrated an acceptable irritability profile, indicating its potential for safe nasal delivery. It can be concluded that the developed thermogelling formulation showed great promise as an efficient donepezil brain-targeted delivery system. Furthermore, the formulation is worth investigating in vivo for final feasibility confirmation.

Intranasal Drug Administration in Alzheimer-Type Dementia: Towards Clinical Applications

Alzheimer-type dementia (ATD) treatments face limitations in crossing the blood-brain barrier and systemic adverse effects. Intranasal administration offers a direct route to the brain via the nasal cavity's olfactory and trigeminal pathways. However, nasal physiology can hinder drug absorption and limit bioavailability. Therefore, the physicochemical characteristics of formulations must be optimized by means of technological strategies. Among the strategies that have been explored, lipid-based nanosystems, particularly nanostructured lipid carriers, are promising in preclinical investigations with minimal toxicity and therapeutic efficacy due to their ability to overcome challenges associated with other nanocarriers. We review the studies of nanostructured lipid carriers for intranasal administration in the treatment of ATD. Currently, no drugs for intranasal administration in ATD have marketing approval, with only three candidates, insulin, rivastigmine and APH-1105, being clinically investigated. Further studies with different candidates will eventually confirm the potential of the intranasal route of administration in the treatment of ATD.

The Role of Mucoadhesion and Mucopenetration in the Immune Response Induced by Polymer-Based Mucosal Adjuvants

Mucus is a viscoelastic gel that acts as a protective barrier for epithelial surfaces. The mucosal vehicles and adjuvants need to pass through the mucus layer to make drugs and vaccine delivery by mucosal routes possible. The mucoadhesion of polymer particle adjuvants significantly increases the contact time between vaccine formulations and the mucosa; then, the particles can penetrate the mucus layer and epithelium to reach mucosa-associated lymphoid tissues. This review presents the key findings that have aided in understanding mucoadhesion and mucopenetration while exploring the influence of physicochemical characteristics on mucus-polymer interactions. We describe polymer-based particles designed with mucoadhesive or mucopenetrating properties and discuss the impact of mucoadhesive polymers on local and systemic immune responses after mucosal immunization. In future research, more attention paid to the design and development of mucosal adjuvants could lead to more effective vaccines.

Lipid-core nanoparticles: Classification, preparation methods, routes of administration and recent advances in cancer treatment

Nanotechnological drug delivery platforms represent a new paradigm for cancer therapeutics as they improve the pharmacokinetic profile and distribution of chemotherapeutic agents over conventional formulations. Among nanoparticles, lipid-based nanoplatforms possessing a lipid core, that is, lipid-core nanoparticles (LCNPs), have gained increasing interest due to lipid properties such as high solubilizing potential, versatility, biocompatibility, and biodegradability. However, due to the wide spectrum of morphologies and types of LCNPs, there is a lack of consensus regarding their terminology and classification. According to the current state-of-the-art in this critical review, LCNPs are defined and classified based on the state of their lipidic components in liquid lipid nanoparticles (LLNs). These include lipid nanoemulsions (LNEs) and lipid nanocapsules (LNCs), solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) and nanostructured lipid nanocarriers (NLCs). In addition, we present a comprehensive and comparative description of the methods employed for their preparation, routes of administration and the fundamental role of physicochemical properties of LCNPs for efficient antitumoral drug-delivery application. Market available LCNPs, clinical trials and preclinical in vivo studies of promising LCNPs as potential treatments for different cancer pathologies are summarized.