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Usami T, Okita K, Shimane T, Matsumoto T. Comparison of patients with benzodiazepine receptor agonist-related psychiatric disorders and over-the-counter drug-related psychiatric disorders before and after the COVID-19 pandemic: Changes in psychosocial characteristics and types of abused drugs. Neuropsychopharmacol Rep 2024. [PMID: 38622878 DOI: 10.1002/npr2.12440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2023] [Revised: 03/17/2024] [Accepted: 03/28/2024] [Indexed: 04/17/2024] Open
Abstract
AIM To investigate changes in the clinical characteristics of patients who abused benzodiazepine receptor agonists (BZRA) or over-the-counter (OTC) drugs before and after COVID-19 based on the 2018 and 2022 data of the "Nationwide Psychiatric Hospital (NPH) Survey on Drug-related Psychiatric Disorders." METHOD A total of 446 and 155 cases, and 435 and 273 cases, who mainly abused BZRAs or OTC drugs, respectively, were extracted from the database of the two NPH Surveys. Demographic variables, education, employment, criminal record, drug use during the previous year, psychiatric diagnosis, and types of abused drugs were compared between 2018 and 2022. RESULT A comparison of BZRA abusers revealed a decreased number of users during the previous year and an increase in the comorbidity rate of other disorders (F3 and F4 in ICD-10) in 2022. Etizolam, flunitrazepam, triazolam, and zolpidem were used most in both years, with an increase in zolpidem and a decrease in triazolam in 2022. A comparison of OTC drug abusers revealed a higher proportion of women and young patients in 2022. An increase in the comorbidity rate of F3 and F9 and a significant increase in the use of dextromethorphan products were observed in 2022, although codeine products were in the majority in both years. CONCLUSION By comparing NPH Surveys before and after the COVID-19 pandemic, both BZRA abusers and OTC drug abusers present complex pathologies, requiring tailor-made treatment. The younger OTC drug abusers were particularly evident among women, and the abuse of dextromethorphan-containing OTC drugs has increased alarmingly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takashi Usami
- Kitakyushu Municipal Mental Health Welfare Center, Kitakyushu, Fukuoka, Japan
- Department of Drug Dependence Research, National Institute of Mental Health, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kyoji Okita
- Department of Drug Dependence Research, National Institute of Mental Health, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takuya Shimane
- Department of Drug Dependence Research, National Institute of Mental Health, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Toshihiko Matsumoto
- Department of Drug Dependence Research, National Institute of Mental Health, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry, Kodaira, Tokyo, Japan
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Ebo DG, Mertens C, Sabato V, Elst J. Suspected pholcodine allergy: the conundrum of clinically irrelevant immunoglobulin E and basophil responsiveness to morphine and codeine. Br J Anaesth 2024; 132:808-810. [PMID: 38245453 DOI: 10.1016/j.bja.2023.12.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2023] [Accepted: 12/23/2023] [Indexed: 01/22/2024] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Didier G Ebo
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Immunology, Allergology, Rheumatology and the Infla-Med Centre of Excellence, University of Antwerp-University Hospital of Antwerp, Antwerp University, Antwerp, Belgium; Department of Immunology and Allergology, AZ Jan Palfijn Ghent, Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Christel Mertens
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Immunology, Allergology, Rheumatology and the Infla-Med Centre of Excellence, University of Antwerp-University Hospital of Antwerp, Antwerp University, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Vito Sabato
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Immunology, Allergology, Rheumatology and the Infla-Med Centre of Excellence, University of Antwerp-University Hospital of Antwerp, Antwerp University, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Jessy Elst
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Department of Immunology, Allergology, Rheumatology and the Infla-Med Centre of Excellence, University of Antwerp-University Hospital of Antwerp, Antwerp University, Antwerp, Belgium
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Takahashi F, Shimosaka Y, Mori S, Kaneko M, Harayama Y, Kobayashi K, Shoji T, Seto Y, Tatsumi H, Jin J. Development of a Potential-Modulated Electrochemiluminescence Measurement System for Selective and Sensitive Determination of the Controlled Drug Codeine. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 2024; 72:271-279. [PMID: 38432909 DOI: 10.1248/cpb.c23-00585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/05/2024]
Abstract
Codeine is a common analgesic drug that is a pro-drug of morphine. It also has a high risk of abuse as a recreational drug because of its extensive distribution as an OTC drug. Therefore, sensitive and selective screening methods for codeine are crucial in forensic analytical chemistry. To date, a commercial analytical kit has not been developed for dedicated codeine determination, and there is a need for an analytical method to quantify codeine in the field. In the present work, potential modulation was combined with electrochemiluminescence (ECL) for sensitive determination of codeine. The potential modulated technique involved applying a signal to electrodes by superimposing an AC potential on the DC potential. When tris(2,2'-bipyridine)ruthenium(II) ([Ru(bpy)3]2+) was used as an ECL emitter, ECL activity was confirmed for codeine. A detailed investigation of the electrochemical reaction mechanism suggested a characteristic ECL reaction mechanism involving electrochemical oxidation of the opioid framework. Besides the usual ECL reaction derived from the amine framework, selective detection of codeine was possible under the measurement conditions, with clear luminescence observed in an acidic solution. The sensitivity of codeine detection by potential modulated-ECL was one order of magnitude higher than that obtained with the conventional potential sweep method. The proposed method was applied to codeine determination in actual prescription medications and OTC drug samples. Codeine was selectively determined from other compounds in medications and showed good linearity with a low detection limit (150 ng mL-1).
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yuki Shimosaka
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Shinshu University
| | - Shuki Mori
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Shinshu University
| | - Mayu Kaneko
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Shinshu University
| | - Yuta Harayama
- Department of Legal Medicine, Shinshu University School of Medicine
| | - Kanya Kobayashi
- Department of Legal Medicine, Shinshu University School of Medicine
| | - Taku Shoji
- Department of Chemical Biology and Applied Chemistry, College of Engineering, Nihon University
| | | | | | - Jiye Jin
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Shinshu University
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Isoardi KZ, Isbister GK. Opioid poisoning in Newcastle over the last three decades: From heroin to prescription opioids. Emerg Med Australas 2023; 35:946-952. [PMID: 37415078 PMCID: PMC10947284 DOI: 10.1111/1742-6723.14272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2023] [Revised: 06/08/2023] [Accepted: 06/08/2023] [Indexed: 07/08/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Opioid-related harm has risen in recent decades, but limited research describes the clinical burden of opioid poisoning to Australian EDs. We aimed to investigate hospital presentations with opioid poisoning over three decades. METHODS This is an observational series of prospectively collected data investigating presentations of opioid poisoning to an ED in Newcastle (1990-2021). Type of opioid, naloxone administration, intubation, intensive care unit (ICU) admission, length of stay and death were extracted from the unit's database. RESULTS There were 4492 presentations in 3574 patients (median age 36, 57.7% female), increasing from an average of 93 presentations annually in the first decade to 199 in the third decade. Deliberate self-poisonings accounted for 3694 presentations (82.2%). Heroin dominated the 1990s, peaking in 1999 before decreasing. Prescription opioids then rose, with codeine (usually in paracetamol combination) predominating until 2018, after which oxycodone presentations exceeded them. Methadone consistently increased from six presentations annually in the first decade to 16 in the last decade. Naloxone was administered in 990 (22.0%) presentations and 266 (5.9%) were intubated, most frequently following methadone and heroin exposures. ICU admissions increased from 5% in 1990 to 16% in 2021. Codeine exposures resulted in less severe effects, whereas methadone had more severe effects overall. The median length of stay was 17 h (interquartile range 9-27 h). There were 28 deaths (0.6%). CONCLUSION Opioid presentations increased in number and severity over three decades as the type of opioid changed. Oxycodone is currently the main opioid of concern. Methadone poisoning was the most severe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine Z Isoardi
- Clinical Toxicology Research GroupThe University of NewcastleNewcastleNew South WalesAustralia
| | - Geoffrey K Isbister
- Clinical Toxicology Research GroupThe University of NewcastleNewcastleNew South WalesAustralia
- Department of Clinical ToxicologyCalvary Mater NewcastleNewcastleNew South WalesAustralia
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5
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Caré W, Pinel S, Dufayet L, Langrand J, Micallef J, Vodovar D. Trends in adverse drug reactions related to oral weak opioid analgesics in therapeutic use in adults: A 10-year French vigilances retrospective study. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 2023; 37:1205-1217. [PMID: 37400273 DOI: 10.1111/fcp.12929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2023] [Revised: 05/07/2023] [Accepted: 06/08/2023] [Indexed: 07/05/2023]
Abstract
AIM To describe the symptoms, patient demographics, and trends over time of adverse drug reactions (ADRs) related to weak opioid analgesics reported to the French vigilance networks. METHODS Retrospective study of data from French Poison Control Centers and Pharmacovigilance Centers databases of weak opioid analgesics-related ADRs cases, with high causality score, in adults, in therapeutic analgesic use, without co-exposure, between 2011 and 2020. RESULTS The number of cases was 388 in the Poisonings database and 155 in the Pharmacovigilance database; ratio of the number of these cases to all reported cases during the study period was 0.02% and 0.03%, respectively. Tramadol was most often involved (74% and 56.1%, respectively), followed by codeine (26% and 38.7%, respectively). There was no significant variation in the number of cases reported. Cases most often involved young adults (median age: 40 years) and mostly women (76%). Gastrointestinal symptoms were mostly reported (80% and 65%, respectively) as described in the Summary of Products Characteristics. Patterns of ADRs were comparable in both databases, except for codeine-associated acute pancreatitis and anaphylaxis that were reported in the Pharmacovigilance database. No fatality was observed. Severity was more often observed in the Pharmacovigilance database (30%) than in the Poisonings database (moderate toxicity: 7%). CONCLUSION ADRs mostly occurred among young women using tramadol, without significant variation in the number of reported cases over time. Serious ADRs were more frequently reported to the Pharmacovigilance database, particularly for codeine. Women seemed to be at greater risk of ADRs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weniko Caré
- Paris Poison Control Center, Toxicology Federation (FeTox), Hôpital Fernand Widal, AP-HP, Paris, France
- Internal Medicine Department, Bégin Military Teaching Hospital, Saint-Mandé, France
- Optimisation Thérapeutique en Neuropsychopharmacologie, Université Paris Cité, Inserm, Paris, France
| | - Sylvine Pinel
- Regional Pharmacovigilance Center, Hôpital Fernand Widal, AP-HP, Paris, France
| | - Laurène Dufayet
- Paris Poison Control Center, Toxicology Federation (FeTox), Hôpital Fernand Widal, AP-HP, Paris, France
- Optimisation Thérapeutique en Neuropsychopharmacologie, Université Paris Cité, Inserm, Paris, France
- Forensic Department, Hôpital Hôtel Dieu, AP-HP, Paris, France
- UFR de médecine, Université de Paris, Paris, France
| | - Jérôme Langrand
- Paris Poison Control Center, Toxicology Federation (FeTox), Hôpital Fernand Widal, AP-HP, Paris, France
- Optimisation Thérapeutique en Neuropsychopharmacologie, Université Paris Cité, Inserm, Paris, France
| | - Joëlle Micallef
- Clinical Pharmacology Department, Regional Pharmacovigilance Center, Assistance publique-Hôpitaux de Marseille, Marseille, France
- INSERM, UMR 1106, Marseille, France
- Université d'Aix-Marseille, Marseille, France
| | - Dominique Vodovar
- Paris Poison Control Center, Toxicology Federation (FeTox), Hôpital Fernand Widal, AP-HP, Paris, France
- Optimisation Thérapeutique en Neuropsychopharmacologie, Université Paris Cité, Inserm, Paris, France
- UFR de médecine, Université de Paris, Paris, France
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Carabot F, Donat-Vargas C, Santoma-Vilaclara J, Ortega MA, García-Montero C, Fraile-Martínez O, Zaragoza C, Monserrat J, Alvarez-Mon M, Alvarez-Mon MA. Exploring Perceptions About Paracetamol, Tramadol, and Codeine on Twitter Using Machine Learning: Quantitative and Qualitative Observational Study. J Med Internet Res 2023; 25:e45660. [PMID: 37962927 PMCID: PMC10685273 DOI: 10.2196/45660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2023] [Revised: 08/18/2023] [Accepted: 08/23/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Paracetamol, codeine, and tramadol are commonly used to manage mild pain, and their availability without prescription or medical consultation raises concerns about potential opioid addiction. OBJECTIVE This study aims to explore the perceptions and experiences of Twitter users concerning these drugs. METHODS We analyzed the tweets in English or Spanish mentioning paracetamol, tramadol, or codeine posted between January 2019 and December 2020. Out of 152,056 tweets collected, 49,462 were excluded. The content was categorized using a codebook, distinguishing user types (patients, health care professionals, and institutions), and classifying medical content based on efficacy and adverse effects. Scientific accuracy and nonmedical content themes (commercial, economic, solidarity, and trivialization) were also assessed. A total of 1000 tweets for each drug were manually classified to train, test, and validate machine learning classifiers. RESULTS Of classifiable tweets, 42,840 mentioned paracetamol and 42,131 mentioned weak opioids (tramadol or codeine). Patients accounted for 73.10% (60,771/83,129) of the tweets, while health care professionals and institutions received the highest like-tweet and tweet-retweet ratios. Medical content distribution significantly differed for each drug (P<.001). Nonmedical content dominated opioid tweets (23,871/32,307, 73.9%), while paracetamol tweets had a higher prevalence of medical content (33,943/50,822, 66.8%). Among medical content tweets, 80.8% (41,080/50,822) mentioned drug efficacy, with only 6.9% (3501/50,822) describing good or sufficient efficacy. Nonmedical content distribution also varied significantly among the different drugs (P<.001). CONCLUSIONS Patients seeking relief from pain are highly interested in the effectiveness of drugs rather than potential side effects. Alarming trends include a significant number of tweets trivializing drug use and recreational purposes, along with a lack of awareness regarding side effects. Monitoring conversations related to analgesics on social media is essential due to common illegal web-based sales and purchases without prescriptions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Carabot
- Department of Medicine and Medical Specialities, University of Alcalá, Alcalá de Henares, Spain
- Ramon y Cajal Institute of Sanitary Research, Madrid, Spain
| | - Carolina Donat-Vargas
- Institute of Environmental Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Unit of Cardiovascular and Nutritional Epidemiology, Stockholm, Sweden
- ISGlobal, Institut de Salut Global de Barcelona, Campus MAR, Barcelona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Epidemiología y Salud Pública, Madrid, Spain
| | - Javier Santoma-Vilaclara
- Department of Medicine and Medical Specialities, University of Alcalá, Alcalá de Henares, Spain
- Data & AI, Filament Consultancy Group., London, United Kingdom
| | - Miguel A Ortega
- Department of Medicine and Medical Specialities, University of Alcalá, Alcalá de Henares, Spain
- Ramon y Cajal Institute of Sanitary Research, Madrid, Spain
- Cancer Registry and Pathology Department, Hospital Universitario Príncipe de Asturias, Alcalá de Henares, Spain
| | - Cielo García-Montero
- Department of Medicine and Medical Specialities, University of Alcalá, Alcalá de Henares, Spain
- Ramon y Cajal Institute of Sanitary Research, Madrid, Spain
| | - Oscar Fraile-Martínez
- Department of Medicine and Medical Specialities, University of Alcalá, Alcalá de Henares, Spain
- Ramon y Cajal Institute of Sanitary Research, Madrid, Spain
| | - Cristina Zaragoza
- Biomedical Sciences Department, University of Alcalá, Pharmacology Unit, Alcala de Henares, Spain
| | - Jorge Monserrat
- Department of Medicine and Medical Specialities, University of Alcalá, Alcalá de Henares, Spain
- Ramon y Cajal Institute of Sanitary Research, Madrid, Spain
| | - Melchor Alvarez-Mon
- Department of Medicine and Medical Specialities, University of Alcalá, Alcalá de Henares, Spain
- Ramon y Cajal Institute of Sanitary Research, Madrid, Spain
- Immune System Diseases-Rheumatology and Internal Medicine Service, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red Enfermedades Hepáticas y Digestivas, University Hospital Príncipe de Asturias, Alcala de Henares, Spain
| | - Miguel Angel Alvarez-Mon
- Department of Medicine and Medical Specialities, University of Alcalá, Alcalá de Henares, Spain
- Ramon y Cajal Institute of Sanitary Research, Madrid, Spain
- Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health, Hospital Universitario Infanta Leonor, Madrid, Spain
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Houston MG, McMenamin Ú, Johnston B, McDowell RD, Hughes CM, Murchie P, Cardwell CR. Exposure to weak opioids and risk of gastrointestinal tract cancers: A series of nested case-control studies. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2023; 89:2757-2766. [PMID: 37117154 PMCID: PMC10952439 DOI: 10.1111/bcp.15759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2022] [Revised: 03/03/2023] [Accepted: 04/03/2023] [Indexed: 04/30/2023] Open
Abstract
AIMS There is evidence gastrointestinal (GI) motility may play a role in the development of GI cancers. Weak opioids (codeine and dihydrocodeine) decrease GI motility, but their effect on GI cancer risk has not been assessed. We aim to assess the association between weak opioids and cancers of the GI tract. METHODS A series of nested case-control studies was conducted using Scottish general practice records from the Primary Care Clinical Informatics Unit Research database. Oesophageal (n = 2432), gastric (n = 1443) and colorectal cancer (n = 8750) cases, diagnosed between 1999 and 2011, were identified and matched with up to five controls. Weak opioid use was identified from prescribing records. Odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated using conditional logistic regression, adjusting for relevant comorbidities and medication use. RESULTS There was no association between weak opioids and colorectal cancer (adjusted OR = 0.96, CI 0.90, 1.02, P = 0.15). There was an increased risk of oesophageal (adjusted OR = 1.16, CI 1.04, 1.29, P = 0.01) and gastric cancer (adjusted OR = 1.26, CI 1.10, 1.45, P = 0.001). The associations for oesophageal cancer, but not gastric cancer, were attenuated when weak opioid users were compared with users of another analgesic (adjusted OR = 1.03 CI 0.86, 1.22, P = 0.76 and adjusted OR = 1.29 CI 1.02, 1.64, P = 0.04 respectively). CONCLUSIONS In this large population-based study, there was no consistent evidence of an association between weak opioids and oesophageal or colorectal cancer risk, but a small increased risk of gastric cancer. Further investigation is required to determine whether this association is causal or reflects residual confounding or confounding by indication.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Úna McMenamin
- Centre for Public HealthQueen's UniversityBelfastCo. AntrimUK
| | - Brian Johnston
- Department of GastroenterologyRoyal Victoria HospitalBelfastCo. AntrimUK
| | | | | | - Peter Murchie
- Institute of Applied Health Sciences SectionAcademic Primary CareAberdeenUK
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Amarh V, Abbey BA, Acheampong SA, Debrah MA, Amarquaye GN, Arthur PK. Codeine dysregulates ribosome biogenesis in Escherichia coli with DNA double-strand breaks to chart path to new classes of antibiotics. Future Drug Discov 2023; 5:FDD84. [PMID: 38464684 PMCID: PMC10918497 DOI: 10.4155/fdd-2023-0005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 09/26/2023] [Indexed: 03/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Aim A bacterial genetics-guided approach was utilized for the discovery of new compounds affecting bacterial genome stability. Materials & methods Fungal extracts and fractions were tested for genome instability-mediated antibacterial activity. Interaction assays and RT-qPCR were used to identify compounds that boost the activity of sub-minimum inhibitory concentration streptomycin and obtain insights on the molecular mechanisms of the primary hit compound, respectively. Results Several extracts and fractions caused bacterial genome instability. Codeine, in synergy with streptomycin, regulates double-strand break (DSB) repair and causes bacterial ribosome dysfunction in the absence of DSBs, and dysregulation of ribosome biogenesis in a DSB-dependent manner. Conclusion This study demonstrates a potential viable strategy that we are exploring for the discovery of new chemical entities with activities against Escherichia coli and other bacterial pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Amarh
- Department of Biochemistry, Cell & Molecular Biology, West African Center for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens, University of Ghana, PO Box LG54, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Benaiah Annertey Abbey
- Department of Biochemistry, Cell & Molecular Biology, West African Center for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens, University of Ghana, PO Box LG54, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Samuel Akwasi Acheampong
- Department of Biochemistry, Cell & Molecular Biology, West African Center for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens, University of Ghana, PO Box LG54, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Michael Acheampong Debrah
- Department of Biochemistry, Cell & Molecular Biology, West African Center for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens, University of Ghana, PO Box LG54, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Gwendolyn Nita Amarquaye
- Department of Biochemistry, Cell & Molecular Biology, West African Center for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens, University of Ghana, PO Box LG54, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - Patrick Kobina Arthur
- Department of Biochemistry, Cell & Molecular Biology, West African Center for Cell Biology of Infectious Pathogens, University of Ghana, PO Box LG54, Legon, Accra, Ghana
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9
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Tueshaus T, McKemie DS, Kanarr K, Kass PH, Knych HK. Pharmacokinetics and effects of codeine in combination with acetaminophen on thermal nociception in horses. J Vet Pharmacol Ther 2023; 46:311-325. [PMID: 37021661 DOI: 10.1111/jvp.13126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2022] [Revised: 02/22/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 04/07/2023]
Abstract
Codeine and acetaminophen in combination have proven to be an effective analgesic treatment for moderate-to-severe and postoperative pain in humans. Studies have demonstrated that codeine and acetaminophen, when administered as sole agents, are well tolerated by horses. In the current study, we hypothesized that administration of the combination of codeine and acetaminophen would result in a significant thermal antinociceptive effect compared with administration of either alone. Six horses were administered oral doses of codeine (1.2 mg/kg), acetaminophen (20 mg/kg), and codeine plus acetaminophen (1.2 mg/kg codeine and 6-6.4 mg/kg acetaminophen) in a three-way balanced crossover design. Plasma samples were collected, concentrations of drug and metabolites determined via liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, and pharmacokinetic analyses were performed. Pharmacodynamic outcomes, including effect on thermal thresholds, were assessed. Codeine Cmax and AUC were significantly different between the codeine and combination group. There was considerable inter-individual variation in the pharmacokinetic parameters for codeine, acetaminophen, and their metabolites in horses. All treatments were well tolerated with minimal significant adverse effects. An increase in the thermal threshold was noted at 1.5 and 2 h, from 15 min through 6 h and 0.5, 1, 1.5, and 3 h in the codeine, acetaminophen, and combination groups, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tisa Tueshaus
- K.L Maddy Equine Analytical Pharmacology Laboratory, University of California Davis, School of Veterinary Medicine, Davis, California, USA
| | - Daniel S McKemie
- K.L Maddy Equine Analytical Pharmacology Laboratory, University of California Davis, School of Veterinary Medicine, Davis, California, USA
| | - Kirsten Kanarr
- K.L Maddy Equine Analytical Pharmacology Laboratory, University of California Davis, School of Veterinary Medicine, Davis, California, USA
| | - Philip H Kass
- Department of Medicine and Epidemiology, University of California Davis, School of Veterinary Medicine, Davis, California, USA
| | - Heather K Knych
- K.L Maddy Equine Analytical Pharmacology Laboratory, University of California Davis, School of Veterinary Medicine, Davis, California, USA
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of California Davis, School of Veterinary Medicine, Davis, California, USA
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10
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Akhigbe RE, Afolabi OA, Ajayi AF. L-Arginine abrogates maternal and pre-pubertal codeine exposure-induced impaired spermatogenesis and sperm quality by modulating the levels of mRNA encoding spermatogenic genes. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2023; 14:1180085. [PMID: 37529606 PMCID: PMC10390314 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2023.1180085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 06/13/2023] [Indexed: 08/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Although, codeine has been demonstrated to lower sperm quality; the effects of maternal and prepubertal codeine exposure on male offspring is yet to be reported. In addition, the effect of arginine on codeine-induced decline in sperm quality has not been explored. This study investigated the impact of maternal and prepubertal codeine exposure on spermatogenesis and sperm quality in F1 male Wistar rats to study the effect that codeine may have during recreational use in humans. Also, the effect of arginine supplementation on codeine-induced alteration in spermatogenesis and sperm quality was evaluated. Methods Female rats were treated with either 0.5 ml distilled water or codeine orally for eight weeks, and then mated with male rats (female:male, 2:1). The F1 male offsprings of both cohorts were weaned at 3 weeks old and administered distilled water, codeine, arginine, or codeine with arginine orally for eight weeks. Results Prepubertal codeine exposure in rats whose dams (female parents) were exposed to codeine delayed puberty and reduced the weight at puberty. Prepubertal codeine exposure exacerbated maternal codeine exposure-induced reduced total and daily spermatid production, sperm count, sperm motility, and normal sperm form, as well as impaired sperm plasma membrane integrity and increased not intact acrosome and damaged sperm DNA integrity. These perturbations were accompanied by a decrease in mRNA levels encoding spermatogenic genes, testicular testosterone and androgen receptor (AR) concentrations, and upregulation of sperm 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8OHdG). Prepubertal arginine supplementation mitigated codeine-induced alterations. Discussion This study provides novel experimental evidence that maternal and prepubertal codeine exposure reprogramed spermatogenesis and sperm quality of male FI generation by decreasing mRNA levels encoding spermatogenic genes and AR via oxidative stress-mediated signaling, which was abrogated by prepubertal arginine supplementation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roland Eghoghosoa Akhigbe
- Department of Physiology, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Oyo State, Nigeria
- Reproductive Biology and Toxicology Research Laboratory, Oasis of Grace Hospital, Osogbo, Osun State, Nigeria
| | - Oladele A. Afolabi
- Department of Physiology, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Oyo State, Nigeria
| | - Ayodeji Folorusho Ajayi
- Department of Physiology, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Oyo State, Nigeria
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11
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Buratti E, Mietti G, Cippitelli M, Cerioni A, Froldi R, Cingolani M, Scendoni R. Detection of Three Opioids (Morphine, Codeine and Methadone) and Their Metabolites (6-Monoacetylmorphine and 2-Ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine) in Larvae of Lucilia sericata Species by UHPLC-TF-MS and Validation. Molecules 2023; 28:4649. [PMID: 37375203 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28124649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2023] [Revised: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Insects on corpses could be a useful tool for the detection of exogenous substances such as drugs of abuse. The identification of exogenous substances in carrion insects is critical for proper estimation of the postmortem interval. It also provides information about the deceased person that may prove useful for forensic purposes. High-performance liquid chromatography coupled with Fourier transform mass spectrometry is a highly sensitive analytical technique that can identify substances even at very low concentrations, such as in the case of searching for exogenous substances in larvae. In this paper, a method is proposed for the identification of morphine, codeine, methadone, 6-monoacetylmorphine (6-MAM) and 2-ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine (EDDP) in the larvae of Lucilia sericata, a common carrion fly widely distributed in temperate areas of the world. The larvae, which were reared on a pig meat substrate, were killed once they reached their third stage by immersion in hot water at 80 °C and aliquoted into 400 mg samples. The samples were fortified with 5 ng of morphine, methadone and codeine. After solid-phase extraction, the samples were processed with a liquid chromatograph coupled to a Fourier transform mass spectrometer. This qualitative method has been validated and tested on larvae from a real case. The results lead to the correct identification of morphine, codeine, methadone and their metabolites. This method could prove useful in cases where toxicological analysis must be conducted on highly decomposed human remains, where biological matrices are very limited. Furthermore, it could help the forensic pathologist to better estimate the time of death, as the growth cycle of carrion insects can undergo changes if exogenous substances are taken.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erika Buratti
- Forensic Medicine Laboratory, Institute of Legal Medicine, University of Macerata, 62100 Macerata, Italy
| | - Gianmario Mietti
- Forensic Medicine Laboratory, Institute of Legal Medicine, University of Macerata, 62100 Macerata, Italy
| | - Marta Cippitelli
- Forensic Medicine Laboratory, Institute of Legal Medicine, University of Macerata, 62100 Macerata, Italy
| | - Alice Cerioni
- Forensic Medicine Laboratory, Institute of Legal Medicine, University of Macerata, 62100 Macerata, Italy
| | - Rino Froldi
- Forensic Medicine Laboratory, Institute of Legal Medicine, University of Macerata, 62100 Macerata, Italy
| | - Mariano Cingolani
- Forensic Medicine Laboratory, Institute of Legal Medicine, University of Macerata, 62100 Macerata, Italy
| | - Roberto Scendoni
- Forensic Medicine Laboratory, Institute of Legal Medicine, University of Macerata, 62100 Macerata, Italy
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12
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Mapira NL, Thelingwani RS, Chikwambi Z, Kuona P, Masimirembwa C. Pharmacogenetics of pain management in Zimbabwean patients with sickle cell disease. Pharmacogenomics 2023; 24:359-369. [PMID: 37248824 PMCID: PMC10318569 DOI: 10.2217/pgs-2023-0045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 05/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Pain is a common cause of hospitalization in sickle cell disease (SCD) patients. Failure to effectively control pain remains a challenge in patient care. Materials & methods: The authors conducted a cross-sectional study to determine the effect of CYP2D6 and UGT2B7 polymorphisms on pain management in 106 Zimbabwean SCD patients. Participant information was collected on a questionnaire. Genotyping was conducted using the GenoPharm® pharmacogenomics open array panel containing CYP2D6 and UGT genetic variants implicated in opioid response. Results: The reduced function alleles CYP2D6*17 and *29 had high frequencies of 15.9% and 12.9%, respectively. UGT2B7 rs73823859 showed a statistically significant correlation with pain levels (p = 0.0454). Conclusion: This study demonstrated the role of UGT2B7 polymorphism in SCD patient pain management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nyasha Lorraine Mapira
- Department of Genomic Medicine, African Institute of Biomedical Science & Technology (AiBST), 911 Boronia Township, Beatrice, Zimbabwe
- Department of Biotechnology, Chinhoyi University of Technology, Private Bag 7724, Chinhoyi, Zimbabwe
| | - Roslyn Stella Thelingwani
- Department of Genomic Medicine, African Institute of Biomedical Science & Technology (AiBST), 911 Boronia Township, Beatrice, Zimbabwe
| | - Zedias Chikwambi
- Department of Genomic Medicine, African Institute of Biomedical Science & Technology (AiBST), 911 Boronia Township, Beatrice, Zimbabwe
- Department of Biotechnology, Chinhoyi University of Technology, Private Bag 7724, Chinhoyi, Zimbabwe
| | - Patience Kuona
- Child Adolescent Health Unit, Department of Primary Health Care, Faculty of Medicine & Health Sciences, University of Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
| | - Collen Masimirembwa
- Department of Genomic Medicine, African Institute of Biomedical Science & Technology (AiBST), 911 Boronia Township, Beatrice, Zimbabwe
- Sydney Brenner Institute for Molecular Bioscience (SBIMB), University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, Gauteng, 2000, South Africa
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13
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Raman S, Maclean JC, Bradford WD, Drake C. Recreational cannabis and opioid distribution. Health Econ 2023; 32:747-754. [PMID: 36653623 DOI: 10.1002/hec.4652] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2022] [Revised: 12/07/2022] [Accepted: 01/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Twenty-one U.S. states have passed recreational cannabis laws as of November 2022. Cannabis may be a substitute for prescription opioids in the treatment of chronic pain. Previous studies have assessed recreational cannabis laws' effects on opioid prescriptions financed by specific private or public payers or dispensed to a unique endpoint. Our study adds to the literature in three important ways: by (1) examining these laws' impacts on prescription opioid dispensing across all payers and endpoints, (2) adjusting for important opioid-related policies such as opioid prescribing limits, and (3) modeling opioids separately by type. We implement two-way fixed-effects regressions and leverage variation from eleven U.S. states that adopted a recreational cannabis law (RCL) between 2010 and 2019. We find that RCLs lead to a reduction in codeine dispensed at retail pharmacies. Among prescription opioids, codeine is particularly likely to be used non-medically. Thus, the finding that RCLs appear to reduce codeine dispensing is potentially promising from a public health perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shyam Raman
- Jeb E. Brooks School of Public Policy, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | | | - W David Bradford
- School of Public and International Affairs, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Coleman Drake
- Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
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14
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Karami S, Ajao A, Wong J, Zhang D, Meyer T, Ding Y, Secora A, Major JM, Gill R, Chai GP, Zhao Y, McAninch J. The impact of hydrocodone rescheduling on utilization, abuse, misuse, and overdose deaths. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf 2023. [PMID: 36779261 DOI: 10.1002/pds.5603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2022] [Revised: 11/11/2022] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 02/14/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To evaluate the impact of increased federal restrictions on hydrocodone combination product (HCP) utilization, misuse, abuse, and overdose death. METHODS We assessed utilization, misuse, abuse, and overdose death trends involving hydrocodone versus select opioid analgesics (OAs) and heroin using descriptive and interrupted time-series (ITS) analyses during the nine quarters before and after the October 2014 rescheduling of HCPs from a less restrictive (CIII) to more restrictive (CII) category. RESULTS Hydrocodone dispensing declined >30% over the study period, and declines accelerated after rescheduling. ITS analyses showed that immediately postrescheduling, quarterly hydrocodone dispensing decreased by 177M dosage units while codeine, oxycodone, and morphine dispensing increased by 49M, 62M, and 4M dosage units, respectively. Postrescheduling, hydrocodone-involved misuse/abuse poison center (PC) case rates had a statistically significant immediate drop but a deceleration of preperiod declines. There were small level increases in codeine-involved PC misuse/abuse and overdose death rates immediately after HCP's rescheduling, but these were smaller than level decreases in rates for hydrocodone. Heroin-involved PC case rates and overdose death rates increased across the study period, with exponential increases in PC case rates beginning 2015. CONCLUSIONS HCP rescheduling was associated with accelerated declines in hydrocodone dispensing, only partially offset by smaller increases in codeine, oxycodone, and morphine dispensing. The net impact on hydrocodone and other OA-involved misuse/abuse and fatal overdose was unclear. We did not detect an immediate impact on heroin abuse or overdose death rates; however, the dynamic nature of the crisis and data limitations present challenges to causal inference.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Karami
- Division of Epidemiology II (DEPI-II), Office of Pharmacovigilance and Epidemiology(OPE), Office of Surveillance and Epidemiology (OSE), Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER), U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Silver Spring, MD, USA
| | - Adebola Ajao
- Division of Epidemiology II (DEPI-II), Office of Pharmacovigilance and Epidemiology(OPE), Office of Surveillance and Epidemiology (OSE), Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER), U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Silver Spring, MD, USA
| | - Jennie Wong
- Division of Epidemiology II (DEPI-II), Office of Pharmacovigilance and Epidemiology(OPE), Office of Surveillance and Epidemiology (OSE), Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER), U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Silver Spring, MD, USA
| | - Di Zhang
- Division of Epidemiology II (DEPI-II), Office of Pharmacovigilance and Epidemiology(OPE), Office of Surveillance and Epidemiology (OSE), Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER), U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Silver Spring, MD, USA
| | - Tamra Meyer
- Division of Epidemiology II (DEPI-II), Office of Pharmacovigilance and Epidemiology(OPE), Office of Surveillance and Epidemiology (OSE), Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER), U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Silver Spring, MD, USA
| | - Yulan Ding
- Division of Epidemiology II (DEPI-II), Office of Pharmacovigilance and Epidemiology(OPE), Office of Surveillance and Epidemiology (OSE), Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER), U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Silver Spring, MD, USA
| | - Alex Secora
- Division of Epidemiology II (DEPI-II), Office of Pharmacovigilance and Epidemiology(OPE), Office of Surveillance and Epidemiology (OSE), Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER), U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Silver Spring, MD, USA.,Associate Director, Epidemiology, IQVIA Government Solutions, Virginia, USA
| | - Jacqueline M Major
- Division of Epidemiology II (DEPI-II), Office of Pharmacovigilance and Epidemiology(OPE), Office of Surveillance and Epidemiology (OSE), Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER), U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Silver Spring, MD, USA
| | - Rajdeep Gill
- Division of Epidemiology II (DEPI-II), Office of Pharmacovigilance and Epidemiology(OPE), Office of Surveillance and Epidemiology (OSE), Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER), U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Silver Spring, MD, USA
| | - Grace P Chai
- Division of Epidemiology II (DEPI-II), Office of Pharmacovigilance and Epidemiology(OPE), Office of Surveillance and Epidemiology (OSE), Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER), U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Silver Spring, MD, USA
| | - Yueqin Zhao
- Division of Epidemiology II (DEPI-II), Office of Pharmacovigilance and Epidemiology(OPE), Office of Surveillance and Epidemiology (OSE), Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER), U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Silver Spring, MD, USA
| | - Jana McAninch
- Division of Epidemiology II (DEPI-II), Office of Pharmacovigilance and Epidemiology(OPE), Office of Surveillance and Epidemiology (OSE), Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (CDER), U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Silver Spring, MD, USA
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15
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Opioids for pain. Med Lett Drugs Ther 2022; 64:193-200. [PMID: 36541938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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16
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Comparison table: Some oral/transdermal opioid analgesics. Med Lett Drugs Ther 2022; 64:e199-202. [PMID: 36541939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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17
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Boiteau JG, Mouis G, Reverse K, Surget E, Boccadifuoco G, Dufaÿ S. Complete 1 H, 13 C, and 15 N assignments of the minor isomer of codeine N-oxide. Magn Reson Chem 2022; 60:1185-1188. [PMID: 35919948 DOI: 10.1002/mrc.5302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2022] [Revised: 07/25/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Codeine N-oxide 2 is an active metabolite of codeine obtained by oxidation and observed as a degradant in codeine drug products such as syrups. Oxidation of codeine's N-methyl function can deliver two regio-isomers due to chirality of the tetra-substituted nitrogen. Hydrogen peroxide oxidation of codeine was performed and induced two different isomers in a 9:1 ratio; these isomers were isolated using preparative high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and fully characterized by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) techniques. We describe the complete assignment of the minor isomer of codeine N-oxide 3 and attribute a (S) configuration (N-methyl axial) of the tetra-substituted nitrogen. The effects of N-oxidation on the 15 N chemical shifts of the codeine are presented. The 15 N shifts were determined using the CIGAR-HMBC experiment at natural abundance, and the nitrogen resonance of codeine shifted downfield from 42.8 to 118.7 ppm for both N-oxide isomers.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Kevin Reverse
- Chemical Development, Nuvisan, Sophia-Antipolis, France
| | - Estelle Surget
- Département de Recherche et Développement Pharmaceutique (DRDP), AP-HP, Agence Générale des Equipements et produits de Santé (AGEPS), Paris, France
| | - Gaetan Boccadifuoco
- Département de Recherche et Développement Pharmaceutique (DRDP), AP-HP, Agence Générale des Equipements et produits de Santé (AGEPS), Paris, France
| | - Sophie Dufaÿ
- Département de Recherche et Développement Pharmaceutique (DRDP), AP-HP, Agence Générale des Equipements et produits de Santé (AGEPS), Paris, France
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18
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Rakhmanov GT, Usmanov DT. Mass-spectrometric studies of kinetic characteristics of codeine molecule thermodesorption by non-stationary surface ionization method. Eur J Mass Spectrom (Chichester) 2022; 28:127-131. [PMID: 36317372 DOI: 10.1177/14690667221136069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The adsorption and surface ionization of codeine molecules С18H21O3N (m/z 299) on the surface of oxidized tungsten have been studied by a non-stationary method of voltage modulation under the same experimental conditions with a high-vacuum mass-spectrometric setup using a "black chamber" all walls of which are cooled with liquid nitrogen. For the codeine molecule dissociation with the (C-C1)β bond breaking and formation of ionizable radicals, the rate constants K+ and K0, the activation energy Е+ and Е0 of thermodesorption, and the pre-exponential factors in the continuity equation for the radicals C9H7N+CH3 (m/z 144) have been defined by surface ionization on the surface of oxidized tungsten WxOy. The results of determining the surface ionization coefficient and estimates of the ionization potentials of these radicals have been presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- G T Rakhmanov
- Department of Physics, National University of Uzbekistan, Tashkent, Uzbekistan
| | - D T Usmanov
- Institute of Ion-Plasma and Laser Technologies, Uzbekistan Academy of Sciences, Tashkent, Uzbekistan
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19
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Jazdarehee A, Huget-Penner S, Pawlowska M. Pseudo-pheochromocytoma due to obstructive sleep apnea: a case report. Endocrinol Diabetes Metab Case Rep 2022; 2022:21-0100. [PMID: 35212265 PMCID: PMC8897593 DOI: 10.1530/edm-21-0100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2021] [Accepted: 02/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
SUMMARY Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is a condition of intermittent nocturnal upper airway obstruction. OSA increases sympathetic drive which may result in clinical and biochemical features suggestive of pheochromocytoma. We present the case of a 65-year-old male with a 2.9-cm left adrenal incidentaloma on CT, hypertension, symptoms of headache, anxiety and diaphoresis, and persistently elevated 24-h urine norepinephrine (initially 818 nmol/day (89-470)) and normetanephrine (initially 11.2 µmol/day (0.6-2.7)). He was started on prazosin and underwent left adrenalectomy. Pathology revealed an adrenal corticoadenoma with no evidence of pheochromocytoma. Over the next 2 years, urine norepinephrine and normetanephrine remained significantly elevated with no MIBG avid disease. Years later, he was diagnosed with severe OSA and treated with continuous positive airway pressure. Urine testing done once OSA was well controlled revealed complete normalization of urine norepinephrine and normetanephrine with substantial symptom improvement. It was concluded that the patient never had a pheochromocytoma but rather an adrenal adenoma with biochemistry and symptoms suggestive of pheochromocytoma due to untreated severe OSA. Pseudo-pheochromocytoma is a rare presentation of OSA and should be considered on the differential of elevated urine catecholamines and metanephrines in the right clinical setting. LEARNING POINTS Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) is a common condition among adults. OSA may rarely present as pseudo-pheochromocytoma with symptoms of pallor, palpitations, perspiration, headache, or anxiety. OSA should be considered on the differential of elevated urine catecholamines and metanephrines, especially in patients with negative metaiodobenzylguanidine (MIBG) scan results.
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Key Words
- adolescent/young adult
- adult
- geriatric
- neonatal
- paediatric
- pregnant adult
- female
- male
- american indian or alaska native
- asian - bangladeshi
- asian - chinese
- asian - filipino
- asian - indian
- asian - japanese
- asian - korean
- asian - pakistani
- asian - vietnamese
- asian - other
- black - african
- black - caribbean
- black - other
- hispanic or latino - central american or south american
- hispanic or latino - cuban
- hispanic or latino - dominican
- hispanic or latino - mexican, mexican american, chicano
- hispanic or latino - puerto rican
- hispanic or latino - other
- native hawaiian/other pacific islander
- white
- other
- afghanistan
- aland islands
- albania
- algeria
- american samoa
- andorra
- angola
- anguilla
- antarctica
- antigua and barbuda
- argentina
- armenia
- aruba
- australia
- austria
- azerbaijan
- bahamas
- bahrain
- bangladesh
- barbados
- belarus
- belgium
- belize
- benin
- bermuda
- bhutan
- bolivia
- bosnia and herzegovina
- botswana
- bouvet island
- brazil
- british indian ocean territory
- brunei darussalam
- bulgaria
- burkina faso
- burundi
- cambodia
- cameroon
- canada
- cape verde
- cayman islands
- central african republic
- chad
- chile
- china
- christmas island
- cocos (keeling) islands
- colombia
- comoros
- congo
- congo, the democratic republic of the
- cook islands
- costa rica
- côte d'ivoire
- croatia
- cuba
- cyprus
- czech republic
- denmark
- djibouti
- dominica
- dominican republic
- ecuador
- egypt
- el salvador
- equatorial guinea
- eritrea
- estonia
- ethiopia
- falkland islands (malvinas)
- faroe islands
- fiji
- finland
- france
- french guiana
- french polynesia
- french southern territories
- gabon
- gambia
- georgia
- germany
- ghana
- gibraltar
- greece
- greenland
- grenada
- guadeloupe
- guam
- guatemala
- guernsey
- guinea
- guinea-bissau
- guyana
- haiti
- heard island and mcdonald islands
- holy see (vatican city state)
- honduras
- hong kong
- hungary
- iceland
- india
- indonesia
- iran, islamic republic of
- iraq
- ireland
- isle of man
- israel
- italy
- jamaica
- japan
- jersey
- jordan
- kazakhstan
- kenya
- kiribati
- korea, democratic people's republic of
- korea, republic of
- kuwait
- kyrgyzstan
- lao people's democratic republic
- latvia
- lebanon
- lesotho
- liberia
- libyan arab jamahiriya
- liechtenstein
- lithuania
- luxembourg
- macao
- macedonia, the former yugoslav republic of
- madagascar
- malawi
- malaysia
- maldives
- mali
- malta
- marshall islands
- martinique
- mauritania
- mauritius
- mayotte
- mexico
- micronesia, federated states of
- moldova, republic of
- monaco
- mongolia
- montenegro
- montserrat
- morocco
- mozambique
- myanmar
- namibia
- nauru
- nepal
- netherlands
- netherlands antilles
- new caledonia
- new zealand
- nicaragua
- niger
- nigeria
- niue
- norfolk island
- northern mariana islands
- norway
- oman
- pakistan
- palau
- palestinian territory, occupied
- panama
- papua new guinea
- paraguay
- peru
- philippines
- pitcairn
- poland
- portugal
- puerto rico
- qatar
- réunion
- romania
- russian federation
- rwanda
- saint barthélemy
- saint helena
- saint kitts and nevis
- saint lucia
- saint martin
- saint pierre and miquelon
- saint vincent and the grenadines
- samoa
- san marino
- sao tome and principe
- saudi arabia
- senegal
- serbia
- seychelles
- sierra leone
- singapore
- slovakia
- slovenia
- solomon islands
- somalia
- south africa
- south georgia and the south sandwich islands
- spain
- sri lanka
- sudan
- suriname
- svalbard and jan mayen
- swaziland
- sweden
- switzerland
- syrian arab republic
- taiwan, province of china
- tajikistan
- tanzania, united republic of
- thailand
- timor-leste
- togo
- tokelau
- tonga
- trinidad and tobago
- tunisia
- turkey
- turkmenistan
- turks and caicos islands
- tuvalu
- uganda
- ukraine
- united arab emirates
- united kingdom
- united states
- united states minor outlying islands
- uruguay
- uzbekistan
- vanuatu
- vatican city state
- venezuela
- viet nam
- virgin islands, british
- virgin islands, u.s.
- wallis and futuna
- western sahara
- yemen
- zambia
- zimbabwe
- maylaysia
- adipose tissue
- adrenal
- bone
- duodenum
- heart
- hypothalamus
- kidney
- liver
- ovaries
- pancreas
- parathyroid
- pineal
- pituitary
- placenta
- skin
- stomach
- testes
- thymus
- thyroid
- andrology
- autoimmunity
- cardiovascular endocrinology
- developmental endocrinology
- diabetes
- emergency
- endocrine disruptors
- endocrine-related cancer
- epigenetics
- genetics and mutation
- growth factors
- gynaecological endocrinology
- immunology
- infectious diseases
- late effects of cancer therapy
- mineral
- neuroendocrinology
- obesity
- ophthalmology
- paediatric endocrinology
- puberty
- tumours and neoplasia
- vitamin d
- 17ohp
- acth
- adiponectin
- adrenaline
- aldosterone
- amh
- androgens
- androstenedione
- androsterone
- angiotensin
- antidiuretic hormone
- atrial natriuretic hormone
- avp
- beta-endorphin
- big igf2
- brain natriuretic peptide
- calcitonin
- calcitriol
- cck
- corticosterone
- corticotrophin
- cortisol
- cortisone
- crh
- dehydroepiandrostenedione
- deoxycorticosterone
- deoxycortisol
- dhea
- dihydrotestosterone
- dopamine
- endothelin
- enkephalin
- epitestosterone
- epo
- fgf23
- fsh
- gastrin
- gh
- ghrelin
- ghrh
- gip
- glp1
- glp2
- glucagon
- glucocorticoids
- gnrh
- gonadotropins
- hcg
- hepcidin
- histamine
- human placental lactogen
- hydroxypregnenolone
- igf1
- igf2
- inhibin
- insulin
- kisspeptin
- leptin
- lh
- melanocyte-stimulating hormone
- melatonin
- metanephrines
- mineralocorticoids
- motilin
- nandrolone
- neuropeptide y
- noradrenaline
- normetanephrine
- oestetrol (e4)
- oestradiol (e2)
- oestriol (e3)
- oestrogens
- oestrone (e1)
- osteocalcin
- oxyntomodulin
- oxytocin
- pancreatic polypeptide
- peptide yy
- pregnenolone
- procalcitonin
- progesterone
- prolactin
- prostaglandins
- pth
- relaxin
- renin
- resistin
- secretin
- somatostatin
- testosterone
- thpo
- thymosin
- thymulin
- thyroxine (t4)
- trh
- triiodothyronine (t3)
- tsh
- vip
- 17-alpha hydroxylase/17,20 lyase deficiency
- 17-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 deficiency
- 3-m syndrome
- 22q11 deletion syndrome
- 49xxxxy syndrome
- abscess
- acanthosis nigricans
- acromegaly
- acute adrenocortical insufficiency
- addisonian crisis
- addison's disease
- adenocarcinoma
- aip gene mutation
- adrenal insufficiency
- adrenal salt-wasting crisis
- adrenarche
- adrenocortical adenoma
- adrenocortical carcinoma
- adrenoleukodystrophy
- aip gene variant
- amenorrhoea (primary)
- amenorrhoea (secondary)
- amyloid goitre
- amyloidosis
- anaplastic thyroid cancer
- anaemia
- aneuploidy
- androgen insensitivity syndrome
- anti-phospholipid antibody syndrome
- asthma
- autoimmune disorders
- autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome 1
- autoimmune polyendocrine syndrome 2
- autoimmune polyglandular syndrome
- autoimmune hypophysitis
- autosomal dominant hypophosphataemic rickets
- autosomal dominant osteopetrosis
- bardet-biedl syndrome
- bartter syndrome
- bilateral adrenal hyperplasia
- biliary calculi
- breast cancer
- brenner tumour
- brown tumour
- burkitt's lymphoma
- casr gene mutation
- catecholamine secreting carotid body paraganglionoma
- cancer-prone syndrome
- carcinoid syndrome
- carcinoid tumour
- carney complex
- carotid body paraganglioma
- c-cell hyperplasia
- cerebrospinal fluid leakage
- chronic fatigue syndrome
- circadian rhythm sleep disorders
- congenital adrenal hyperplasia
- congenital hypothyroidism
- congenital hyperinsulinism
- conn's syndrome
- corticotrophic adenoma
- craniopharyngioma
- cretinism
- crohn's disease
- cryptorchidism
- cushing's disease
- cushing's syndrome
- cystolithiasis
- de quervain's thyroiditis
- denys-drash syndrome
- desynchronosis
- developmental abnormalities
- diabetes - lipoatrophic
- diabetes - mitochondrial
- diabetes - steroid-induced
- diabetes insipidus - dipsogenic
- diabetes insipidus - gestational
- diabetes insipidus - nephrogenic
- diabetes insipidus - neurogenic/central
- diabetes mellitus type 1
- diabetes mellitus type 2
- diabetic foot syndrome
- diabetic hypoglycaemia
- diabetic ketoacidosis
- diabetic muscle infarction
- diabetic nephropathy
- diverticular disease
- donohue syndrome
- down syndrome
- eating disorders
- ectopic acth syndrome
- ectopic cushing's syndrome
- ectopic parathyroid adenoma
- empty sella syndrome
- endometrial cancer
- endometriosis
- eosinophilic myositis
- euthyroid sick syndrome
- familial hypocalciuric hypercalcaemia
- familial dysalbuminaemic hyperthyroxinaemia
- familial euthyroid hyperthyroxinaemia
- fat necrosis
- female athlete triad syndrome
- fetal demise
- fetal macrosomia
- follicular thyroid cancer
- fractures
- frasier syndrome
- friedreich's ataxia
- functional parathyroid cyst
- galactorrhoea
- gastrinoma
- gastritis
- gastrointestinal perforation
- gastrointestinal stromal tumour
- gck mutation
- gender identity disorder
- gestational diabetes mellitus
- giant ovarian cysts
- gigantism
- gitelman syndrome
- glucagonoma
- glucocorticoid remediable aldosteronism
- glycogen storage disease
- goitre
- goitre (multinodular)
- gonadal dysgenesis
- gonadoblastoma
- gonadotrophic adenoma
- gorham's disease
- granuloma
- granulosa cell tumour
- graves' disease
- graves' ophthalmopathy
- growth hormone deficiency (adult)
- growth hormone deficiency (childhood onset)
- gynaecomastia
- hamman's syndrome
- haemorrhage
- hajdu-cheney syndrome
- hashimoto's disease
- hemihypertrophy
- hepatitis c
- hereditary multiple osteochondroma
- hirsutism
- histiocytosis
- huntington's disease
- hürthle cell adenoma
- hyperaldosteronism
- hyperandrogenism
- hypercalcaemia
- hypercalcaemic crisis
- hyperglucogonaemia
- hyperglycaemia
- hypergonadotropic hypogonadism
- hypergonadotropism
- hyperinsulinaemia
- hyperinsulinaemic hypoglycaemia
- hyperkalaemia
- hyperlipidaemia
- hypernatraemia
- hyperosmolar hyperglycaemic state
- hyperparathyroidism (primary)
- hyperparathyroidism (secondary)
- hyperparathyroidism (tertiary)
- hyperpituitarism
- hyperprolactinaemia
- hypersexuality
- hypertension
- hyperthyroidism
- hypoaldosteronism
- hypocalcaemia
- hypoestrogenism
- hypoglycaemia
- hypoglycaemic coma
- hypogonadism
- hypogonadotrophic hypogonadism
- hypoinsulinaemia
- hypokalaemia
- hyponatraemia
- hypoparathyroidism
- hypophosphataemia
- hypophosphatasia
- hypophysitis
- hypopituitarism
- hypothyroidism
- iatrogenic disorder
- idiopathic bilateral adrenal hyperplasia
- idiopathic pituitary hyperplasia
- igg4-related systemic disease
- inappropriate tsh secretion
- incidentaloma
- infertility
- insulin autoimmune syndrome
- insulin resistance
- insulinoma
- intracranial vasospasm
- intrauterine growth retardation
- iodine allergy
- ischaemic heart disease
- kallmann syndrome
- ketoacidosis
- klinefelter syndrome
- kwashiorkor
- kwashiorkor (marasmic)
- leg ulcer
- laron syndrome
- latent autoimmune diabetes of adults (lada)
- laurence-moon syndrome
- left ventricular hypertrophy
- leukocytoclastic vasculitis
- leydig cell tumour
- lipodystrophy
- lipomatosis
- liver failure
- lung metastases
- luteoma
- lymphadenopathy
- macronodular adrenal hyperplasia
- macronodular hyperplasia
- macroprolactinoma
- marasmus
- maturity onset diabetes of young (mody)
- mccune-albright syndrome
- mckittrick-wheelock syndrome
- medullary thyroid cancer
- meigs syndrome
- membranous nephropathy
- men1
- men2a
- men2b
- men4
- menarche
- meningitis
- menopause
- metabolic acidosis
- metabolic syndrome
- metastatic carcinoma
- metastatic chromaffin cell tumour
- metastatic gastrinoma
- metastatic melanoma
- metastatic tumour
- microadenoma
- microprolactinoma
- motor neurone disease
- myasthenia gravis
- myelolipoma
- myocardial infarction
- myositis
- myotonic dystrophy type 1
- myotonic dystrophy type 2
- myxoedema
- myxoedema coma
- nelson's syndrome
- neonatal diabetes
- nephrolithiasis
- neuroblastoma
- neuroendocrine tumour
- neurofibromatosis
- nodular hyperplasia
- non-functioning pituitary adenoma
- non-hodgkin lymphoma
- non-islet-cell tumour hypoglycaemia
- noonan syndrome
- oculocerebrorenal syndrome
- osteogenesis imperfecta
- osteomalacia
- osteomyelitis
- osteoporosis
- osteoporosis (pregnancy/lactation-associated)
- osteosclerosis
- ovarian cancer
- ovarian dysgenesis
- ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome
- ovarian tumour
- paget's disease
- paget's disease (juvenille)
- pancreatic neuroendocrine tumour
- pancreatitis
- panhypopituitarism
- papillary thyroid cancer
- paraganglioma
- paranasal sinus lesion
- paraneoplastic syndromes
- parasitic thyroid nodules
- parathyroid adenoma
- parathyroid adenoma (ectopic)
- parathyroid carcinoma
- parathyroid cyst
- parathroid hyperplasia
- pcos
- periodontal disease
- phaeochromocytoma
- phaeochromocytoma crisis
- pickardt syndrome
- pituitary abscess
- pituitary adenoma
- pituitary apoplexy
- pituitary carcinoma
- pituitary cyst
- pituitary haemorrhage
- pituitary hyperplasia
- pituitary hypoplasia
- pituitary tumour (malignant)
- plurihormonal pituitary adenoma
- poems syndrome
- polycythaemia
- porphyria
- pneumonia
- posterior reversible encephalopathy syndrome
- post-prandial hypoglycaemia
- prader-willi syndrome
- prediabetes
- pre-eclampsia
- pregnancy
- premature ovarian failure
- premenstrual dysphoric disorder
- premenstrual syndrome
- primary hypertrophic osteoarthropathy
- prolactinoma
- prostate cancer
- pseudohypoaldosteronism type 1
- pseudohypoaldosteronism type 2
- pseudohypoparathyroidism
- psychosocial short stature
- puberty (delayed or absent)
- puberty (precocious)
- pulmonary oedema
- quadrantanopia
- rabson-mendenhall syndrome
- rhabdomyolysis
- rheumatoid arthritis
- rickets
- schwannoma
- sellar reossification
- sertoli cell tumour
- sertoli-leydig cell tumour
- sexual development disorders
- sheehan's syndrome
- short stature
- siadh
- small-cell carcinoma
- small intestine neuroendocrine tumour
- solitary fibrous tumour
- solitary sellar plasmacytoma
- somatostatinoma
- somatotrophic adenoma
- squamous cell thyroid carcinoma
- stiff person syndrome
- struma ovarii
- subcutaneous insulin resistance
- systemic lupus erythematosus
- takotsubo cardiomyopathy
- tarts
- testicular cancer
- thecoma
- thyroid adenoma
- thyroid carcinoma
- thyroid cyst
- thyroid dysgenesis
- thyroid fibromatosis
- thyroid hormone resistance syndrome
- thyroid lymphoma
- thyroid nodule
- thyroid storm
- thyroiditis
- thyrotoxicosis
- thyrotrophic adenoma
- traumatic brain injury
- tuberculosis
- tuberous sclerosis complex
- tumour-induced osteomalacia
- turner syndrome
- unilateral adrenal hyperplasia
- ureterolithiasis
- urolithiasis
- von hippel-lindau disease
- wagr syndrome
- waterhouse-friderichsen syndrome
- williams syndrome
- wolcott-rallison syndrome
- wolfram syndrome
- xanthogranulomatous hypophysitis
- xlaad/ipex
- zollinger-ellison syndrome
- abdominal adiposity
- abdominal distension
- abdominal cramp
- abdominal discomfort
- abdominal guarding
- abdominal lump
- abdominal pain
- abdominal tenderness
- abnormal posture
- abdominal wall defects
- abrasion
- acalculia
- accelerated growth
- acne
- acrochorda
- acroosteolysis
- acute stress reaction
- adverse breast development
- aggression
- agitation
- agnosia
- akathisia
- akinesia
- albuminuria
- alcohol intolerance
- alexia
- alopecia
- altered level of consciousness
- amaurosis
- amaurosis fugax
- ambiguous genitalia
- amblyopia
- amenorrhoea
- ameurosis
- amnesia
- amusia
- anasarca
- angiomyxoma
- anhedonia
- anisocoria
- ankle swelling
- anorchia
- anorectal malformations
- anorexia
- anosmia
- anosognosia
- anovulation
- antepartum haemorrhage
- anuria
- anxiety
- apathy
- aphasia
- aphonia
- apnoea
- appendicitis
- appetite increase
- appetite reduction/loss
- apraxia
- aqueductal stenosis
- arteriosclerosis
- arthralgia
- articulation impairment
- ascites
- asperger syndrome
- asphyxia
- asthenia
- astigmatism
- asymptomatic
- ataxia
- atrial fibrillation
- atrial myxoma
- atrophy
- adhd
- autism
- autonomic neuropathy
- avulsion
- babinski's sign
- back pain
- bacteraemia
- behavioural problems
- belching
- bifid scrotum
- biliary colic
- bitemporal hemianopsia
- blindness
- blistering
- bloating
- bloody show
- boil(s)
- bone cyst
- bone fracture(s)
- bone lesions
- bone pain
- bony metastases
- borborygmus
- bowel movements - bleeding
- bowel movements - increased frequency
- bowel movements - pain
- bowel obstruction
- bowel perforation
- brachycephaly
- brachydactyly
- bradycardia
- bradykinesia
- bradyphrenia
- bradypnea
- breast contour change
- breast enlargement
- breast lump
- breast reduction
- breast tenderness
- breastfeeding difficulties
- breathing difficulties
- bronchospasms
- brushfield spots
- bruxism
- buffalo hump
- cachexia
- calcification
- cardiac fibrosis
- cardiac malformations
- cardiac tamponade
- cardiogenic shock
- cardiomegaly
- cardiomyopathy
- cardiopulmonary arrest
- carpal tunnel syndrome
- caruncle - inflammation
- cataplexy
- cataract(s)
- catathrenia
- central obesity
- cerebrospinal fluid rhinorrhoea
- cervical pain
- cheeks - full
- cheiloschisis
- chemosis
- chest pain
- chest pain (pleuritic)
- chest pain (precordial)
- cheyne-stokes respiration
- chills
- cholecystitis
- cholestasis
- chondrocalcinosis
- chordee
- chorea
- choroidal atrophy
- chronic pain
- circulatory collapse
- cirrhosis
- citraturia
- claudication
- clitoromegaly
- cloacal exstrophy
- clonus
- club foot
- clumsiness
- coagulopathy
- coarctation
- coeliac disease
- cognitive problems
- cold intolerance
- collapse
- colour blindness
- coma
- concentration difficulties
- confusion
- congenital heart defect
- conjunctivitis
- constipation
- convulsions
- coordination difficulties
- coughing
- crackles
- cramps
- craniofacial abnormalities
- craniotabes
- cutaneous ischaemia
- cutaneous myxoma
- cutaneous pigmentation
- cyanosis
- dalrymple's sign
- deafness
- deep vein thrombosis
- dehydration
- delayed puberty
- delirium
- dementia
- dental abscess(es)
- dental problems
- depression
- diabetes insipidus
- diabetic neuropathy
- diabetic foot infection
- diabetic foot neuropathy
- diabetic foot ulceration
- diarrhoea
- diplopia
- dizziness
- duodenal atresia
- duplex kidney(s)
- dysarthria
- dysdiadochokinesia
- dysgraphia
- dyslexia
- dyslipidaemia
- dysmenorrhoea
- dyspareunia
- dyspepsia
- dysphagia
- dysphonia
- dysphoria
- dyspnoea
- dystonia
- dysuria
- ear, nose and/or throat infection
- early menarche
- ears - low set
- ears - pinna abnormalities
- ears - small
- ecchymoses
- ectopic ureter
- emotional immaturity
- encopresis
- endometrial hyperplasia
- enlarged bladder
- enlarged prostate
- eosinophilia
- epicanthic fold
- epilepsy
- epistaxis
- erectile dysfunction
- erythema
- euphoria
- eyebrows - bushy
- eyelid retraction
- eyelid swelling
- eyelids - redness
- eyes - almond-shaped
- eyes - dry
- eyes - feeling of grittiness
- eyes - inflammation
- eyes - irritation
- eyes - itching
- eyes - pain (gazing down)
- eyes - pain (gazing up)
- eyes - redness
- eyes - watering
- face - change in appearance
- face - coarse features
- face - numbness
- facial fullness
- facial palsy
- facial plethora
- facial weakness
- facies - abnormal
- facies - hippocratic
- facies - moon
- faecal incontinence
- failure to thrive
- fallopian tube hyperplasia
- fasciculation
- fatigue
- fatigue (post-exertional)
- feet - cold
- feet - increased size
- feet - large
- feet - pain
- feet - small
- fingers - thick
- flaccid paralysis
- flatulence
- flushing
- fontanelles - enlarged
- frontal bossing
- fungating lesion
- fungating mass
- funny turns
- gait abnormality
- gait unsteadiness
- gallbladder calculi
- gallstones
- gangrene
- gastro-oesophageal reflux
- genital oedema
- genu valgum
- genu varum
- gestational diabetes
- glaucoma
- glucose intolerance
- glucosuria
- growth hormone deficiency
- growth retardation
- haematemesis
- haematochezia
- haematoma
- haematuria
- haemoglobinuria
- haemoptysis
- hair - coarse
- hair - dry
- hair - temporal balding
- hairline - low
- hallucination
- hands - enlargement
- hands - large
- hands - single palmar crease
- hands - small
- head - large
- headache
- hearing loss
- heart failure
- heart murmur
- heat intolerance
- height loss
- hemiballismus
- hemianopia
- hemiparesis
- hemispatial neglect
- hepatic cysts
- hepatic metastases
- hepatomegaly
- hidradenitis suppurativa
- high-arched palate
- hip dislocation
- hippocampal dysgenesis
- hirschsprung's disease
- hot flushes
- hydronephrosis
- hypolipidaemia
- hyperactivity
- hyperacusis
- hyperandrogenaemia
- hypercalciuria
- hypercapnea
- hypercholesterolaemia
- hypercortisolaemia
- hyperflexibility
- hyperglucagonaemia
- hyperhidrosis
- hyperhomocysteinaemia
- hypernasal speech
- hyperopia
- hyperoxaluria
- hyperpigmentation
- hyperplasia
- hyperpnoea
- hypersalivation
- hyperseborrhea
- hypersomnia
- hyperthermia
- hypertrichosis
- hypertrophy
- hyperuricaemia
- hyperventilation
- hypoadrenalism
- hypoalbuminaemia
- hypocalciuria
- hypocitraturia
- hypomagnesaemia
- hypopigmentation
- hypoplastic scrotum
- hypopotassaemia
- hypoprolactinaemia
- hyporeflexia
- hyposmia
- hypospadias
- hypotension
- hypothermia
- hypotonia
- hypoventilation
- hypovitaminosis d
- hypovolaemia
- hypovolaemic shock
- hypoxia
- immunodeficiency
- impulsivity
- inattention
- infections
- inflexibility
- insomnia
- instability
- intussusception
- irritability
- ischaemia
- ischuria
- itching
- jaundice
- keratoconus
- ketonuria
- ketotic odour
- kidney dysplasia
- kidney stones
- kyphoscoliosis
- kyphosis
- labioscrotal fold abnormalities
- laceration
- late dentition
- learning difficulties
- leg pain
- legs - increased length
- leukaemia
- leukocytosis
- libido increase
- libido reduction/loss
- lichen sclerosus
- lips - dry
- lips - thin
- little finger - in-curved
- little finger - short
- liver masses
- lordosis
- lordosis (loss of)
- lymphadenectomy
- lymphadenitis
- lymphocytosis
- lymphoedema
- macroglossia
- malaise
- malaise (post-exertional)
- malodorous perspiration
- mania
- marcus gunn pupil
- mastalgia
- meckel's diverticulum
- melena
- menorrhagia
- menstrual disorder
- mesenteric ischaemia
- metabolic alkalosis
- microalbuminuria
- microcephaly
- micrognathia
- micropenis
- milk-alkali syndrome
- miscarriage
- mood changes/swings
- mouth - down-turned
- mouth - small
- movement - limited range of
- mucosal pigmentation
- muscle atrophy
- muscle freezing
- muscle hypertrophy
- muscle rigidity
- myalgia
- myasthaenia
- mydriasis
- myelodysplasia
- myeloma
- myoclonus
- myodesopsia
- myokymia
- myopathy
- myopia
- myosis
- nail clubbing
- nail dystrophy
- nasal obstruction
- nausea
- neck - loose skin (nape)
- neck - short
- neck mass
- neck pain/discomfort
- necrolytic migratory erythema
- necrosis
- nephrocalcinosis
- nephropathy
- neurofibromas
- night terrors
- nipple change
- nipple discharge
- nipple inversion
- nipple retraction
- nipples widely spaced
- nocturia
- normochromic normocytic anaemia
- nose - depressed bridge
- nose - flat bridge
- nose - thickening
- nystagmus
- obsessive-compulsive disorder
- obstetrical haemorrhage
- obstructive sleep apnoea
- odynophagia
- oedema
- oesophageal atresia
- oesophagitis
- oligomenorrhoea
- oliguria
- onychauxis
- oophoritis
- ophthalmoplegia
- optic atrophy
- orbital fat prolapse
- orbital hypertelorism
- orthostatic hypotension
- osteoarthritis
- osteopenia
- otitis media
- ovarian cysts
- ovarian hyperplasia
- palatoschisis
- pallor
- palmar erythema
- palpebral fissure (downslanted)
- palpebral fissure (extended)
- palpebral fissure (reduced)
- palpebral fissure (upslanted)
- palpitations
- pancreatic fibrosis
- pancytopaenia
- panic attacks
- papilloedema
- paraesthesia
- paralysis
- paranoia
- patellar dislocation
- patellar subluxation
- pedal ulceration
- pellagra
- pelvic mass
- pelvic pain
- penile agenesis
- peptic ulcer
- pericardial effusion
- periodontitis
- periosteal bone reactions
- peripheral oedema
- personality change
- pes cavus
- petechiae
- peyronie's disease
- pharyngitis
- philtrum - long
- philtrum - short
- phosphaturia
- photophobia
- photosensitivity
- pleurisy
- poikiloderma
- polydactyly
- polydipsia
- polyphagia
- polyuria
- poor wound healing
- postmenopausal bleeding
- post-nasal drip
- postprandial fullness
- postural instability
- prehypertension
- premature birth
- premature labour
- prenatal growth retardation
- presbyopia
- pretibial myxoedema
- proctalgia fugax
- prognathism
- proptosis
- prosopagnosia
- proteinuria
- pruritus
- pruritus scroti
- pruritus vulvae
- pseudarthrosis
- psoriatic arthritis
- psychiatric problems
- psychomotor retardation
- psychosis
- pterygium colli
- ptosis
- puberty (delayed/absent)
- puberty (early/precocious)
- puffiness
- pulmonary embolism
- purpura
- pyelonephritis
- pyloric stenosis
- pyrexia
- pyrosis
- pyuria
- rash
- rectal pain
- rectorrhagia
- refractory anemia
- reluctance to weight-bear
- renal agenesis
- renal clubbing
- renal colic
- renal cyst
- renal failure
- renal insufficiency
- renal phosphate wasting (isolated)
- renal tubular acidosis
- respiratory failure
- reticulocytosis
- retinitis pigmentosa
- retinopathy
- retrobulbar pain
- retrograde ejaculation
- retroperitoneal fibrosis
- salivary gland swelling
- salpingitis
- salt craving
- salt wasting
- sarcoidosis
- schizophrenia
- scoliosis
- scotoma
- seborrhoeic dermatitis
- seizures
- sensory loss
- sepsis
- septic arthritis
- septic shock
- shivering
- singultus
- sinusitis
- sixth nerve palsy
- skeletal deformity
- skeletal dysplasia
- skin - texture change
- skin infections
- skin necrosis
- skin pigmentation - spotty
- skin thickening
- skin thinning
- sleep apnoea
- sleep difficulties
- sleep disturbance
- sleep hyperhidrosis
- slow growth
- slurred speech
- social difficulties
- soft tissue swelling
- somnambulism
- somniloquy
- somnolence
- sore throat
- spasms
- spastic paraplegia
- spasticity
- speech delay
- spider naevi
- splenomegaly
- sputum production
- steatorrhoea
- stomatitis
- strabismus
- strangury
- striae
- stridor
- stroke
- subfertility
- suicidal ideation
- supraclavicular fat pads
- supranuclear gaze palsy
- sweating
- syncope
- syndactyly
- tachycardia
- tachypnoea
- teeth gapping
- telangiectasias
- telecanthus
- tetraparesis
- t-reflex (absent)
- t-reflex (depressed)
- tetany
- thermodysregulation
- thrombocytopenia
- thrombocytosis
- thrombophilia
- thrush
- tics
- tinnitus
- toe clubbing
- toe deformities
- toes - thick
- toes - widely spaced
- tongue - protruding
- tracheo-oesophageal compression
- tracheo-oesophageal fistula
- tremulousness
- tricuspid insufficiency
- umbilical hernia
- uraemia
- ureter duplex
- uricaemia
- urinary frequency
- urinary incontinence
- urogenital sinus
- urticaria
- uterine hyperplasia
- uterus duplex
- vagina duplex
- vaginal bleeding
- vaginal discharge
- vaginal dryness
- vaginal pain/tenderness
- vaginism
- ventricular fibrillation
- ventricular hypertrophy
- vertigo
- viraemia
- virilisation (abnormal)
- vision - acuity reduction
- vision - blurred
- visual disturbance
- visual field defect
- visual impairment
- visual loss
- vitiligo
- vocal cord paresis
- vomiting
- von graefe's sign
- weight gain
- weight loss
- wheezing
- widened joint space(s)
- xeroderma
- xerostomia
- 3-methoxy 4-hydroxy mandelic acid
- 17-hydroxypregnenolone (urine)
- 17-ketosteroids
- 25-hydroxyvitamin-d3
- 5hiaa
- aberrant adrenal receptors
- acid-base balance
- acth stimulation
- activated partial thromboplastin time
- acyl-ghrelin
- adrenal antibodies
- adrenal function
- adrenal scintigraphy
- adrenal venous sampling
- afp tumour marker
- alanine aminotransferase
- albumin
- albumin to creatinine ratio
- aldosterone (24-hour urine)
- aldosterone (blood)
- aldosterone (plasma)
- aldosterone (serum)
- aldosterone to renin ratio
- alkaline phosphatase
- alkaline phosphatase (bone-specific)
- alpha-fetoprotein
- ammonia
- amniocentesis
- amylase
- angiography
- anion gap
- anti-acetylcholine antibodies
- anticardiolipin antibody
- anti-insulin antibodies
- anti-islet cell antibody
- anti-gh antibodies
- antinuclear antibody
- anti-tyrosine phosphatase antibodies
- asvs
- barium studies
- basal insulin
- base excess
- apolipoprotein h
- beta-hydroxybutyrate
- bicarbonate
- bilirubin
- biopsy
- blood film
- blood pressure
- bmi
- body fat mass
- bone age
- bone biopsy
- bone mineral content
- bone mineral density
- bone mineral density test
- bone scintigraphy
- bone sialoprotein
- bound insulin
- brca1/brca2
- c1np
- c3 complement
- c4 complement
- ca125
- calcifediol
- calcium (serum)
- calcium (urine)
- calcium to creatinine clearance ratio
- carcinoembryonic antigen
- cardiac index
- catecholamines (24-hour urine)
- catecholamines (plasma)
- cd-56
- chemokines
- chest auscultation
- chloride
- chorionic villus sampling
- chromatography
- chromogranin a
- chromosomal analysis
- clomid challenge
- clonidine suppression
- collagen
- colonoscopy
- colposcopy
- continuous glucose monitoring
- core needle biopsy
- corticotropin-releasing hormone stimulation test
- cortisol (9am)
- cortisol (plasma)
- cortisol (midnight)
- cortisol (salivary)
- cortisol (serum)
- cortisol day curve
- cortisol, free (24-hour urine)
- c-peptide (24-hour urine)
- c-peptide (blood)
- c-reactive protein
- creatinine
- creatine kinase
- creatinine (24-hour urine)
- creatinine (serum)
- creatinine clearance
- crh stimulation
- ctpa scan
- ct scan
- c-telopeptide
- cytokines
- deoxypyridinoline
- dexa scan
- dexamethasone suppression
- dexamethasone suppression (high dose)
- dexamethasone suppression (low dose)
- dhea sulphate
- discectomy
- dldl cholesterol
- dmsa scan
- dna sequencing
- domperidone
- down syndrome screening
- ductal lavage
- echocardiogram
- eeg
- electrocardiogram
- electrolytes
- electromyography
- endoscopic ultrasound
- endoscopy
- endosonography
- enzyme immunoassay
- epinephrine (plasma)
- epinephrine (urine)
- erythrocyte sedimentation rate
- estimated glomerular filtration rate
- ethanol ablation
- ewing and clarke autonomic function
- exercise tolerance
- fbc
- ferritin
- fine needle aspiration biopsy
- flow cytometry
- fludrocortisone suppression
- fluticasone-propionate-17-beta carboxylic acid
- fmri
- folate
- ft3
- ft4
- gada
- gallium nitrate
- gallium scan
- gastric biopsy
- genetic analysis
- genitography
- gh day curve
- gh stimulation
- gh suppression
- glp-1
- glp-2
- glucose suppression test
- glucose (blood)
- glucose (blood, fasting)
- glucose (blood, postprandial)
- glucose (urine)
- glucose tolerance
- glucose tolerance (intravenous)
- glucose tolerance (oral)
- glucose tolerance (prolonged)
- gluten sensitivity
- gnrh stimulation
- gonadotrophins
- growth hormone-releasing peptide-2 test
- gut hormones (fasting)
- haematoxylin and eosin staining
- haemoglobin
- haemoglobin a1c
- hcg (serum)
- hcg (urine)
- hcg stimulation
- hdl cholesterol
- hearing test
- heart rate
- hepatic venous sampling with arterial stimulation
- high-sensitivity c-reactive protein
- histopathology
- hla genotyping
- holter monitoring
- homa
- homocysteine
- hyaluronic acid
- hydrocortisone day curve
- hydroxyproline
- hydroxyprogesterone
- hysteroscopy
- igfbp2
- igfbp3
- igg4/igg ratio
- immunocytochemistry
- immunohistochemistry
- immunoglobulins
- immunoglobulin g2
- immunoglobulin g4
- immunoglobulin a
- immunoglobulin m
- immunostaining
- inferior petrosal sinus sampling
- inhibin b
- insulin (fasting)
- insulin suppression
- insulin tissue resistance tests
- insulin tolerance
- intracranial pressure
- irm imaging
- ketones (plasma)
- ketones (urine)
- kidney function
- lactate
- lactate dehydrogenase
- laparoscopy
- laparoscopy and dye
- laparotomy
- ldl cholesterol
- leuprolide acetate stimulation
- leukocyte esterase (urine)
- levothyroxine absorption
- lipase (serum)
- lipid profile
- liquid-based cytology
- liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry
- liver biopsy
- liver function
- lumbar puncture
- lung function testing
- luteinising hormone releasing hormone test
- macroprolactin
- magnesium
- mag3 scan
- mammogram
- mantoux test
- metanephrines (plasma)
- metanephrines (urinary)
- methoxytyramine
- metoclopramide
- metyrapone cortisol day curve
- metyrapone suppression
- metyrapone test dose
- mibg scan
- microarray analysis
- molecular genetic analysis
- mri
- myocardial biopsy
- nerve conduction study
- neuroendocrine markers
- neuron-specific enolase
- norepinephrine
- ntx
- oct
- octreotide scan
- octreotide suppression test
- osmolality
- ovarian venous sampling
- p1np
- palpation
- pap test
- parathyroid scintigraphy
- pentagastrin
- perchlorate discharge
- percutaneous umbilical blood sampling
- peripheral blood film
- pet scan
- ph (blood)
- phosphate (serum)
- phosphate (urine)
- pituitary function
- plasma osmolality
- plasma viscosity
- platelet count
- pneumococcal antigen
- pneumococcal pcr
- polymerase chain reaction
- polysomnography
- porter-silber chromogens
- potassium
- pregnancy test
- proinsulin
- prostate-specific antigen
- protein electrophoresis
- protein fingerprinting
- protein folding analysis
- psychiatric assessment
- psychometric assessment
- pulse oximetry
- pyelography
- pyridinium crosslinks
- quicki
- plasma renin activity
- radioimmunoassay
- radionuclide imaging
- raiu test
- red blood cell count
- renal biopsy
- renin (24-hour urine)
- respiratory status
- renin (blood)
- renin plasma activity
- rheumatoid factor
- salt loading
- sdldl cholesterol
- secretin stimulation
- selective parathyroid venous sampling
- selective transhepatic portal venous sampling
- semen analysis
- serotonin
- serum osmolality
- serum free insulin
- sestamibi scan
- sex hormone binding globulin
- shbg
- skeletal muscle mass
- skin biopsy
- sleep diary
- sodium
- spect scan
- supervised 72-hour fast
- surgical biopsy
- sweat test
- synaptophysin
- systemic vascular resistance index
- tanner scale
- thoracocentesis
- thyroid transcription factor-1
- thyroglobulin
- thyroid antibodies
- thyroid function
- thyroid scintigraphy
- thyroid ultrasonography
- total cholesterol
- total ghrelin
- total t3
- total t4
- trabecular thickness
- transaminase
- transvaginal ultrasound
- trap 5b
- trh stimulation
- triglycerides
- triiodothyronine (t3) suppression
- troponin
- tsh receptor antibodies
- type 3 precollagen
- type 4 collagen
- ultrasound-guided biopsy
- ultrasound scan
- urea and electrolytes
- uric acid (blood)
- uric acid (urine)
- urinalysis
- urinary free cortisol
- urine 24-hour volume
- urine osmolality
- vaginal examination
- vanillylmandelic acid (24-hour urine)
- visual field assessment
- vitamin b12
- vitamin e
- waist circumference
- water deprivation
- water load
- weight
- western blotting
- white blood cell count
- white blood cell differential count
- x-ray
- zinc
- abscess drainage
- acetic acid injection
- adhesiolysis
- adrenalectomy
- amputation
- analgesics
- angioplasty
- arthrodesis
- assisted reproduction techniques
- bariatric surgery
- bilateral salpingo-oophorectomy
- blood transfusion
- bone grafting
- caesarean section
- cardiac transplantation
- cardiac pacemaker
- cataract extraction
- chemoembolisation
- chemotherapy
- chemoradiotherapy
- clitoroplasty
- continuous renal replacement therapy
- contraception
- cordotomy
- counselling
- craniotomy
- cryopreservation
- cryosurgical ablation
- debridement
- dialysis
- diazoxide
- diet
- duodenotomy
- endonasal endoscopic surgery
- exercise
- external fixation
- extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy
- extraocular muscle surgery
- eye surgery
- eyelid surgery
- fasciotomy
- fluid repletion
- fluid restriction
- gamma knife radiosurgery
- gastrectomy
- gastrostomy
- gender reassignment surgery
- gonadectomy
- heart transplantation
- hormone replacement
- hormone suppression
- hypophysectomy
- hysterectomy
- inguinal orchiectomy
- internal fixation
- intra-cardiac defibrillator
- islet transplantation
- ivf
- kidney transplantation
- laparoscopic adrenalectomy
- laryngoplasty
- laryngoscopy
- laser lithotripsy
- light treatment
- liver transplantation
- lumpectomy
- lymph node dissection
- mastectomy
- molecularly targeted therapy
- neuroendoscopic surgery
- oophorectomy
- orbital decompression
- orbital radiation
- orchidectomy
- orthopaedic surgery
- osteotomy
- ovarian cystectomy
- ovarian diathermy
- oxygen therapy
- pancreas transplantation
- pancreatectomy
- pancreaticoduodenectomy
- parathyroidectomy
- percutaneous adrenal ablation
- percutaneous nephrolithotomy
- pericardiocentesis
- pericardiotomy
- physiotherapy
- pituitary adenomectomy
- plasma exchange
- plasmapheresis
- psychotherapy
- radiofrequency ablation
- radionuclide therapy
- radiotherapy
- reconstruction of genitalia
- resection of tumour
- right-sided hemicolectomy
- salpingo-oophorectomy
- small bowel resection
- speech and language therapy
- spinal surgery
- splenectomy
- stereotactic radiosurgery
- termination of pregnancy
- thymic transplantation
- thyroidectomy
- tracheostomy
- transcranial surgery
- transsphenoidal surgery
- transtentorial surgery
- vaginoplasty
- vagotomy
- 5-alpha-reductase inhibitors
- 17?-estradiol
- abiraterone
- acarbose
- acetazolamide
- acetohexamide
- adalimumab
- albiglutide
- alendronate
- alogliptin
- alpha-blockers
- alphacalcidol
- alpha-glucosidase inhibitors
- amiloride
- amlodipine
- amoxicillin
- anastrozole
- angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors
- angiotensin receptor antagonists
- anthracyclines
- antiandrogens
- antibiotics
- antiemetics
- antiepileptics
- antipsychotics
- antithyroid drugs
- antiseptic
- antivirals
- aripiprazole
- aromatase inhibitors
- aspirin
- astragalus membranaceus
- ativan
- atenolol
- atorvastatin
- avp receptor antagonists
- axitinib
- azathioprine
- bendroflumethiazide
- benzodiazepines
- beta-blockers
- betamethasone
- bexlosteride
- bicalutamide
- bisphosphonates
- bleomycin
- botulinum toxin
- bromocriptine
- cabergoline
- cabozantinib
- calcimimetics
- calcitonin (salmon)
- calcium
- calcium carbonate
- calcium chloride
- calcium dobesilate
- calcium edta
- calcium gluconate
- calcium-l-aspartate
- calcium polystyrene sulphonate
- canagliflozin
- capecitabine
- captopril
- carbimazole
- carboplatin
- carbutamide
- carvedilol
- ceftriaxone
- chlorothiazide
- chlorpropamide
- cholecalciferol
- cholinesterase inhibitors
- ciclosporin
- cinacalcet
- cisplatin
- clodronate
- clomifene
- clomiphene citrate
- clopidogrel
- co-cyprindiol
- codeine
- colonic polyps
- combined oral contraceptive pill
- conivaptan
- cortisone acetate
- continuous subcutaneous hydrocortisone infusion
- continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion
- coumadin
- corticosteroids
- cortisol
- cyproterone acetate
- dacarbazine
- danazol
- dapagliflozin
- daunorubicin
- deferiprone
- demeclocycline
- denosumab
- desmopressin
- dexamethasone
- diazepam
- diethylstilbestrol
- digoxin
- diltiazem
- diphenhydramine
- diuretics
- docetaxel
- dopamine agonists
- dopamine antagonists
- dopamine receptor agonists
- doxazosin
- doxepin
- doxorubicin
- dpp4 inhibitors
- dutasteride
- dutogliptin
- eflornithine
- enoxaparin
- empagliflozin
- epinephrine
- epirubicin
- eplerenone
- epristeride
- equilenin
- equilin
- erlotinib
- ethinylestradiol
- etidronate
- etomidate
- etoposide
- everolimus
- exenatide
- fenofibrate
- finasteride
- fluconazole
- fluticasone
- fludrocortisone
- fluorouracil
- fluoxetine
- flutamide
- furosemide
- gaba receptor antagonists
- gefitinib
- gemcitabine
- gemigliptin
- ginkgo biloba
- glibenclamide
- glibornuride
- gliclazide
- glimepiride
- glipizide
- gliquidone
- glisoxepide
- glp1 agonists
- glucose
- glyclopyramide
- gnrh analogue
- gnrh antagonists
- heparin
- hrt (menopause)
- hydrochlorothiazide
- hydrocortisone
- ibandronate
- ibuprofen
- idarubicin
- idebenone
- imatinib
- immunoglobulin therapy
- implanon
- indapamide
- infliximab
- iron supplements
- isoniazid
- insulin aspart
- insulin glargine
- insulin glulisine
- insulin lispro
- interferon
- intrauterine system
- iopanoic acid
- ipilimumab
- ipragliflozin
- irbesartan
- izonsteride
- ketoconazole
- labetalol
- lactulose
- lanreotide
- leuprolide acetate
- levatinib
- levodopa
- levonorgestrel
- levothyroxine
- linagliptin
- liothyronine
- liraglutide
- lithium
- lisinopril
- lixivaptan
- loperamide
- loprazolam
- lormetazepam
- losartan
- low calcium formula
- magnesium glycerophosphate
- magnesium sulphate
- mecasermin
- medronate
- medroxyprogesterone acetate
- meglitinides
- menotropin
- metformin
- methadone
- methimazole
- methylprednisolone
- metoprolol
- metyrapone
- miglitol
- mitotane
- mitoxantrone
- mozavaptan
- mtor inhibitors
- multivitamins
- naproxen
- natalizumab
- nateglinide
- nelivaptan
- neridronate
- nifedipine
- nilutamide
- nitrazepam
- nivolumab
- nsaid
- octreotide
- oestradiol valerate
- olanzapine
- olpadronate
- omeprazole
- opioids
- oral contraceptives
- orlistat
- ornipressin
- otelixizumab
- oxandrolone
- oxidronate
- oxybutynin
- paclitaxel
- pamidronate
- pancreatic enzymes
- pantoprazole
- paracetamol
- paroxetine
- pasireotide
- pegvisomant
- perindopril
- phenobarbital
- phenoxybenzamine
- phosphate binders
- phosphate supplements
- phytohaemagglutinin induced interferon gamma
- pioglitazone
- plicamycin
- potassium chloride
- potassium iodide
- pramlintide
- prazosin
- prednisolone
- prednisone
- premarin
- promethazine
- propranolol
- propylthiouracil
- protease inhibitors
- proton pump inhibitors
- pyridostigmine
- quetiapine
- quinagolide
- quinestrol
- radioactive mibg
- radioactive octreotide
- radioiodine
- raloxifene
- ramipril
- relcovaptan
- remogliflozin etabonate
- repaglinide
- risperidone
- risedronate
- rituximab
- romidepsin
- rosiglitazone
- salbutamol
- saline
- salmeterol
- salt supplements
- satavaptan
- saxagliptin
- selective progesterone receptor modulators
- selenium
- sglt2 inhibitors
- sildenafil
- simvastatin
- sirolimus
- sitagliptin
- sodium bicarbonate
- sodium chloride
- sodium polystyrene sulfonate (kayexalate)
- somatostatin analogues
- sorafenib
- spironolactone
- ssris
- statins
- streptozotocin
- steroids
- strontium ranelate
- sucralfate
- sulphonylureas
- sunitinib
- tamoxifen
- taspoglutide
- temazepam
- temozolomide
- teplizumab
- terazosin
- teriparatide
- testolactone
- testosterone enanthate esters
- tetrabenazine
- thalidomide
- thiazolidinediones
- thyrotropin alpha
- tibolone
- tiludronate
- tiratricol (triac)
- tofogliflozin
- tolazamide
- tolbutamide
- tolvaptan
- tramadol
- trastuzumab
- trazodone
- triamcinolone
- triamterene
- trimipramine
- troglitazone
- tryptophan
- turosteride
- tyrosine-kinase inhibitors
- valproic acid
- valrubicin
- vandetanib
- vaptans
- vildagliptin
- vinorelbine
- voglibose
- vorinostat
- warfarin
- zaleplon
- z-drugs
- zoledronic acid
- zolpidem
- zopiclone
- cardiology
- dermatology
- gastroenterology
- general practice
- genetics
- geriatrics
- gynaecology
- nephrology
- neurology
- nursing
- obstetrics
- oncology
- otolaryngology
- paediatrics
- pathology
- podiatry
- psychology/psychiatry
- radiology/rheumatology
- rehabilitation
- surgery
- urology
- insight into disease pathogenesis or mechanism of therapy
- novel diagnostic procedure
- novel treatment
- unique/unexpected symptoms or presentations of a disease
- new disease or syndrome: presentations/diagnosis/management
- unusual effects of medical treatment
- error in diagnosis/pitfalls and caveats
- february
- 2022
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Affiliation(s)
- Aria Jazdarehee
- Department of Medicine and Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Sawyer Huget-Penner
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, Fraser Health Authority, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Monika Pawlowska
- Division of Endocrinology and Metabolism, University of British Columbia, British Columbia, Canada
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20
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Choufi S, Mounier S, Merlin E, Rochette E, Delorme J, Authier N, Chenaf C. Opioid Analgesic Prescription in French Children: A National Population-Based Study. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2021; 18:13316. [PMID: 34948923 PMCID: PMC8702064 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph182413316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2021] [Revised: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 12/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Codeine use was restricted in 2013 and is currently contraindicated for children below the age of 12 years. We examined how the prescription of opioid analgesics in children in France evolved between 2012 and 2018. Our population-based study from the SNIIRAM database (National System of Health Insurance Inter-Regime Information) was designed to determine trends in opioid prescription from 2012 to 2018 in all French children. The number of children who received at least one opioid prescription gradually declined from 452,665 in 2012 (347.5 children per 10,000) to 169,338 in 2018 (130.3 children per 10,000). This decrease was especially marked for codeine (36 children per 10,000 in 2018 vs. 308.5 children per 10,000 in 2012), whereas the number of tramadol prescriptions increased by 171% in 2018 (94.6 children per 10,000). Despite the increase, strong opioids still formed only a small proportion of prescriptions (2.6 children per 10,000 given opioids in 2018). Overall opioid prescriptions in French children dramatically decreased between 2012 and 2018, probably owing to restrictions on the use of codeine. Codeine has been partly replaced by tramadol. Morphine is still probably underused. This suggests that opioids are being used less often for pain management in children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samira Choufi
- Pédiatrie, CHU Clermont-Ferrand, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France; (S.C.); (S.M.); (E.M.)
| | - Simon Mounier
- Pédiatrie, CHU Clermont-Ferrand, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France; (S.C.); (S.M.); (E.M.)
| | - Etienne Merlin
- Pédiatrie, CHU Clermont-Ferrand, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France; (S.C.); (S.M.); (E.M.)
- CIC 1405, Unité CRECHE, INSERM, Université Clermont Auvergne, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Emmanuelle Rochette
- Pédiatrie, CHU Clermont-Ferrand, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France; (S.C.); (S.M.); (E.M.)
- CIC 1405, Unité CRECHE, INSERM, Université Clermont Auvergne, F-63000 Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Jessica Delorme
- CHU Clermont-Ferrand, Inserm 1107, Neuro-Dol, Service de Pharmacologie Médicale, Centres Addictovigilance et Pharmacovigilance, Centre Evaluation et Traitement de la Douleur, Université Clermont Auvergne, F-63003 Clermont-Ferrand, France; (J.D.); (N.A.); (C.C.)
- Observatoire Français des Médicaments Antalgiques (OFMA)/French Monitoring Centre for Analgesic Drugs, Université Clermont Auvergne-CHU Clermont-Ferrand, F-63001 Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Nicolas Authier
- CHU Clermont-Ferrand, Inserm 1107, Neuro-Dol, Service de Pharmacologie Médicale, Centres Addictovigilance et Pharmacovigilance, Centre Evaluation et Traitement de la Douleur, Université Clermont Auvergne, F-63003 Clermont-Ferrand, France; (J.D.); (N.A.); (C.C.)
- Observatoire Français des Médicaments Antalgiques (OFMA)/French Monitoring Centre for Analgesic Drugs, Université Clermont Auvergne-CHU Clermont-Ferrand, F-63001 Clermont-Ferrand, France
- Institut Analgesia, Faculté de Médecine, F-63001 Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Chouki Chenaf
- CHU Clermont-Ferrand, Inserm 1107, Neuro-Dol, Service de Pharmacologie Médicale, Centres Addictovigilance et Pharmacovigilance, Centre Evaluation et Traitement de la Douleur, Université Clermont Auvergne, F-63003 Clermont-Ferrand, France; (J.D.); (N.A.); (C.C.)
- Observatoire Français des Médicaments Antalgiques (OFMA)/French Monitoring Centre for Analgesic Drugs, Université Clermont Auvergne-CHU Clermont-Ferrand, F-63001 Clermont-Ferrand, France
- Institut Analgesia, Faculté de Médecine, F-63001 Clermont-Ferrand, France
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21
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Chen CL, Wong MW, Hung JS, Liang SW, Liu TT, Yi CH, Lin L, Orr WC, Lei WY. Effects of codeine on esophageal peristalsis in humans using high resolution manometry. J Gastroenterol Hepatol 2021; 36:3381-3386. [PMID: 34322907 DOI: 10.1111/jgh.15641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2021] [Revised: 06/24/2021] [Accepted: 07/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/09/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIM Opioid receptors agonists have been demonstrated to impair lower esophageal sphincter (LES) relaxation and induce spastic esophageal dysmotility, but little was known for their impact on distension-induced secondary peristalsis. The aim of the study was to investigate the hypothesis whether acute administration of codeine can influence physiological characteristics of primary and secondary peristalsis in healthy adults. METHODS Eighteen healthy volunteers (13 men, mean age 27.5 years, aged 20-43 years) underwent high resolution manometry (HRM) with a catheter containing an injection port in mid-esophagus. Secondary peristalsis was performed with 10 and 20 mL rapid air injections. Two different sessions including acute administration of codeine (60 mg) or the placebo were randomly performed. RESULTS Codeine significantly increased 4-s integrated relaxation pressure (IRP-4s) (P = 0.003) and shortened distal latency (DL) (P = 0.003) of primary peristalsis. The IRP-4s of secondary peristalsis was also significantly higher after codeine than the placebo during air injections with 10 mL (P = 0.048) and 20 mL (P = 0.047). Codeine significantly increased the frequency of secondary peristalsis during air injections with 10 mL than the placebo (P = 0.007), but not for air injection with 20 mL (P = 0.305). CONCLUSIONS In addition to impair LES relaxation and reduce distal latency of primary peristalsis, codeine impairs LES relaxation of secondary peristalsis and increases secondary peristaltic frequency. Our study supports the notion in human esophagus that the impact of opioids on peristaltic physiology appears to be present in both primary and secondary peristalsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chien-Lin Chen
- Department of Medicine, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation and Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan.,Institute of Medical Sciences, Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Wun Wong
- Department of Medicine, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation and Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan.,School of Post-Baccalaureate Chinese Medicine, Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan
| | - Jui-Sheng Hung
- Department of Medicine, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation and Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan
| | - Shu-Wei Liang
- Department of Medicine, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation and Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan
| | - Tso-Tsai Liu
- Department of Medicine, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation and Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Hsun Yi
- Department of Medicine, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation and Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan
| | - Lin Lin
- Department of Medicine, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation and Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan
| | - William C Orr
- Lynn Institute for Healthcare Research, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, USA
| | - Wei-Yi Lei
- Department of Medicine, Hualien Tzu Chi Hospital, Buddhist Tzu Chi Medical Foundation and Tzu Chi University, Hualien, Taiwan
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22
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Watson H, Hildebolt C, Rowland K. Pain relief with combination acetaminophen/ codeine or ibuprofen following third-molar extraction: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Pain Med 2021; 23:1176-1185. [PMID: 34850186 DOI: 10.1093/pm/pnab334] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2021] [Revised: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 11/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE The purpose of our study was to perform a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized, blinded, placebo-controlled studies that, following third-molar extraction, utilized either a combination of acetaminophen (600 mg) with codeine (60 mg) or ibuprofen (400 mg) for pain management. DESIGN We searched PubMed, and the trial registry ClinicalTrials.gov databases with the keywords "molar or molars", "tooth or teeth", "extraction" and "pain". Selected studies were: (1) randomized, blinded, placebo controlled, (2) utilized either a single-dose combination acetaminophen (600 mg) with codeine (60 mg) (A/C) or ibuprofen, and (3) recorded standardized pain relief (PR) at 6 hours, or summed total pain relief over 6 hours (TOTPAR6). Of the 2,949 articles that were identified, 79 were retrieved for full-text analysis, and 20 of these studies met our inclusion criteria. RESULTS For A/C, the weighted, standardized mean difference (SMD) for TOTPAR6 was 0.796 (0.597-0.995, 95% confidence interval), P < 0.001, and for PR at 6 h, the SMD was 0.0186 (0.007 to 0.378; P = 0.059), whereas for ibuprofen the SMD for TOTPAR6 was 3.009 (1.283 to 4.735; P = 0.001), and for PR at 6 h, the SMD was 0.854 (95% CI, 0.712 to 0.996; P < 0.001). A SMD of 0.8 or larger is indicative of a large effect. CONCLUSIONS Our data indicate that single dose of ibuprofen (400 mg) is an effective pain reducer for post third molar extraction pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hunter Watson
- Southern Illinois University School of Dental Medicine, Alton, IL
| | | | - Kevin Rowland
- University of Houston College of Medicine, Houston, TX
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Giorgetti A, Pelletti G, Fais P, Giovannini E, Barone R, Pelotti S, Pascali JP. The use of fly artifacts in a crime scene: Is there any application for forensic toxicology? J Forensic Sci 2021; 67:749-755. [PMID: 34729777 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.14930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2021] [Revised: 10/18/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Fly artifacts (FA) are bloodstains resulting from insect activity at a crime scene, usually by feeding on human blood. Whether these artifactual stains might be useful for forensic toxicological investigations in cases of absence of conventional and unconventional matrices, for example, in cases concealment of the body or of extensive putrefaction, has not yet been investigated. The purpose of this study is to understand if FA trace evidence permits toxicological analysis when traditional matrices are not available. To this aim, FA experimentally produced by Calliphora vomitoria feeding on human blood of a cocaine and heroin user were collected from absorptive and non-absorptive material. FA material was analyzed by a new simple and fast LC-MS/MS method. Results were evaluated in terms of presence of the drug and relative amount of the detected molecules. From a qualitative point of view, the analysis of FA revealed all the substances originally detected in post-mortem blood in both cases. The ratios of cocaine/benzoylecgonine, codeine/morphine, and 6-monoacetylmorphine/morphine recovered in FA from cotton-textile materials and from non-absorptive surfaces were consistent with data resulted from original post-mortem blood. The preliminary study herein reported demonstrated that FA are extremely informative in case of cocaine and heroin users and merit further research in order to be applied in real caseworks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arianna Giorgetti
- Unit of Legal Medicine, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Guido Pelletti
- Unit of Legal Medicine, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Paolo Fais
- Unit of Legal Medicine, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Elena Giovannini
- Unit of Legal Medicine, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Rossella Barone
- Unit of Legal Medicine, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Susi Pelotti
- Unit of Legal Medicine, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Jennifer P Pascali
- Department of Cardiac, Thoracic, Vascular Sciences and Public Health, University of Padova, Padova, Italy
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Ou LB, Azoulay L, Reynier P, Platt RW, Yoon S, Grad R, Filion KB. Tramadol versus codeine and the short-term risk of cardiovascular events in patients with non-cancer pain: A population-based cohort study. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2021; 88:1824-1834. [PMID: 34599613 DOI: 10.1111/bcp.15099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2020] [Revised: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS The effect of tramadol on the cardiovascular system is largely unknown. There is concern that, with its multimodal mechanism of action to increase serotonin and norepinephrine levels in the body, it could increase the risk of arterial ischaemia and cardiovascular events. We aimed to compare the short-term risk of cardiovascular events with the use of tramadol to that of codeine among patients with non-cancer pain. METHODS We conducted a retrospective population-based cohort study using data from the Clinical Practice Research Datalink (CPRD) with new users of tramadol or codeine from April 1998 to March 2017. Exposure was defined using an approach analogous to an intention-to-treat, with a maximum follow-up of 30 days. The primary endpoint was myocardial infarction, and secondary endpoints were unstable angina, ischaemic stroke, coronary revascularization, cardiovascular death and all-cause mortality. Hazard ratios (HRs) were estimated using Cox proportional hazards models, adjusted for high-dimensional propensity score. RESULTS The final cohort included 123 394 tramadol users and 914 333 codeine users. When tramadol was compared to codeine, the adjusted hazard ratio (HR) of myocardial infarction was 1.00 (95% CI 0.81-1.24). There was also no evidence of elevated risks of unstable angina (0.92; 95% CI 0.67-1.27), ischaemic stroke (0.98; 95% CI 0.82-1.17), coronary revascularization (0.97; 95% CI 0.69-1.38), cardiovascular death (1.07; 95% CI 0.93-1.23) or all-cause mortality (1.03; 95% CI 0.94-1.14) when tramadol was compared to codeine. CONCLUSIONS Short-term use of tramadol, compared with codeine, was not associated with an increased risk of cardiac events among patients with non-cancer pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda B Ou
- Department of Pharmacy, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Centre of Clinical Epidemiology, Lady Davis Institute, Jewish General Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Laurent Azoulay
- Centre of Clinical Epidemiology, Lady Davis Institute, Jewish General Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.,Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics, and Occupational Health, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.,Gerald Bronfman Department of Oncology, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Pauline Reynier
- Centre of Clinical Epidemiology, Lady Davis Institute, Jewish General Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Robert W Platt
- Centre of Clinical Epidemiology, Lady Davis Institute, Jewish General Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.,Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics, and Occupational Health, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.,Department of Pediatrics, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Sarah Yoon
- Centre of Clinical Epidemiology, Lady Davis Institute, Jewish General Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Roland Grad
- Department of Family Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Kristian B Filion
- Centre of Clinical Epidemiology, Lady Davis Institute, Jewish General Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.,Department of Epidemiology, Biostatistics, and Occupational Health, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada.,Department of Medicine, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
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25
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Floresta G, Gavrilović I, Devey S, Harris R, Cowan D, Abbate V. Towards identifying nicomorphine administration in doping control: synthesis of metabolites. Bioanalysis 2021; 13:1415-25. [PMID: 34528849 DOI: 10.4155/bio-2021-0076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Aim: Nicomorphine is rapidly metabolized mainly to the biologically active 6-nicotinoyl morphine and morphine. In sport, morphine and nicomorphine use is prohibited whereas codeine use is permitted. Accredited laboratories routinely test for morphine hence must be able to distinguish morphine, as a metabolite of a prohibited substance, from that whose use is permitted. Results: Here we show a relatively simple method to synthesize the nicomorphine metabolites, 3-nicotinoyl and 6-nicotinoyl morphine, and indicate how they may be used to identify nicomorphine administration. Conclusion: This approach should help confirm that it is not codeine, an allowable analgesic in sport, that has been administered.
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Lierheimer S, Beck O, Keller T, Monticelli FC, Böttcher M. Hydromorphone and codeine concentrations in oral fluid specimens from patients receiving substitution therapy with Substitol™ (morphine sulfate). Drug Test Anal 2021; 13:1743-1748. [PMID: 34250761 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Revised: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 07/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to determine whether hydromorphone and codeine can be detected in oral fluid specimens following administration of Substitol™, a slow-release formulation of morphine. This is of interest for those monitoring treatment compliance using drug testing. Oral fluid specimens collected for compliance assessment in routine clinical practice or as part of a clinical trial were subjected to quantitative analysis of hydromorphone, morphine, codeine, and 6-acetylmorphine using highly sensitive mass spectrometric methods. Oral fluid was collected using a Greiner Bio-One saliva collection system. Patients undergoing substitution treatment with Substitol™, methadone, or buprenorphine were included, together with patients undergoing pain treatment with hydromorphone. Hydromorphone was detected in 642 of the 663 (97%) samples from substitol-treated patients. Concentrations were not higher in methadone- and buprenorphine-treated patients who relapsed into heroin use, or in patients on hydromorphone therapy. Codeine was detected in 29% of the samples. These concentrations were lower than those in patients who had relapsed to heroin use. Clinical administration of morphine can lead to detectable concentrations of both hydromorphone and codeine in oral fluids. This should be taken into consideration when using drug testing in oral fluid samples for compliance assessment in this patient group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Lierheimer
- Department of Toxicology, MVZ Medizinische Labore Dessau Kassel GmbH, Dessau-Roßlau, Germany
| | - Olof Beck
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institute, Solna, Sweden
| | - Thomas Keller
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | | | - Michael Böttcher
- Department of Toxicology, MVZ Medizinische Labore Dessau Kassel GmbH, Dessau-Roßlau, Germany
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27
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Lam SHF, Homme J, Avarello J, Heins A, Pauze D, Mace S, Dietrich A, Stoner M, Chumpitazi CE, Saidinejad M. Use of antitussive medications in acute cough in young children. J Am Coll Emerg Physicians Open 2021; 2:e12467. [PMID: 34179887 PMCID: PMC8212563 DOI: 10.1002/emp2.12467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2021] [Revised: 05/04/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Acute cough, a common complaint in young children, is often the result of a viral upper respiratory infection. Cough and cold remedies generate billions of dollars in annual sales in the United States, despite a lack of evidence of their efficacy and multiple warnings by the US Food and Drug Administration. The current article begins with the best available evidence for common over-the-counter (OTC) and prescription antitussive remedies in children. The article concludes with a discussion of the pros and cons for the use of antitussives in children with cough. In general, OTC antitussive medications should not be routinely used in children under 2 years of age. In certain cases, antitussives with minimal adverse profile and some evidence of benefit may be recommended after informed counseling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel H. F. Lam
- Department of Emergency MedicineSutter Medical Center SacramentoSacramentoCaliforniaUSA
| | - James Homme
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Division of Pediatric Emergency Medicine, Pediatrics and Emergency MedicineMayo Clinic College of Medicine and ScienceRochesterMinnesotaUSA
| | | | - Alan Heins
- Department of Emergency MedicineUniversity of South Alabama College of MedicineMobileAlabamaUSA
| | - Denis Pauze
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Emergency Medicine & PediatricsAlbany Medical CenterAlbanyNew YorkUSA
| | - Sharon Mace
- Department of Emergency MedicineMetro Health Medical CenterCleveland Clinic Emergency Medicine ResidencyCleveland Clinic Lerner College of Medicine of Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland ClinicClevelandOhioUSA
| | - Ann Dietrich
- Department of PediatricsOhio University Heritage College of MedicineDublinOhioUSA
| | - Michael Stoner
- Department of Pediatrics, Division of Emergency Medicine, Nationwide Children's HospitalThe Ohio State University College of MedicineColumbusOhioUSA
| | - Corrie E. Chumpitazi
- Department of Pediatrics, Section of Emergency MedicineBaylor College of MedicineHoustonTexasUSA
| | - Mohsen Saidinejad
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Harbor UCLA Medical Center, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLAThe Lundquist Institute for Biomedical Innovation at Harbor UCLATorranceCaliforniaUSA
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Kuntz M, Golombek P, Lachenmeier DW. Reduction of Morphine During Baking? Response: Commentary: Opium Alkaloids in Harvested and Thermally Processed Poppy Seeds. Front Chem 2021; 9:692045. [PMID: 34041228 PMCID: PMC8141706 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2021.692045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Marcel Kuntz
- Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt (CVUA) Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Patricia Golombek
- Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt (CVUA) Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Dirk W Lachenmeier
- Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt (CVUA) Karlsruhe, Karlsruhe, Germany
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Kleinmeier D, Pettengill E, Redan BW. Commentary: Opium Alkaloids in Harvested and Thermally Processed Poppy Seeds. Front Chem 2021; 8:622488. [PMID: 33553107 PMCID: PMC7856138 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2020.622488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 12/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Daria Kleinmeier
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office of Food Safety, Bedford Park, IL, United States
| | - Emily Pettengill
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office of Food Safety, Bedford Park, IL, United States
| | - Benjamin W Redan
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office of Food Safety, Bedford Park, IL, United States
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Pratiwi R, Noviana E, Fauziati R, Carrão DB, Gandhi FA, Majid MA, Saputri FA. A Review of Analytical Methods for Codeine Determination. Molecules 2021; 26:800. [PMID: 33557168 PMCID: PMC7913935 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26040800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2020] [Revised: 01/28/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Codeine is derived from morphine, an opioid analgesic, and has weaker analgesic and sedative effects than the parent molecule. This weak opioid is commonly used in combination with other drugs for over-the-counter cough relief medication. Due to the psychoactive properties of opioid drugs, the easily obtained codeine often becomes subject to misuse. Codeine misuse has emerged as a concerning public health issue due to its associated adverse effects such as headache, nausea, vomiting, and hemorrhage. Thus, it is very important to develop reliable analytical techniques to detect codeine for both quality control of pharmaceutical formulations and identifying drug misuse in the community. This review aims to provide critical outlooks on analytical methods applicable to the determination of codeine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rimadani Pratiwi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis and Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitas Padjadjaran, Bandung 45363, Indonesia; (R.F.); (F.A.G.); (M.A.M.); (F.A.S.)
| | - Eka Noviana
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta 55281, Indonesia;
| | - Rizky Fauziati
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis and Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitas Padjadjaran, Bandung 45363, Indonesia; (R.F.); (F.A.G.); (M.A.M.); (F.A.S.)
| | - Daniel Blascke Carrão
- Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciências e Letras de Ribeirão Preto, Universidade de São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto 14040-901, Brazil;
| | - Firas Adinda Gandhi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis and Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitas Padjadjaran, Bandung 45363, Indonesia; (R.F.); (F.A.G.); (M.A.M.); (F.A.S.)
| | - Mutiara Aini Majid
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis and Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitas Padjadjaran, Bandung 45363, Indonesia; (R.F.); (F.A.G.); (M.A.M.); (F.A.S.)
| | - Febrina Amelia Saputri
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis and Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universitas Padjadjaran, Bandung 45363, Indonesia; (R.F.); (F.A.G.); (M.A.M.); (F.A.S.)
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De Canecaude C, Rousseau V, Sommet A, Montastruc JL. Tramadol-induced hypoglycemia: A pharmacovigilance study. Fundam Clin Pharmacol 2021; 35:933-936. [PMID: 33511683 DOI: 10.1111/fcp.12655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Revised: 01/20/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Several papers have reported that tramadol can induce hypoglycemia. However, in some reports, confounding factors can be found, like coadministration of hypoglycemic drugs. We used the WHO pharmacovigilance database (VigiBase®) to investigate whether tramadol alone could be associated with hypoglycemia. All 2010–2019 ICSRs (Individual Case Safety Reports) with the PT term “hypoglycemia” and tramadol were included. Two disproportionality analyses were performed: 1/after inclusion of all reports, 2/after exclusion of concomitant hypoglycemic drugs. Results are expressed as Reporting Odds Ratios (ROR; 95% CI). Among 10 038 436 ICSRs, 97 639 were included. In comparison with codeine, a significant association was found between tramadol use and reports of hypoglycemia before [ROR = 1.54 (1.43–1.66)] or after [ROR = 1.43 (1.31–1.56)] exclusion of hypoglycemic drugs. Tramadol use is associated with a higher risk of hypoglycemia reports than codeine, the other step 2 analgesic, in the presence as well as in the absence of other hypoglycemic drugs. We concluded that hypoglycemia is an adverse drug reaction of tramadol, which can be observed in diabetic as well as in non-diabetic patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire De Canecaude
- Service de Pharmacologie Médicale et Clinique, Centre de Pharmacovigilance, de Pharmacoépidémiologie et d'Informations sur le Médicament, CIC INSERM 1436, Faculté de Médecine, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, Toulouse, France
| | - Vanessa Rousseau
- Service de Pharmacologie Médicale et Clinique, Centre de Pharmacovigilance, de Pharmacoépidémiologie et d'Informations sur le Médicament, CIC INSERM 1436, Faculté de Médecine, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, Toulouse, France
| | - Agnès Sommet
- Service de Pharmacologie Médicale et Clinique, Centre de Pharmacovigilance, de Pharmacoépidémiologie et d'Informations sur le Médicament, CIC INSERM 1436, Faculté de Médecine, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, Toulouse, France
| | - Jean-Louis Montastruc
- Service de Pharmacologie Médicale et Clinique, Centre de Pharmacovigilance, de Pharmacoépidémiologie et d'Informations sur le Médicament, CIC INSERM 1436, Faculté de Médecine, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, Toulouse, France
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Lawrence A, Cooper JN, Deans KJ, Minneci PC, Wrona SK, Chisolm DJ. Effects of the FDA Codeine Safety Investigation on Racial and Geographic Disparities in Opioid Prescribing after Pediatric Tonsillectomy and/or Adenoidectomy. Glob Pediatr Health 2021; 8:2333794X20987444. [PMID: 33506076 PMCID: PMC7812397 DOI: 10.1177/2333794x20987444] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2020] [Revised: 11/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective. Our objective was to examine the impact of the U.S. FDA’s 2013 black box warning against codeine on codeine and other opioid prescription filling after pediatric tonsillectomy and/or adenoidectomy (T/A) overall and by child race and provider urbanity/rurality. Methods. Patients ≤ 18 who underwent T/A in 8/2011 to 8/2016 were identified in Ohio Medicaid claims. Interrupted time series analyses were used to evaluate the impact of the FDA warning on codeine or other opioid prescription filling post-T/A. Results. In August 2011, codeine prescription filling was lower among black than white children (P < .001) and among children treated at institutions in metropolitan counties than less populous counties (P < .001). The FDA warning was associated with a 24.0% drop in codeine prescription filling (P < .001) and 5.5% increase in alternative opioid prescription filling (P = .046). At conclusion, there remained geographic but no longer racial disparities in codeine prescribing. Conclusion. Codeine prescribing after pediatric T/A decreased after the FDA’s black box warning. However, geographic disparities in codeine prescribing remain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy Lawrence
- Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, OH, USA
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Jatau AI, Sha'aban A, Gulma KA, Shitu Z, Khalid GM, Isa A, Wada AS, Mustapha M. The Burden of Drug Abuse in Nigeria: A Scoping Review of Epidemiological Studies and Drug Laws. Public Health Rev 2021; 42:1603960. [PMID: 33796340 PMCID: PMC7904248 DOI: 10.3389/phrs.2021.1603960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: The burden of drug abuse is becoming a public health concern in Nigeria. Preventive measures should include identifying the root causes of the burden for targeted intervention. We, therefore, aim to conduct a scoping review of the literature to summarize the findings of epidemiological studies on drug abuse and provisions of drug laws in Nigeria. The review also provides appropriate recommendations as interventions for prevention. Methods: We conducted a systematic search of the literature on PubMed to identify information on drug abuse and drug laws in Nigeria from the inception of the database to March 2020. Additional information was retrieved from Google Scholar, a manual search of included articles, discussion with experts on the subject matter, and gray literature. Study selection was performed using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statements. Information from gray literature was assessed for quality and accuracy using the AACODS checklist (authority, accuracy, coverage, objectively, date, significance). Results: The systematic search of the literature generated 253 studies. Nine articles were obtained from other sources. After the selection process, 23 eligible studies were included for review. A prevalence of 20-40% and 20.9% of drug abuse was reported among students and youths, respectively. Commonly abused drugs include cannabis, cocaine, amphetamine, heroin, diazepam, codeine, cough syrup and tramadol. Sources where abusers obtained drugs, were pharmacies/patent medicine shops, open drug markets, drug hawkers, fellow drug abusers, friends, and drug pushers. Drug abuse was common among undergraduates and secondary school students, youths, commercial bus drivers, farmers, and sex workers. Reason for use included to increase physical performance, stress and to derive pleasure. Poor socioeconomic factors and low educational background were the common risk factors associated with drug abuse. We identified several drug laws and policies that were established under government agencies such as the National Drug Law Enforcement Agency (NDLEA), National Agency for Foods and Drugs Administration and Control (NAFDAC), Pharmacists Council of Nigeria (PCN) and a Presidential Advisory Committee. Conclusion: Findings from epidemiological studies on drug abuse in Nigeria has demonstrated that the burden of drug abuse is still high despite the existing drug laws, policies, and strategies for prevention. Measures to reduce the burden should involve the community, government, and religious bodies. Preventive measures should target the youths, the students, identified sources of the drugs, reasons and risk factors associated with drug abuse in Nigeria.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Abubakar Sha'aban
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia.,Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacy Practice, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
| | | | - Zayyanu Shitu
- Hospital Services Management Board, Ministry of health, Gusau, Nigeria
| | - Garba Mohammed Khalid
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Università Degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy
| | | | - Abubakar S Wada
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Bayero University Kano, Kano, Nigeria
| | - Mohammed Mustapha
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia.,Department of Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacy Practice, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
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Badaoui S, Hopkins AM, Rodrigues AD, Miners JO, Sorich MJ, Rowland A. Application of Model Informed Precision Dosing to Address the Impact of Pregnancy Stage and CYP2D6 Phenotype on Foetal Morphine Exposure. AAPS J 2021; 23:15. [PMID: 33404848 DOI: 10.1208/s12248-020-00541-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Guidance regarding the effect of codeine and its metabolites on foetal development is limited by small studies and inconsistent findings. The primary objective was to use physiologically based pharmacokinetic modelling to investigate the impact of gestational stage and maternal CYP2D6 phenotype on foetal morphine exposure following codeine administration. Full body physiologically based pharmacokinetic models were developed and verified for codeine and morphine using Simcyp (version 19.1). The impact of gestational age and maternal CYP2D6 phenotype on foetal and maternal morphine and codeine exposure following oral codeine administration was modelled in a cohort of 250 pregnant females and foetuses at gestational weeks 0 (mothers only), 6, 12, 24 and 36. Consistent with the known effect on codeine metabolism, a clinically meaningful (> 1.65-fold) increase in foetal morphine AUC was observed in the CYP2D6 UM phenotype cohort compared to the CYP2D6 EM and PM phenotype cohorts. The mean (95% CI) foetal morphine AUC in the CYP2D6 UM cohort of 0.988 (0.902 to 1.073) ng/mL.h was 1.8-fold higher than the CYP2D6 EM cohort of 0.546 (0.492 to 0.600) ng/mL.h (p < 0.001). Despite a 2.8-fold increase in maternal CYP2D6 protein abundance between gestational weeks 6 and 36, the mean foetal morphine AUC in the CYP2D6 EM and UM phenotype cohorts reduced by 1.55- and 1.75-fold, respectively, over this period. Maternal CYP2D6 phenotype is a significant determinant of foetal morphine AUC. Simulations suggest that the greatest risk with respect to foetal morphine exposure is during the first trimester of pregnancy, particularly in CYP2D6 UM phenotype mothers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Badaoui
- College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Flinders Medical Centre, Bedford Park, Adelaide, SA, 5042, Australia
| | - Ashley M Hopkins
- College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Flinders Medical Centre, Bedford Park, Adelaide, SA, 5042, Australia
| | - A David Rodrigues
- ADME Sciences, Medicine Design, Pfizer Worldwide Research & Development, Groton, CT, USA
| | - John O Miners
- College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Flinders Medical Centre, Bedford Park, Adelaide, SA, 5042, Australia
| | - Michael J Sorich
- College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Flinders Medical Centre, Bedford Park, Adelaide, SA, 5042, Australia
| | - Andrew Rowland
- College of Medicine and Public Health, Flinders University, Flinders Medical Centre, Bedford Park, Adelaide, SA, 5042, Australia.
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Olsen WL, Rose M, Golder FJ, Wang C, Hammond JC, Bolser DC. Intra-Arterial, but Not Intrathecal, Baclofen and Codeine Attenuates Cough in the Cat. Front Physiol 2021; 12:640682. [PMID: 33746778 PMCID: PMC7973226 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.640682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Centrally-acting antitussive drugs are thought to act solely in the brainstem. However, the role of the spinal cord in the mechanism of action of these drugs is unknown. The purpose of this study was to determine if antitussive drugs act in the spinal cord to reduce the magnitude of tracheobronchial (TB) cough-related expiratory activity. Experiments were conducted in anesthetized, spontaneously breathing cats (n = 22). Electromyograms (EMG) were recorded from the parasternal (PS) and transversus abdominis (TA) or rectus abdominis muscles. Mechanical stimulation of the trachea or larynx was used to elicit TB cough. Baclofen (10 and 100 μg/kg, GABA-B receptor agonist) or codeine (30 μg/kg, opioid receptor agonist) was administered into the intrathecal (i.t.) space and also into brainstem circulation via the vertebral artery. Cumulative doses of i.t. baclofen or codeine had no effect on PS, abdominal muscle EMGs or cough number during the TB cough. Subsequent intra-arterial (i.a.) administration of baclofen or codeine significantly reduced magnitude of abdominal and PS muscles during TB cough. Furthermore, TB cough number was significantly suppressed by i.a. baclofen. The influence of these drugs on other behaviors that activate abdominal motor pathways was also assessed. The abdominal EMG response to noxious pinch of the tail was suppressed by i.t. baclofen, suggesting that the doses of baclofen that were employed were sufficient to affect spinal pathways. However, the abdominal EMG response to expiratory threshold loading was unaffected by i.t. administration of either baclofen or codeine. These results indicate that neither baclofen nor codeine suppress cough via a spinal action and support the concept that the antitussive effect of these drugs is restricted to the brainstem.
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Deluca P, Foley M, Dunne J, Kimergård A. The Severity of Dependence Scale (SDS) for Codeine: Preliminary Investigation of the Psychometric Properties of the SDS in an Online Sample of Codeine Users From the UK. Front Psychiatry 2021; 12:595706. [PMID: 33868038 PMCID: PMC8047057 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.595706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 03/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: Investigate the psychometric properties of the Severity of Dependence Scale (SDS) for codeine and its association with aberrant codeine related behaviors. Design: A voluntary and uncompensated cross-sectional online survey. Setting: Online population (≥18 years). Respondents: Two hundred and eighty-six respondents (66% women) who had used codeine containing medicines in the last 3 months and were living in the UK. Results: Of the respondents (mean age = 35.4 years, SD = 12.5), more than half were employed. Only 3.5% respondents reported no income. The majority of respondents (45.1%) primarily obtained prescription-only codeine from a consultation with a health professional, whilst 40.9% mainly purchased "over-the-counter" codeine containing medicines in a pharmacy without a medical prescription. Principal component analysis indicated a single factor solution accounting for 75% of the variance. Factor loadings ranged from 0.83 to 0.89. Cronbach's Alpha was high (α = 0.92). Several behaviors relating to codeine use were found to significantly predict probable codeine dependence. These included: daily codeine use in the last 3 months (OR = 66.89, 95% CI = 15.8-283.18); tolerance to codeine (OR = 32.14, 95% CI = 13.82-74.75); problems with role responsibility due to intoxication (OR = 9.89, 95% CI = 4.95-19.78); having sought advice on the internet to manage codeine use (OR = 9.56, 95% CI = 4.5-20.31); history of alcohol or drug treatment (OR = 3.73, 95% CI = 1.88-7.43). Conclusions: The SDS was acceptable and feasible to use to assess probable psychological codeine dependence in an online sample of people using codeine containing medicines. SDS scores were associated with behaviors known to be indicators of codeine dependence. Studies are needed in well-defined populations of people who use codeine to test the different aspects of psychometry of the scale compared against "gold standard" criterion [a diagnosis according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5)].
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Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Deluca
- National Addiction Centre, King's College London, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, London, United Kingdom
| | - Michelle Foley
- School of Health Sciences, Waterford Institute of Technology, Waterford, Ireland
| | - Jacklyn Dunne
- National Addiction Centre, King's College London, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, London, United Kingdom
| | - Andreas Kimergård
- National Addiction Centre, King's College London, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, London, United Kingdom
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Piper BJ, McCall KL, Kogan LR, Hellyer P. Assessment of Controlled Substance Distribution to U.S. Veterinary Teaching Institutions From 2006 to 2019. Front Vet Sci 2020; 7:615646. [PMID: 33392300 PMCID: PMC7775551 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2020.615646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: To evaluate the changing pattern of distribution of Schedule II and III opioids, barbiturates, and stimulants to veterinary educational institutions in the United States. Design: Longitudinal study. Sample: Veterinary teaching institutions that use Schedule II and III drugs. Procedures: Distribution of controlled substances to veterinary teaching institutions was obtained from the Drug Enforcement Administration's Automated Reports and Consolidated Orders System (ARCOS) for opioids (e.g., methadone, fentanyl, codeine), barbiturates (pentobarbital, butalbital), and stimulants (amphetamine, methylphenidate, lisdexamfetamine) from 2006–2019. Opioids were converted to their morphine milligram equivalents (MME) for evaluation over time. Results: Controlled substance distribution to veterinary schools exhibited dynamic, and agent specific, changes. The total MME for 11 opioids peaked in 2013 and decreased by 17.3% in 2019. Methadone accounted for two-fifths (42.3%) and fentanyl over one-third (35.4%) of the total MME in 2019. Pentobarbital distribution was greatest by weight of all substances studied and peaked in 2011 at 69.4 kg. Stimulants underwent a pronounced decline and were very modest by 2014. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance: Opioids by total MME in veterinary teaching practice have undergone more modest changes than opioids used with humans. Hydrocodone, codeine and recently fentanyl use have declined while methadone increased. Stimulant distribution decreased to become negligible. Together, this pattern of findings warrant continued monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian J Piper
- Department of Medical Education, Geisinger Commonwealth School of Medicine, Scranton, PA, United States.,Center for Pharmacy Innovation and Outcomes, Geisinger Precision Health Center, Forty Fort, PA, United States
| | - Kenneth L McCall
- Department of Pharmacy Practice, University of New England, Portland, ME, United States
| | - Lori R Kogan
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
| | - Peter Hellyer
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
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Mody S, Kirkdale CL, Thornley T, Dickinson A, Avery AJ, Knaggs R, Rann S, Bastable R. Over-The-Counter Codeine: Can Community Pharmacy Staff Nudge Customers into Its Safe and Appropriate Use? Pharmacy (Basel) 2020; 8:pharmacy8040185. [PMID: 33049965 PMCID: PMC7712583 DOI: 10.3390/pharmacy8040185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2020] [Revised: 10/02/2020] [Accepted: 10/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
The misuse of opioids, including codeine which is sold over-the-counter (OTC) in United Kingdom (UK) community pharmacies, is a growing public health concern. An educational Patient Safety Card was developed and piloted to see if it nudged customers into the safe and appropriate use of OTC codeine. Exploratory analysis was conducted by (i) recording quantitative interactions for people requesting OTC codeine in community pharmacies; and (ii) a web-based pharmacy staff survey. Twenty-four pharmacies submitted data on 3993 interactions using the Patient Safety Card. Staff found the majority of interactions (91.3%) to be very or quite easy. Following an interaction using the card, customers known to pharmacy staff as frequent purchasers of OTC codeine were more likely not to purchase a pain relief medicine compared to customers not known to staff (5.5% of known customers did not purchase any pain relief product versus 1.1% for unknown customers (χ2 = 41.73, df = 1, p < 0.001)). These results support both the use of a visual educational intervention to encourage appropriate use of OTC codeine in community pharmacy and the principles behind better self-care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sapana Mody
- Boots UK, Thane Road, Nottingham NG90 1BS, UK
| | | | - Tracey Thornley
- Boots UK, Thane Road, Nottingham NG90 1BS, UK
- School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
| | | | - Anthony J Avery
- Division of Primary Care, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Roger Knaggs
- School of Pharmacy, University of Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham NG7 2RD, UK
| | - Sarah Rann
- Formerly CDAO East of England, NHS, Medical Directorate, Victoria House, Capital Park, Cambridge CB21 5XE, UK
| | - Ruth Bastable
- HMP Littlehey, Huntingdon PE28 0SR, UK
- National Health Service, London SE1 6JW, UK
- Royal College of General Practitioners, London NW1 2FB, UK
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Valadbeigi Y, Ilbeigi V, Mirsharifi MS. Mechanism of atmospheric pressure chemical ionization of morphine, codeine, and thebaine in corona discharge-ion mobility spectrometry: Protonation, ammonium attachment, and carbocation formation. J Mass Spectrom 2020; 55:e4586. [PMID: 32720743 DOI: 10.1002/jms.4586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2020] [Revised: 05/30/2020] [Accepted: 06/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Atmospheric pressure chemical ionizations (APCIs) of morphine, codeine, and thebaine were studied in a corona discharge ion source using ion mobility spectrometry (IMS) at temperature range of 100°C-200°C. Density functional theory (DFT) at the B3LYP/6-311++G(d,p) and M062X/6-311++G(d,p) levels of theory were used to interpret the experimental data. It was found that in the presence of H3 O+ as reactant ion (RI), ionization of morphine and codeine proceeds via both the protonation and carbocation formation, whereas thebaine participates only in protonation. Carbocation formation (fragmentation) was diminished with decrease in the temperature. At lower temperatures, proton-bound dimers of the compounds were also formed. Ammonia was used as a dopant to produce NH4 + as an alternative RI. In the presence of NH4 + , proton transfer from ammonium ion to morphine, codeine, and thebaine was the dominant mechanism of ionization. However, small amount of ammonium attachment was also observed. The theoretical calculations showed that nitrogen atom of the molecules is the most favorable proton acceptor site while the oxygen atoms participate in ammonium attachment. Furthermore, formation of the carbocations is because of the water elimination from the protonated forms of morphine and codeine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Younes Valadbeigi
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Imam Khomeini International University, Qazvin, Iran
| | - Vahideh Ilbeigi
- TOF Tech. Pars Company, Isfahan Science & Technology Town, Isfahan, Iran
| | - Maryam S Mirsharifi
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Imam Khomeini International University, Qazvin, Iran
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Cigerim L, Kaplan V. Analgesic efficacy of naproxen- codeine, naproxen+dexamethasone, and naproxen on myofascial pain: A randomized double-blind controlled trial. Cranio 2020; 41:119-125. [PMID: 32941116 DOI: 10.1080/08869634.2020.1824411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To assess the effects of naproxen sodium-codeine phosphate, naproxen sodium-dexamethasone, and naproxen sodium on myofascial pain. METHODS This randomized, double-blind prospective clinical study was conducted with patients who applied with the complaint of pain in the temporomandibular region. A total of 169 patients were randomly divided into four groups and received the following treatments: Group A: naproxen sodium 550 mg; Group B: naproxen sodium 550 mg + codeine phosphate 30 mg; Group C: naproxen sodium 550 mg + single-dose dexamethasone 8 mg, and Group D: paracetamol 500 mg. RESULTS Of the patients, 132 were female, and 37 were male, with a mean age of 27.04 ± 10.56 (18-69 years). Analgesic efficiency of the naproxen sodium-codeine phosphate group was the most effective at the 2nd week and 4th week (p < 0.05). CONCLUSION Naproxen sodium-codeine phosphate might be preferred as an analgesic in similar cases with severe myofascial pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Levent Cigerim
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Faculty of Dentistry, Van Yuzuncu Yil University, Van, Turkey
| | - Volkan Kaplan
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Faculty of Dentistry, Tekirdag Namik Kemal University, Tekirdag, Turkey
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Gretler SR, Finno CJ, McKemie DS, Kass PH, Knych HK. Metabolism, pharmacokinetics and selected pharmacodynamic effects of codeine following a single oral administration to horses. Vet Anaesth Analg 2020; 47:694-704. [PMID: 32654915 PMCID: PMC7872472 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaa.2020.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2019] [Revised: 04/09/2020] [Accepted: 04/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To describe the pharmacokinetics and selected pharmacodynamic variables of codeine and its metabolites in Thoroughbred horses following a single oral administration. STUDY DESIGN Prospective experimental study. ANIMALS A total of 12 Thoroughbred horses, nine geldings and three mares, aged 4-8 years. METHODS Horses were administered codeine (0.6 mg kg-1) orally and blood was collected before administration and at various times until 120 hours post administration. Plasma and urine samples were collected and analyzed for codeine and its metabolites by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, and plasma pharmacokinetics were determined. Heart rate and rhythm, step counts, packed cell volume and total plasma protein were measured before and 4 hours after administration. RESULTS Codeine was rapidly converted to the metabolites norcodeine, codeine-6-glucuronide (C6G), morphine, morphine-3-glucuronide (M3G) and morphine-6-glucuronide (M6G). Plasma codeine concentrations were best represented using a two-compartment model. The Cmax, tmax and elimination t½ were 270.7 ± 136.0 ng mL-1, 0.438 ± 0.156 hours and 2.00 ± 0.534 hours, respectively. M3G was the main metabolite detected (Cmax 492.7 ± 35.5 ng mL-1), followed by C6G (Cmax 96.1 ± 33.8 ng mL-1) and M6G (Cmax 22.3 ± 4.96 ng mL-1). Morphine and norcodeine were the least abundant metabolites with Cmax of 3.17 ± 0.95 and 1.42 ± 0.79 ng mL-1, respectively. No significant adverse or excitatory effects were observed. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Following oral administration, codeine is rapidly metabolized to morphine, M3G, M6G, C6G and norcodeine in horses. Plasma concentrations of M6G, a presumed active metabolite of morphine, were comparable to concentrations reported previously following administration of an analgesic dose of morphine to horses. Codeine was well tolerated based on pharmacodynamic variables and behavioral observations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie R Gretler
- K.L. Maddy Equine Analytical Pharmacology Laboratory, University of California-Davis, School of Veterinary Medicine, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Carrie J Finno
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Daniel S McKemie
- K.L. Maddy Equine Analytical Pharmacology Laboratory, University of California-Davis, School of Veterinary Medicine, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Philip H Kass
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Heather K Knych
- K.L. Maddy Equine Analytical Pharmacology Laboratory, University of California-Davis, School of Veterinary Medicine, Davis, CA, USA; Department of Veterinary Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, USA.
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Sobczak Ł, Goryński K. Pharmacological Aspects of Over-the-Counter Opioid Drugs Misuse. Molecules 2020; 25:E3905. [PMID: 32867117 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25173905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2020] [Revised: 08/22/2020] [Accepted: 08/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Several over-the-counter (OTC) drugs are known to be misused. Among them are opioids such as codeine, dihydrocodeine, and loperamide. This work elucidates their pharmacology, interactions, safety profiles, and how pharmacology is being manipulated to misuse these common medications, with the aim to expand on the subject outlined by the authors focusing on abuse prevention and prevalence rates. The reviewed literature was identified in several online databases through searches conducted with phrases created by combining the international non-proprietary names of the drugs with terms related to drug misuse. The results show that OTC opioids are misused as an alternative for illicit narcotics, or prescription-only opioids. The potency of codeine and loperamide is strongly dependent on the individual enzymatic activity of CYP2D6 and CYP3A4, as well as P-glycoprotein function. Codeine can also be utilized as a substrate for clandestine syntheses of more potent drugs of abuse, namely desomorphine (“Krokodil”), and morphine. The dangerous methods used to prepare these substances can result in poisoning from toxic chemicals and impurities originating from the synthesis procedure. OTC opioids are generally safe when consumed in accordance with medical guidelines. However, the intake of supratherapeutic amounts of these substances may reveal surprising traits of common medications.
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Abstract
The opium alkaloids (morphine, codeine, thebaine, noscapine, and papaverine) have been detected on poppy seeds; they are widely used by the food industry for decoration and flavor but can introduce opium alkaloids into the food chain. Of the opium alkaloids found on poppy seeds, morphine, and codeine are the most pharmacologically active and have been detected in biological matrices collected in workplace and roadside drug testing resulting in positive opiate results. The European Food Safety Authority introduced an acute reference dose of 10 μg morphine/kg of body weight as a safe level for morphine in food products. In this work, it was found that in harvested poppy seeds, and thermally processed poppy seeds (with and without a food matrix), if used in normal levels would not exceed the recommended acute reference dose. It was also shown that the levels of all alkaloids reduce when thermally processed, in comparison with harvested, untreated seeds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle G Carlin
- Department of Applied Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - John R Dean
- Department of Applied Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
| | - Jennifer M Ames
- Department of Applied Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
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Sarmah S, Sales Cadena MR, Cadena PG, Marrs JA. Marijuana and Opioid Use during Pregnancy: Using Zebrafish to Gain Understanding of Congenital Anomalies Caused by Drug Exposure during Development. Biomedicines 2020; 8:E279. [PMID: 32784457 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines8080279] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2020] [Revised: 08/03/2020] [Accepted: 08/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Marijuana and opioid addictions have increased alarmingly in recent decades, especially in the United States, posing threats to society. When the drug user is a pregnant mother, there is a serious risk to the developing baby. Congenital anomalies are associated with prenatal exposure to marijuana and opioids. Here, we summarize the current data on the prevalence of marijuana and opioid use among the people of the United States, particularly pregnant mothers. We also summarize the current zebrafish studies used to model and understand the effects of these drug exposures during development and to understand the behavioral changes after exposure. Zebrafish experiments recapitulate the drug effects seen in human addicts and the birth defects seen in human babies prenatally exposed to marijuana and opioids. Zebrafish show great potential as an easy and inexpensive model for screening compounds for their ability to mitigate the drug effects, which could lead to new therapeutics.
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Zhao J, Chen Y, Han T, Westland S. Designing Effective Warnings about Addiction on the Patient Information Leaflet of Over-the-Counter Codeine Sold in England to University Students. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2020; 17:E5490. [PMID: 32751393 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17155490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2020] [Revised: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
(1) Background: The harm of misusing over-the-counter (OTC) codeine-containing medicines among university students in England is being increasingly recognized. Based on English university students, this paper aims to study the importance of information design on information communication, explore methods for effective warning design, and investigate university students’ perception of OTC codeine. (2) Methods: The effective warning design is addressed through case studies, answering correctness by the heat map generated from the eye-tracking experiment (ETE), and the total time spent on the tasks. User perceptions are made though online surveys. (3) Results: Information design significantly affects the way user processes information. Therefore, two emphasized warnings displayed in the headline, and the “possible side effect (PSE)” sections and warning signs of addiction presented under the PSE are suggested as effective ways to display warnings. For students’ perception of OTC codeine, 80% of university students are unfamiliar with the substance. After reading the patient information leaflets (PILs), 47% recommended tight regulation on codeine. (4) Conclusions: The misuse of OTC codeine could be a potential problem among English university students. The design of the PIL significantly influences the chance of unintentional medicine misuse. The display of warnings on the PILs of OTC codeine should be redesigned for better understanding.
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Kirschbaum M, Barnett T, Cross M. Experiences of over-the-counter codeine misusers and accounts of recovery: A qualitative study in Tasmania, Australia. Drug Alcohol Rev 2020; 39:879-887. [PMID: 32367599 DOI: 10.1111/dar.13081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2020] [Revised: 04/02/2020] [Accepted: 04/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION AND AIMS There is international concern about misuse of over-the-counter (OTC) codeine, yet few studies have reported the perspectives of misusers themselves. This study explored the experience of OTC codeine misuse and recovery in Tasmania, Australia. DESIGN AND METHODS Semi-structured telephone interviews were conducted with 15 self-identified long-term users of OTC codeine. The interview guide prompted responses about reasons for codeine use, positive and negative impacts, recovery, identity and codeine accessibility. Transcripts were analysed abductively using qualitative content analysis. Categories that emerged from misuser accounts were aligned to three broad temporal phases: (i) transition to misuse; (ii) growing awareness; and (iii) towards recovery. RESULTS Salient features of the misuse experience included: initial use for the self-treatment of physical pain; ongoing use to self-medicate physical pain, stress or mental health conditions; a perception of safety of OTC codeine; an insidious transition from use to misuse; growing awareness of a problem over time; support provided by family, friends and the internet; recovery through self-change; and recognition that recovery is an ongoing process. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Knowledge and understanding of the experience of OTC codeine misuse and recovery is critical to inform and tailor approaches to prevention and intervention. The findings suggest that strategies to improve the management of pain, stress and mental health, raise self-awareness of problematic use and potential for self-change, and increase social and web-based supports, should be considered when designing health policy initiatives that aim to reduce misuse.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tony Barnett
- Centre for Rural Health, University of Tasmania, Launceston, Australia
| | - Merylin Cross
- Centre for Rural Health, University of Tasmania, Launceston, Australia
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Shetge SA, Dzakovich MP, Cooperstone JL, Kleinmeier D, Redan BW. Concentrations of the Opium Alkaloids Morphine, Codeine, and Thebaine in Poppy Seeds are Reduced after Thermal and Washing Treatments but are Not Affected when Incorporated in a Model Baked Product. J Agric Food Chem 2020; 68:5241-5248. [PMID: 32302121 PMCID: PMC9087216 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c01681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Limited information exists on the effectiveness of potential treatments to reduce levels of opium alkaloids that may be present in seeds from poppy (Papaver somniferum L.). Poppy seeds containing morphine at relatively lower (14.7 mg kg-1) and higher (210.0 mg kg-1) concentrations were subjected to dry heat and steam treatments, water washing, and baking. Sample extracts were then analyzed using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for the opium alkaloids morphine, codeine, and thebaine. The results indicated that thermal treatment promoted opium alkaloid degradation in poppy seed samples, with a 50% loss of morphine observed after 30-40 min at 200 °C. Water washing reduced concentrations of opium alkaloids in poppy seeds by approximately 50-80%, while steam treatment resulted in reduction of morphine in only one sample type. Importantly, baking had no significant effect on concentrations of opium alkaloids. Overall, these results indicate that opium alkaloids may not be significantly affected by baking or steam application and that poppy seeds may require water washing or extended thermal treatment to promote reduction of these compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shalaka A. Shetge
- Institute for Food Safety and Health, Illinois Institute of Technology, Bedford Park, IL
| | - Michael P. Dzakovich
- Department of Horticulture and Crop Science, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH
| | - Jessica L. Cooperstone
- Department of Horticulture and Crop Science, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH
- Department of Food Science and Technology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH
| | - Daria Kleinmeier
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office of Food Safety, Division of Plant Products and Beverages, College Park, MD
| | - Benjamin W. Redan
- U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Center for Food Safety and Applied Nutrition, Office of Food Safety, Division of Food Processing Science and Technology, Bedford Park, IL
- To whom correspondence should be addressed:
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McCoy J, Nielsen S, Bruno R. Impact of Removing Nonprescription Codeine in Australia: Protocol for a Prospective Cohort Study. JMIR Res Protoc 2020; 9:e15540. [PMID: 32167481 PMCID: PMC7101496 DOI: 10.2196/15540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2019] [Revised: 10/17/2019] [Accepted: 10/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background On February 1, 2018, Australia rescheduled codeine to a prescription-only medication. Many concerns were associated with this change, including increased financial costs, reduced service accessibility, the potential for poorer pain management, and a decline in physical and mental health if codeine could not be accessed. In the research literature, there is limited knowledge about the long-term consequences of rescheduling pharmaceutical opioids and, as Australia has followed many countries in implementing a restriction on codeine, further study of these consequences is critical. Objective The goal of this study was to examine the impact of rescheduling codeine from an over-the-counter (OTC) product to a prescription-only medicine on the primary measures of codeine use and dependence in a prospective cohort of people who are frequent consumers of OTC codeine. Secondary measures included pain and self-efficacy, health service use, and mental health. Methods The Codeine Cohort study aimed to recruit 300 participants in Australia who regularly (at least a few times per week for the past 6 months) used OTC codeine. Using an online survey, participants were followed up at three time points (February 2018, June 2018, and February 2019) after codeine was rescheduled. Results All four waves of data collection are complete, with the final round of data collection finalized in August 2019. Data analyses are yet to be completed. Information on demographics, codeine use and dependence, physical and mental health, medication use, and health service use will be analyzed using mixed models. Conclusions Results of this study will provide insight into the effectiveness of regulatory restriction in curtailing nonmedical use of and harms associated with codeine. Additionally, results will explore positive and negative outcomes of codeine rescheduling for individual patients, which informs health professionals who support patients who use codeine and further community education. International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID) DERR1-10.2196/15540
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Lopes GS, Bielinski SJ, Moyer AM, Black Iii JL, Jacobson DJ, Jiang R, Larson NB, St Sauver JL. Sex Differences in Associations Between CYP2D6 Phenotypes and Response to Opioid Analgesics. Pharmgenomics Pers Med 2020; 13:71-79. [PMID: 32214840 PMCID: PMC7081062 DOI: 10.2147/pgpm.s239222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2019] [Accepted: 03/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Background Several small studies have previously investigated associations between the cytochrome P450 2D6 (CYP2D6) metabolism and response to opioids. We used a large sample of patients to study associations between CYP2D6 phenotypes and estimated CYP2D6 enzymatic activity scores with pain control and adverse reactions related to codeine and tramadol use. We conducted additional analyses to determine whether our results were consistent among men and women. Methods We used data from 2,877 participants in the RIGHT Protocol who were prescribed codeine and/or tramadol between 01/01/2005 and 12/31/2017 and who were not prescribed CYP2D6 inhibitors within 1 year prior to the opioid prescription. CYP2D6 phenotype categories were condensed into four groups: (1) Ultra-rapid and Rapid (n = 61), (2) Normal and Intermediate to Normal (n = 1,448), (3) Intermediate and Intermediate to Poor (n = 1,175), and (4) Poor metabolizer status (n = 193). Opioid-related outcomes included indications of poor pain control or adverse reactions related to medication use. We modeled the risk of each outcome using logistic regression, adjusting for age, sex, race, and ethnicity. Results The results revealed a trend from poor to ultra-rapid and rapid CYP2D6 phenotypes in which the risk of adverse reactions incrementally increased and the risk of poor pain control incrementally decreased. This trend reached statistical significance among female (but not male) participants. Among normal and intermediate to normal metabolizers, a larger proportion of women experienced adverse reactions relative to men. Discussion We replicated and extended the findings of previous research indicating associations between CYP2D6 phenotypes and response to opioids. In addition, the observed associations were stronger in women than in men. We recommend sex differences to be factored in future research investigating associations between pharmacogenomics and response to medications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guilherme S Lopes
- Division of Biomedical Statistics and Informatics, Department of Health Sciences Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA.,Division of Epidemiology, Department of Health Sciences Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Suzette J Bielinski
- Division of Epidemiology, Department of Health Sciences Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Ann M Moyer
- Division of Laboratory Genetics and Genomics, Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - John Logan Black Iii
- Division of Laboratory Genetics and Genomics, Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Debra J Jacobson
- Division of Biomedical Statistics and Informatics, Department of Health Sciences Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Ruoxiang Jiang
- Division of Biomedical Statistics and Informatics, Department of Health Sciences Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Nicholas B Larson
- Division of Biomedical Statistics and Informatics, Department of Health Sciences Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Jennifer L St Sauver
- Division of Epidemiology, Department of Health Sciences Research, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA
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Cairns R, Schaffer AL, Brown JA, Pearson SA, Buckley NA. Codeine use and harms in Australia: evaluating the effects of re-scheduling. Addiction 2020; 115:451-459. [PMID: 31577369 DOI: 10.1111/add.14798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2019] [Revised: 08/16/2019] [Accepted: 08/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Globally, codeine is the most-used opioid. In December 2016, Australia announced that low-strength codeine (≤ 15 mg) would be re-scheduled and no longer available for purchase over-the-counter; this was implemented in February 2018. We aimed to evaluate the effect of this scheduling change on codeine misuse and use and misuse of other opioids. DESIGN AND SETTING Interrupted time-series analysis of monthly opioid exposure calls to New South Wales Poisons Information Centre (NSWPIC, captures 50% of Australia's poisoning calls), January 2015- January 2019 and monthly national codeine sales, March 2015-March 2019. We incorporated a washout period (January 2017 - January 2018) between the announcement and implementation, when prescriber/consumer behaviour may have been influenced. PARTICIPANTS Intentional opioid overdoses resulting in a call to NSWPIC. MEASUREMENTS We used linear segmented regression to identify abrupt changes in level and slope of fitted lines. Codeine poisonings and sales were stratified into high strength (> 15 mg per dose unit) and low strength (≤ 15 mg). Only low-strength formulations were re-scheduled. FINDINGS We observed an abrupt -50.8 percentage [95% confidence interval (CI) = -79.0 to -22.6%] level change in monthly codeine-related poisonings and no change in slope in the 12 months after February 2018. There was no increase in calls to the NSWPIC for high-strength products, level change: -37.2% (95% CI = -82.3 to 8%) or non-codeine opioids, level change: -4.4% (95% CI = -33.3 to 24.4%). Overall, the re-scheduling resulted in a level change in opioid calls of -35.8% calls/month (95% CI = -51.2 to -20.4%). Low-strength codeine sales decreased by 87.3% (95% CI = -88.5 to -85.9%), with no increase in high-strength codeine sales in the 14 months following re-scheduling, -4.0% (95% CI = -19.6 to 14.6%). CONCLUSIONS Codeine re-scheduling in Australia appears to have reduced codeine misuse and sales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rose Cairns
- School of Pharmacy, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia.,NSW Poisons Information Centre, The Children's Hospital at Westmead, Sydney, Australia
| | - Andrea L Schaffer
- Centre for Big Data Research in Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Jared A Brown
- NSW Poisons Information Centre, The Children's Hospital at Westmead, Sydney, Australia.,Centre for Big Data Research in Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Sallie-Anne Pearson
- Centre for Big Data Research in Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Nicholas A Buckley
- NSW Poisons Information Centre, The Children's Hospital at Westmead, Sydney, Australia.,School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
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