Exploring the evolutionary dynamics of myrmecophytism: Perspectives from the Southeast Asian Macaranga ant-plant symbiosis

Myrmecophytic plants utilise defensive services offered by obligate ant partners nesting in their domatia in a novel means of survival in tropical habitats. Although much is known about the ecology of myrmecophytism, there aren't enough empirical examples to demonstrate whether it substantially influences evolutionary patterns in host plant lineages. In this study, we make use of the species-rich Macaranga (Euphorbiaceae) ant-plant symbiosis distributed in the Southeast Asian Sundaland to delve into the evolutionary dynamics of myrmecophytism in host plants. We generated the most comprehensive dated phylogeny of myrmecophytic Macaranga till date using genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS). With this in hand, we traced the evolutionary history of myrmecophytism in Macaranga using parametric biogeography and ancestral state reconstruction. Diversification rate analysis methods were employed to determine if myrmecophytism enhanced diversification rates in the genus. Our results demonstrate that myrmecophytism is labile and easily lost. Ancestral state reconstruction supported a single origin of myrmecophytism in Macaranga ∼18 mya on Borneo followed by multiple losses. Diversification rate analysis methods did not yield sufficient evidence to support the hypothesis that myrmecophytism enhanced diversification rates in Macaranga; we found that topographical features on Borneo may have played a more direct role in the divergence of clades instead. Our study provides evidence that while the acquisition of domatia clearly functions as a key innovation that has enabled host plants to exploit the environment in novel ways, it may not necessarily enhance diversification rates. In fact, we hypothesise that overly specialised cases of myrmecophytism may even be an evolutionary dead end.

"Exotic" seeds from Southern Africa as potential Novel Foods? - Chemical composition of manketti nuts (Schinziophyton rautanenii) and ushivi beans (Guibourtia coleosperma)

Various species of Southern African plants and their edible seeds have gained huge importance due to positive health aspects, and there is increasing interest to introduce such seeds as Novel Food on the international market. Especially the seeds of Schinziophyton rautanenii (manketti) and Guibourtia coleosperma (ushivi) could have great potential as a food and food ingredient. Hence, extensive analyses on the chemical composition of manketti nuts and ushivi beans including the analysis of total solids, protein and fat content, soluble carbohydrates, ash, total and free amino acids, biogenic amines and polyamines, fatty acid profile as well as the content of certain B-vitamins and tocopherols were performed. Results obtained showed a valuable nutritional composition, e.g., a true protein content of 22.6% with a ratio of essential amino acids to total amino acid composition of 48% in manketti nuts, while ushivi beans had a true protein content of 8.2% with a similar ratio of essential to total amino acids (45%). Lipid content was 54.1% in manketti nuts, ushivi beans had a value of 7.7%. In both, linoleic acid was the most abundant. Furthermore, ushivi beans had high amounts of vitamin B1 and B2.

Nutritive tissue rich in reserves in the cell wall and protoplast: the case of Manihot esculenta (Euphorbiaceae) galls induced by Iatrophobia brasiliensis (Diptera, Cecidomyiidae)

The galls can offer shelter, protection, and an adequate diet for the gall-inducing organisms. Herein, we evaluated the structure of Manihot esculenta leaves and galls induced by Iatrophobia brasiliensis in order to identify metabolic and cell wall composition changes. We expected to find a complex gall with high primary metabolism in a typical nutritive tissue. Non-galled leaves and galls were subjected to anatomical, histochemical, and immunocytochemical analyses to evaluate the structural features, primary and secondary metabolites, and glycoproteins, pectins, and hemicelluloses in the cell wall. The gall is cylindric, with a uniseriate epidermis, a larval chamber, and a parenchymatic cortex divided into outer and inner compartments. The outer compartment has large cells with intercellular spaces and stocks starch and is designated as storage tissue. Reducing sugars, proteins, phenolic compounds, and alkaloids were detected in the protoplast of inner tissue cells of galls, named nutritive tissue, which presents five layers of compact small cells. Cell walls with esterified homogalacturonans (HGs) occurred in some cells of the galls indicating the continuous biosynthesis of HGs. For both non-galled leaves and galls, galactans and xyloglucans were broadly labeled on the cell walls, indicating a cell growth capacity and cell wall stiffness, respectively. The cell wall of the nutritive tissue had wide labeling for glycoproteins, HGs, heteroxylans, and xyloglucans, which can be used as source for the diet of the galling insect. Manihot esculenta galls have compartments specialized in the protection and feeding of the galling insect, structured by nutritive tissue rich in resource compounds, in the cell walls and protoplast.

(Euphorbiaceae Juss.)

Plant extracts are actively being used worldwide due to the presence of biologically active constituents helping in the preservation of food, and to aid against various diseases owing to their antimicrobial and antioxidant potential. The present research work was carried out to investigate the phytochemical constituents, antimicrobial activity, and antioxidant activity of different extracted samples of Euphorbia parviflora. Anti-microbial studies were carried out by Agar well diffusion while the DPPH method was employed for investigating anti-oxidant activity. Three samples from methanol, chloroform, and ethyl acetate extract were tested against five different bacterial strains comprising two species from Gram-negative bacteria i.e., Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis and three species from Gram-positive bacteria i.e. Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella pneumonia along two fungal strains i.e. Candida albicans and Aspergillus niger. The results of the qualitative phytochemical analysis showed that methanolic, chloroformic, and ethylacetate extract of Euphorbia parviflora consist of alkaloids, reducing sugars, flavonoids, terpenoids, tannins, and saponins. The total phenol and flavonoid content of E. parviflora showed that the methanolic extract of E. parviflora had a significantly higher total phenolic content (53.73 ± 0.30 mg of GAE/g) and flavonoid content (44.62 ± 0.38 mg of than other extracts. The content of total phenolic and flavonoids was more in methanolic extract as compared to other extracts of E. prolifera. The HPLC analysis showed that in the chloroform extract of E. parviflora Cinnamic acid (4.32 ± 2.89 mg/g) was dominant, in methanol extract quercetin (3.42 ± 2.89 mg/g) was dominant and in ethyl acetate extract of E. parviflora catechin (4.44 ± 2.89 mg/g) was found dominant. The antimicrobial activity revealed that amongst all the extracts the highest antibacterial activity was shown by methanolic extract against B. subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus as compared to the other extracts. The antioxidant activity revealed that methanolic extract of E. parviflora demonstrated higher antioxidant activity (82.42 ± 0.02) followed by chloroform extract (76.48 ± 0.08) at 150 µg/mL. The aim of this study was primarily to evaluate the potential of this plant as a reliable source of antimicrobials and antioxidants that may be used for the treatment of various infectious diseases in the future. The study provides evidence that this plant can act as a reliable source of antimicrobial and antioxidant agents and might be used against several infectious diseases.

Metabolome and Transcriptome Reveal Chlorophyll, Carotenoid, and Anthocyanin Jointly Regulate the Color Formation of Triadica sebifera

The Chinese tallow tree (Triadica sebifera) is an economically important plant on account of its ornamental value and oil-producing seeds. Leaf colour is a key characteristic of T. sebifera, with yellow-, red- and purple-leaved varieties providing visually impressive displays during autumn. In this study, we performed metabolomic and transcriptomic analyses to gain a better understanding of the mechanisms underlying leaf colour development in purple-leaved T. sebifera at three stages during the autumnal colour transition, namely, green, hemi-purple, and purple leaves. We accordingly detected 370 flavonoid metabolites and 10 anthocyanins, among the latter of which, cyanidin-3-xyloside and peonidin-3-O-glucoside were identified as the predominant compounds in hemi-purple and purple leaves. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that structural genes associated with the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway, chlorophyll synthesis pathway and carotenoid synthesis pathway were significantly differential expressed at the three assessed colour stages. Additionally, transcription factors associated with the MYB-bHLH-WD40 complex, including 22 R2R3-MYBs, 79 bHLHs and 44 WD40 genes, were identified as candidate regulators of the anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway. Moreover, on the basis of the identified differentially accumulated anthocyanins and key genes, we generated genetic and metabolic regulatory networks for anthocyanin biosynthesis in T. sebifera. These findings provide comprehensive information on the leaf transcriptome and three pigments of T. sebifera, thereby shedding new light on the mechanisms underlying the autumnal colouring of the leaves of this tree.

Palynological investigation of some Euphorbia L. (Euphorbiaceae) taxa from Turkey using light and scanning electron microscopy

Euphorbia L., one of the largest genera of angiosperms, is represented by the subgenera Esula Pers. and Chamaesyce Raf. in Turkey. Subg. Esula is confined mainly to Eurasia, especially in the Mediterranean region, and has not yet been studied in detail palynologically. In the present study, the pollen morphology of 14 taxa belonging to the sections Helioscopia Dumort., Myrsiniteae (Boiss.) Lojac., Pithyusa (Raf.) Lázaro, Patellares (Prokh.) Frajman, Exiguae (Geltman) Riina & Molero, Paralias Dumort., and Esula (Pers) Dumort. of Euphorbia L. subg. Esula Pers. from European Turkey was examined using light and scanning electron microscopy. The pollen grains were found to be trizonocolporate, isopolar, radially symmetrical, medium in size, and oblate spheroidal and suboblate in shape. Ectoapertures were elongated colpi with distinct margins, widened at the equatorial region, and tapered at the ends; margo was present in all samples as a smooth exine surrounding the colpi. The endoapertures were lolongate pori with distinct costae. The exine was tectate-perforate. The ornamentation was perforate, microreticulate-perforate, microreticulate-perforate with rugulose, or microreticulate-perforate with a heterobrochate pattern. The sexine was generally thicker than the nexine, with some exceptions where the sexine was almost equal to the nexine. Pollen size, pollen shape, and exine ornamentation have taxonomic importance in distinguishing species; however, these features do not provide strong support for grouping or delimitating the taxa at the sectional level. RESEARCH HIGHLIGHTS: Pollen size, pollen shape, and exine ornamentation are taxonomically important for distinguishing Euphorbia species. The exine ornamentation was observed to be perforate, microreticulate-perforate, microreticulate-perforate with a rugulose pattern, and microreticulate-perforate with a heterobrochate pattern.

Synthesis of CuO/polyaniline/multiwalled carbon nanotube composites using Macaranga indica leaves extract as hydrogen gas sensor

In this study, we describe the fabrication of hydrogen gas sensors in the form of nanocomposites containing metal oxides such as copper oxide (CuO), multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs), and polyaniline (PANI) using a green synthesis method. We used Macaranga indica (M. indica) leaf extract as a reducing and stabilizing agent to prepare copper oxide nanoparticles (CuONPs). The sample was analyzed using various techniques to determine its physicochemical, morphological, and elemental composition. The XRD data showed that the sample is a CuO/PANI/MWCNT nanocomposite by the best match with the reported data. SEM images revealed a uniform distribution of MWCNTs and spherical CuO nanoparticles of 30-40 nm throughout the CNT network. EDX confirmed that the prepared sample is a pure and inline combination of Cu, O, C, and N. Due to the presence of bioactive elements and PANI, we observed 17% and 25% weight loss for CuO and CuO/PANI/MWCNTs. It was found that this combination of materials can detect H2 gas in concentrations ranging from 110 to 2 ppm at temperatures of 200 and 250 °C. As H2 concentration increased, sensitivity varied from 5% to 20%, but response and recovery times were about 290 and 500 s, respectively, for 40 ppm H2 gas. A logistic function fit to Ra/Rg versus H2 was performed using Y = A2 + (A1 - A2)/(1 + (x/x0)p). The energy bands among the CuO/PANI/MWCNT heterointerfaces were used to demonstrate enhanced H2 gas-sensing properties.

A Comprehensive Review of the Classification, Sources, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacology of Norditerpenes

Norditerpenes are considered to be a common and widely studied class of bioactive compounds in plants, exhibiting a wide array of complex and diverse structural types and originating from various sources. Based on the number of carbons, norditerpenes can be categorized into C19, C18, C17, and C16 compounds. Up to now, 557 norditerpenes and their derivatives have been found in studies published between 2010 and 2023, distributed in 51 families and 132 species, with the largest number in Lamiaceae, Euphorbiaceae, and Cephalotaxaceae. These norditerpenes display versatile biological activities, including anti-tumor, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, and antioxidant properties, as well as inhibitory effects against HIV and α-glucosidase, and can be considered as an important source of treatment for a variety of diseases that had a high commercial value. This review provides a comprehensive summary of the plant sources, chemical structures, and biological activities of norditerpenes derived from natural sources, serving as a valuable reference for further research development and application in this field.

Molecular genetics, seed morphology and fatty acids diversity in castor (Ricinus communis L., Euphorbiaceae) Iranian populations

BACKGROUND

Castor (Ricinus communis L.) seeds contain a large amount of oil that has several biological activities. In the current research, phytogeographic distribution, seed morphological characteristics, molecular genetic diversity and structure, and fatty acid composition were investigated in nine Iranian castor populations.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) protocol was used to extract the nuclear genomes. These were later amplified using 13 SCoT molecular primers. The phytogeographic distribution was determined based on the Zohary mapping, GC apparatus determined the fatty acid composition of the seeds. GenAlex, STRUCTURE, GenoDive, PopGene, and PopART software were used for the statistical analyzes. On phytogeographic mapping, the harvested populations belonged to different districts of the Euro-Siberian and Irano-Turanian regions (Holarctic kingdom). Most of the quantitative morphological traits of the seeds differed significantly (P ≤ 0.05) between the populations. The AMOVA test demonstrated a large proportion of significant genetic diversity assigned among populations, which were approved by some estimated parameters of genetic diversity such as Nm, Ht, Hs, and Gst. Nei's genetic distance and structure analysis confirmed the existence of two main genotype groups and some intermediates. However, there was no isolation by distance between the genotypes. Unsaturated fatty acids were detected as the main component of seed oil with linoleic and ricinoleic acids. Significant correlations were detected between the main fatty acids of seed oil with seed morphological traits, geographic distance and the geographic parameters of habitats. According to the composition of the seed fatty acids, four chemotypes groups were detected.

CONCLUSIONS

The classification patterns of the populations based on molecular genetic data, fatty acid composition, and phytogeographic mapping were not identical. These findings indicated that Iranian castor populations had unusual seed fatty acid composition which strongly depended on habitat geographic factors and seed morphological traits. However, the identified chemotypes and genotypes can be used in future breeding programs.

Application of an aqueous enzymatic-ultrasound cavitation method for the separation of Sapium sebiferum seed kernel oil

An aqueous enzymatic-ultrasound cavitation extraction (AEUCE) method was developed to separate Sapium sebiferum seed kernel oil. In this process, neutral proteinase was screened as the propriate enzyme. The Plackett-Burman and Box-Behnken designs were employed to optimize AEUCE. We determined the optimal extraction conditions, producing an oil yield of 84.22 ± 3.17 %. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis indicated that the S. sebiferum seed kernel oil was abundant in unsaturated fatty acids (>92 %) and that the compositions of the fatty acid profiles extracted by AEUCE were similar to those obtained from Soxhlet extraction, but their contents were slightly different. The physicochemical properties analysis showed that the oil extracted by AEUCE was comparable to that obtained from Soxhlet extraction. The results showed that the developed AEUCE is an efficient technique that can separate high-quality plant oils. The S. sebiferum seed kernel oil obtained from this extraction method is a promising substitute for vegetable oils used in biodiesel production.

A Comprehensive Review on Euphorbiaceae lectins: Structural and Biological Perspectives

Euphorbiaceae, also known as the spurge family, is a large group of flowering plants. Despite being tropical natives, they are now widespread. Due to its medicinal and commercial importance, this family of plants attracted a lot of attention in the scientific community. The distinctive characteristic of the family is production of milky latex, which is a rich source of several lectins, the proteins that bind carbohydrates. Although their function is unclear, they are believed to defend plants against damaging phytopathogenic microorganisms, insects, and predatory animals. Additionally, they serve as crucial metabolic regulators under a variety of stressors. Detection, separation, purification, and characterization of lectins from the Euphorbiaceae family - mostly from the latex of plants - began over 40 years ago. This effort produced over 35 original research papers that were published. However, no systematic review that compiles these published data has been presented yet. This review summarizes and describes several procedures and protocols employed for extraction and purification of lectins belonging to this family. Physicochemical properties and biological activities of the lectins, along with their medicinal and pharmacological properties, have also been analyzed. Additionally, using examples of ricin and ricin agglutinin, we have structurally analyzed characteristics of the lectin known as Ribosome Inactivating Protein Type II (RIP-Type II) that belongs to this family. We anticipate that this review article will offer a useful compendium of information on this important family of lectins, show the scientists involved in lectin research the gaps in our knowledge, and offer insights for future research.

Cytotoxic activity and docking studies

From the bioactive extract of the euphorbiaceous Croton niveus Jacq., three previously unreported ent-rosane diterpenes have been isolated and characterized by conventional methods, in addition to the known compounds lupeol, cajucarinolide and some phytosterols. Two of the ent-rosane diterpenes displayed activity against HCT-15 and PC-3 cancer cell lines, and the results of docking calculations of these compounds with NF-κB and STAT3 receptors agreed with the proposed mode of action of diterpenes against PC-3 cells.

Food habits of 3 myrmecophilous bug species on myrmecophytic Macaranga (Malpighiales: Euphorbiaceae) vary from herbivory to predation

Myrmecophytes have mutualistic relationships with symbiotic ants. Although myrmecophytic Macaranga (Malpighiales: Euphorbiaceae) species are well protected by aggressive Crematogaster (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) ants, some bug species occur on the myrmecophytes. To clarify the associations of these bugs with the plants and the ants, we studied the food habits of 3 bug species, Pilophorus lambirensis Nakatani et Komatsu, 2013 (Hemiptera: Miridae: Phylinae), Phylinae sp. 1, and Arbela sp. 1 (Hemiptera: Nabidae). We conducted field observations in a Bornean rainforest. First, we located these bugs and studied their behavioral responses to the ants on Macaranga species; we then conducted stable isotope analyses. All bugs avoided direct contact with ants, but they occurred only on trees with active ants. Pilophorus lambirensis and Phylinae sp. 1 were most commonly observed on the apical parts of host trees, whereas Arbela sp. 1 was mainly in areas distant from the apical parts where ants were sparse. The stable isotope ratios indicated that Phylinae sp. 1 fed on food bodies, which are nutrient-rich spherical bodies produced by Macaranga trees on the apical parts for ants. Although the main diet of the other 2 species remains unclear, nitrogen isotopic signatures demonstrated that P. lambirensis is herbivorous, whereas Arbela sp. 1 is carnivorous. However, the distant location from ants and its isotopic signatures indicated that Arbela sp. 1 rarely fed on the ants. At least 2 mirid bug species might obtain enemy-free space in addition to the food provided by the myrmecophytes.

On the taxonomy of Philyra sagittifera (Alcock, 1896) and P. concinnus Ghani & Tirmizi, 1995 (Decapoda, Brachyura, Leucosiidae), with description of a new genus from the Indian Ocean

The identity of the leucosiid crabs, Philyra sagittifera (Alcock, 1896) and P. concinnus Ghani & Tirmizi, 1995, originally described from Pakistan is clarified. Redescription of the lectotype male of Philyra sagittifera (Alcock, 1896) and fresh material of both species collected from the Persian Gulf revealed that these two species show significant morphological differences from the generic characters of Philyra sensu stricto and other allied genera in possessing three broad tuberculated ridges united to form a "broad-arrow" pointing forwards on the carapace, and male G1 with apical process curved, with or without a spatulate tip. Therefore, a new genus Tirmilyra n. gen. is established to accommodate both species.

Hutch (Euphorbiaceae)

Crotofoligandrin (1), a new endoperoxide crotofolane-type diterpenoid was isolated from the dichloromethane/methanol (1:1) extract of the twigs of Croton oligandrus Pierre Ex Hutch along with thirteen known secondary metabolites including 1-nonacosanol (2), lupenone (3), friedelin (4), β-sitosterol (5), taraxerol (6), (-)-hardwickiic acid (7), apigenin (8), acetyl aleuritolic acid (9), betulinic acid (10), fokihodgin C 3-acetate (11), D-mannitol (12), scopoletin (13) and quercetin (14). The structures of the isolated compounds were determined based on their spectroscopic data. The crude extract and the isolated compounds were assessed in vitro for their antioxidant, lipoxygenase, butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), urease and glucosidase inhibitory potentials. Compounds 1-3, and 10 displayed activities on all the performed bioassays. All the tested samples showed strong to significant antioxidant activity with compound 1 being the most potent (IC50 39.4 μM).

Deterioration of extrafloral nectaries and leaf damages caused by air pollution in a Brazilian native species from the Atlantic Forest

In Brazil, more than 90% of steel mills are located in states that have Atlantic Forest which, together with the pollution of large urban centers, represent risk factors for the environmental quality of this important biome. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of urban and industrial air pollution in a city in Minas Gerais that has a steel mill on the symptomatology, on the leaf chemistry, and on the anatomy and micromorphology of extrafloral nectaries (EFNs) of Joannesia princeps Vell. (Euphorbiaceae), a native species of the Atlantic Forest. For 126 days, seedlings of J. princeps were exposed on stand systems in the urban and industrial area of MG (Ipatinga city), in the following places: Bom Retiro, Cariru, Cidade Nobre, and Veneza. For anatomical analysis, EFNs were collected and processed for microscopic analysis. In the southern parts of the steel mill closest to the Rio Doce State Park (RDSP) (Bom Retiro and Cariru), there was a predominance of NO, NO_X, SO₂ (Bom Retiro), naphthalene, benzene, and total suspended particulates (Cariru). In locations north of the steel mill (Cidade Nobre and Veneza), there was a predominance of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). In the urban environment, intense anatomical and micromorphological damage to EFNs, leaf damage, leaf metal accumulation, and alterations in the histochemical tests of the plants were observed. The interior of the RDSP presented environmental quality, but the contribution of pollutants near the border between the RDSP and the city of Ipatinga is worrying, requiring constant monitoring of this area to verify the impact and threat that pollution can cause on these Atlantic Forest remnants.

Network pharmacology identification and in Vivo validation of key pharmacological pathways of Phyllanthus reticulatus (Euphorbiaceae) leaf extract in liver cancer treatment

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Phyllanthus reticulatus (Euphorbiaceae) is a medicinal plant that has been used in Zhuang medicine since ancient times. Traditionally, it has the effect of removing toxins and detumescence and can be used to treat hepatitis in China and India. Our previous studies have proved that the ethyl acetate extract of its leaves (PRPE) has an anti-hepatoma effect.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To predict targets of an ethyl acetate extract of Phyllanthus reticulatus leaves (PRPE) in hepatoma treatment via network pharmacology and verify the predictions in a mouse model of liver cancer.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Chemical constituents and therapeutic targets of P. reticulatus (PRP) were searched and predicted via public databases. A protein-protein interaction network comprising common targets was constructed, and the key gene targets were identified. Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) analyses were used for biological function and pathway enrichment analyses. The effects of PRP on BEL-7404 and HepG₂ cells were determined by MTT assay, apoptosis was measured by flow cytometry and hoechst44432/PI. And a nude mouse xenograft model was established to verify the anti-tumour effect in vivo. The histopathology of tumours was observed by staining with haematoxylin and eosin (H&E). Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and immunohistochemistry were used to determine the gene and protein expression levels of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), Akt1, p53, caspase-3, Bcl-2 and Bax, respectively.

RESULTS

Twenty-seven chemical components and 567 potential therapeutic targets of PRP were identified. GO analysis indicated that these targets are mainly associated with peptidyl-tyrosine phosphorylation and steroid metabolic process. KEGG analysis showed that the targets are mainly located in the PI3K/Akt, apoptosis, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), Ras and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) signalling pathways. According to the p-adjust value, the PI3K/Akt pathway is the core pathway. In vitro, PRPE could inhibit proliferation and induce apoptosis in hepatoma cells. IC₅₀ values of PRPE were 2.48 and 6.34 mg/mL for BEL-7404 and hepG₂ cells, respectively. PRPE significantly reduced tumour volume and weight. H&E results showed that PRPE repaired necrotic areas in hepatoma cells. PRPE reduced the protein expression of PI3K, Akt1 and Bcl-2 and increased the protein expression of p53 and Bax. Meanwhile, PRPE reduced the mRNA expression of PI3K, AKT1 and BCL₂ and increased the mRNA expression of TP53, CASP3 and BAX.

CONCLUSION

The targets of PRPE are the PI3K/Akt, apoptosis, MAPK, Ras and VEGF signalling pathways. Passing through the PI3K/Akt pathway to induce apoptosis is the main mechanism of PRPE.

Cryptic Epoxytiglianes from the Kernels of the Blushwood Tree (Fontainea picrosperma)

The kernels of the Australian blushwood tree (Fontainea picrosperma) are the source of the veterinary anticancer drug tigilanol tiglate (2a, Stelfonta) and contain a concentration of phorboids significantly higher than croton oil, the only abundant source of these compounds previously known. The oily matrix of the blushwood kernels is composed of free fatty acids and not by glycerides as found in croton oil. By active partitioning, it was therefore possible to recover and characterize for the first time a cryptic tigliane fraction, that is, the diterpenoid fraction that, because of its lipophilicity, could not be obtained by solvent partition of crude extracts. The cryptic tigliane fraction accounted for ca. 30% of the tigliane kernel titer and was quantified by ¹H NMR spectroscopy and profiled by HPLC-MS. Long-chain (linoleates and/or oleates) 20-acyl derivatives of the epoxytigliane diesters tigilanol tiglate (EBC-46, 2a), EBC-47 (4a), EBC-59 (5a), EBC-83 (6a), and EBC-177 (7a) were identified. By chemoselective acylation of EBC-46 (2a) and EBC-177 (7a) the natural triesters 2b and 7b and a selection of analogues were prepared to assist identification of the natural compounds. The presence of a free C-20 hydroxy group is a critical requirement for PKC activation by phorbol esters. The unexpected activity of 20-linoleoyl triester 2b in a cytotoxicity assay based on PKC activation was found to be related mainly to its hydrolysis to tigilanol tiglate (2a) under the prolonged conditions of the assay, while other esters were inactive. Significant differences between the esterification profile of the epoxytigliane di- and triesters exist in F. picrosperma, suggesting a precise, yet elusive, blueprint of acyl decoration for the tigliane polyol 5-hydroxyepoxyphorbol.

Dolabrane-Type Diterpenoids with Immunosuppressive Activity from Koilodepas hainanense

Thirteen new dolabrane-type diterpenoids, koilodenoids A-M (1-13), including a chlorinated congener (2), along with six known analogues, were isolated from Koilodepas hainanense. The structures were determined by analysis of spectroscopic data, ECD spectra, and X-ray crystallographic studies. The absolute configuration of C-15 in the 15,16-diol unit of compounds 4 and 5 was established by using the dimolybdenum tetraacetate [Mo₂(AcO)₄]-induced ECD method. Compounds 4, 7, 16, 17, and 19 showed moderate to significant immunosuppressive activities against the proliferation of T and B lymphocytes in vitro, with compound 16 being the most potent (IC₅₀ 0.86 and 0.29 μM, respectively).

Insecticidal and Enzyme Inhibition Activities of Leaf/Bark Extracts, Fractions, Seed Oil and Isolated Compounds from Triadica sebifera (L.) Small against Aphis craccivora Koch

Aphid, Aphis craccivora Koch (Hemiptera: Aphididae), is a major sap-sucking insect pest of leguminous crops and also transmits plant viruses, leading to economic yield loss. Indiscriminate and repeated use of insecticides for control of aphid leads to the development of resistance, and is harmful to the environment, non-target organisms, etc. Plant-based extracts/seed oils (SO) are the best alternatives to insecticides. Insecticidal activities of Triadica sebifera have not been reported against A. craccivora and other insect pests to date. In the current study, the main objective was to study the insecticidal activities of leaf/bark extracts/fractions, seed oil, isolated compounds, and their combinations against A. craccivora. Results showed that, among the extracts, ethanolic bark extract 80% (LC₅₀ = 5115.98 mg/L) was more effective against A. craccivora. Among fractions, the n-hexane fraction of leaves (LC₅₀ = 425.73 mg/L) and the ethyl acetate fraction of bark (LC₅₀ = 813.45 mg/L) were promising. Among compounds, gallic acid was the most effective (LC₅₀ = 1303.68 mg/L) compared to shikimic acid and quercetin. SO (LC₅₀ = 850.94 mg/L) was superior compared to extracts/fractions/compounds. All the combinations showed toxicity and synergistic activity. Leaf/bark extracts and SO significantly inhibited the AChE and GST activity in A. craccivora. Based on field bio-efficacy, the leaf extract/SO or their combinations can be recommended for the control of aphids.

Potential inhibitors of microglial activation from the roots of Vernicia montana Lour

During our continuous investigation of natural, herbal inhibitors of microglial over-activation in the Euphorbiaceae family, two plants of the Vernicia genus showed remarkable inhibitory effects on nitric oxide (NO) production in over-activated microglia. In this study, bioactivity-guided phytochemical research on the active fraction of the roots of V. montana was carried out. As a result, seven undescribed terpenoids and lignans, together with thirty-one known components, were isolated and identified using comprehensive spectral analysis. All the identified compounds were evaluated for their inhibitory effects on NO production in lipopolysaccharide-stimulated BV-2 cells. Combined with our previous research on the Vernicia genus, the effective material basis of different plants and medicinal components was analyzed systematically.

Gastrointestinal discomfort and hypotension in a patient with Reutealis trisperma seeds intoxication: A case report

RATIONALE

Reutealis trisperma is a plant belonging to the Euphorbiaceae family and Reutealis genus and is often mistaken for a plant of the genus Aleurites. Accidental ingestion of R trisperma seeds is relatively rare in Taiwan than that of Vernicia fordii. Mostly, the clinical course of R trisperma seed poisoning is similar to that of V fordii poisoning. Recent studies have shown that the median lethal dose 50 of R trisperma seeds in mice is approximately 4954 mg/kg. R trisperma seed extract has a significant effect on the autonomic nervous system by causing ptosis and disrupting breathing, and affects the central nervous system by reducing motor activity.

PATIENT CONCERNS

A 51-year-old man with underlying gout and hepatitis B picked several seeds of R trisperma, which he misidentified at chestnuts, at an elementary school. He prepared soup by boiling 3 to 4 seeds and consumed it. He experienced abdominal pain, vomiting, and watery diarrhea with hypotension.

DIAGNOSIS

R trisperma seeds intoxication.

INTERVENTIONS

The patient was given a soft diet, input and output were recorded, and intravenous fluid supplements were administered.

OUTCOMES

The patient was discharged after 3 days of hospitalization, once a relatively stable condition was achieved.

LESSONS

Human poisoning by accidental consumption of R trisperma seeds is relatively rare in Taiwan. It may cause gastrointestinal symptoms and even hypotension. Patients can recover within 2 to 3 days of receiving proper treatment and intravenous fluid infusion.

Trigonostemon species in south China: Insights on its chemical constituents towards pharmacological applications

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY RELEVANCE

The Euphorbiaceae family, which contains about 300 genera and more than 5000 species, is widely distributed in different regions. Trigonostemon genus comprises a wide group of tropical and temperate plants belonging to the Euphorbiaceae family. This genus includes at least 50 species throughout tropical Asia, extending from India and Sri Lanka to New Guinea. They have been employed by local populations for the treatment of asthma, poisonous snake bites, and food poisoning.

AIM OF THE REVIEW

The main aim of the review is to critically analyze the reported traditional uses, bioactive chemical constituents and pharmacological activities of Trigonostemon species.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Scientific databases, including Google Scholar, PubMed, CNKI, SpringerLink, Web of Science, Wiley Online Library and SciFinder, were searched using keywords such as "Trigonostemon", "South China", "chemical constituents", or "traditional use". Thus, available articles from 2000 to 2020 were collected and analyzed.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

This paper provides systematic data that Trigonostemon species possess a diverse phytochemical composition, (including diterpenes, alkaloids, coumarins, lignins, sesquiterpenes, triterpenoids, flavonoids, and polyphenols) found in different plant organs. Research on Trigonostemon plants has revealed critical therapeutic properties, such as antiviral, anti-tumor, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and insecticidal activities.

CONCLUSIONS

It is envisaged that the current review will add value to more scientific research on Trigonostemon species and enhance/promote the increased interest in the sustainable use of Trigonostemon species as well as lead to the validation of unverified ethnobotanical claims. Future studies on Trigonostemon species would focus on establishing the links between the traditional uses, active compounds and reported pharmacological activities.

Euphorbia ebracteolata Hayata (Euphorbiaceae): A systematic review of its traditional uses, botany, phytochemistry, pharmacology, toxicology, and quality control

Euphorbia ebracteolata Hayata, as a traditional medicine, is widely distributed in China, Korea and Japan. In China, the dried root of this plant is named 'langdu'. It is traditionally used to treat oedema, skin ulcers, abdominal distension, cough, asthma, tuberculosis swelling and other diseases. Previous studies have found that the chemical constituents of E. ebracteolata are mainly concentrated in terpenoids, acetophenones, and flavonoids. Both extracts and pure compounds from E. ebracteolata were found to possess many pharmacological activities, such as anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and antimicrobial effects. In addition, it was reported that E. ebracteolata shows toxicity. To provide inspiration for further in-depth studies on this plant, this review will provide a timely and systematic summary of E. ebracteolata in traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology toxicology, and quality control.

Moore (Euphorbiaceae)

Essential oils from the stems and leaves of Croton doctoris were analyzed by gas chromatography and mass spectrometry, resulting in 22 identified compounds. The effects of these essential oils on the germination, root and shoot growth, total chlorophyll content, potential root respiration, peroxidase activity, catalase, superoxide dismutase, and mitotic index in lettuce and onion were determined. Antioxidant, antimicrobial, and cytotoxic activity were also investigated. The results revealed that the stem oil consisted of 15 compounds, of which caryophyllene oxide (24.5%) and E-caryophyllene (13.3%) were the major constituents. The leaf oil contained E-caryophyllene (39.6%) and α-humulene (13.2%) as major compounds. The oils inhibited the germination and growth of lettuce and onion seedlings and reduced chlorophyll content, root respiration, and cell division. They also caused oxidative stress, indicated by the increased activity of the evaluated antioxidant enzymes. These abnormal physiological processes contributed to the inhibition of plant growth. The most pronounced phytotoxic effects were observed in the stem oil. The cytotoxicity tests indicated that leaf oil was more active than stem oil, resulting from the presence of biologically active sesquiterpenes that inhibit the growth of cancer cells.

Topical and systemic use of Joannesia princeps vell. LC seed oil in acute pain and inflammation induced by different agents

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Joannesia princeps (SOJP) has been used in folk medicine as anthelmintic treatment and cutaneous wound healing.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The purpose of this study is to evaluate the pharmacological activity of seed oil of Joannesia princeps, administered systemically and topically, on acute pain and inflammation.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Male swiss mice were treated orally and topically with seed oil of Joannesia princeps in models of acute pain (acetic acid-induced abdominal writhing, formalin-induced licking behaviour and tail flick tests) and acute inflammation (carrageenan- and histamine-induced paw oedema; arachidonic acid-, capsaicin- and croton oil-induced ear oedema and air pouch tests), besides the open field model in the motor performance evaluation.

RESULTS

Seed oil of Joannesia princeps showed systemic action against acute pain in abdominal writhing test (37% and 56% inhibition in the number of writhes at doses of 30 and 100 mg/kg, respectively) and in the second phase of formalin-induced licking behaviour test (29%, 47 and 52% inhibition in the licking time at doses of 10, 30 and 100 mg/kg, respectively), as well as reducing croton oil-induced ear oedema by 72%, leukocyte recruitment and production of TNF-α and IL-6 in the air pouch tests. In addition, topical administration of SOJP inhibited carrageenan-induced paw oedema by 39% at dose of 500 μg/paw and inhibited histamine-induced oedema by 43 and 52% at doses of 300 and 500 μg/paw, respectively. SOJP also decreased croton oil-induced ear oedema by 67% at dose of 500 μg/paw and arachidonic acid-induced ear oedema by 63% at dose of 500 μg/paw, reducing the production of TNF-α, IL-1β and MIP2 in both. In addition, no adverse effects were observed at doses up to 2000 mg/kg.

CONCLUSIONS

Seed oil of Joannesia princeps presents antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory actions through its topical and systemic administration, promoted by inhibition of leukocyte recruitment and cytokine production (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6 and MIP-2).

Therapeutic potential of prenylated stilbenoid macasiamenene F through its anti-inflammatory and cytoprotective effects on LPS-challenged monocytes and microglia

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Macaranga Thou. (Euphorbiaceae) is a large genus that comprises over 300 species distributed between Western Africa and the islands of the South Pacific. Plants of this genus have a long-standing history of use in traditional medicine for different purposes, including the treatment of inflammation. Fresh and dried leaves of certain Macaranga species (e.g. M. tanarius (L.) Müll.Arg.), have been used to treat cuts, bruises, boils, swellings, sores and covering of wounds in general. Several reports described Macaranga spp. being a rich source of polyphenols, such as prenylated stilbenoids and flavonoids, mostly responsible for its biological activity. Similarly, an abundant content of prenylated stilbenes was also described in M. siamensis S.J.Davies, species recently identified (2001) in Thailand. While the respective biological activity of the prenylated stilbenes from M. siamensis was poorly investigated to date, our recent study pointed out the interest as the natural source of several novel anti-inflammatory stilbenoids isolated from this species.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This work investigated the potential anti-inflammatory effects of the stilbenoid macasiamenene F (MF) isolated from M. siamensis S.J.Davies (Euphorbiaceae) on the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammation-like response of monocytes and microglia, major cells involved in the peripheral and central inflammatory response, respectively.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

LPS-induced stimulation of TLR4 signaling led to the activation of inflammatory pathways in in vitro models of THP-1 and THP-1-XBlue™-MD2-CD14 human monocytes, BV-2 mouse microglia, and an ex vivo model of brain-sorted mouse microglia. The ability of the stilbenoid MF to intervene in the IкB/NF-кB and MAPKs/AP-1 inflammatory cascade was investigated. The gene and protein expressions of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and TNF-α were evaluated at the transcription and translation levels. The protective effect of MF against LPS-triggered microglial loss was assessed by cell counting and the LDH assay.

RESULTS

MF demonstrated beneficial effects, reducing both monocyte and microglial inflammation as assessed in vitro. It efficiently inhibited the degradation of IкBα, thereby reducing the NF-кB activity and TNF-α expression in human monocytes. Furthermore, the LPS-induced expression of IL-1β and TNF-α in microglia was dampened by pre-, co-, or post-treatment with MF. In addition to its anti-inflammatory effect, MF demonstrated a cytoprotective effect against the LPS-induced death of BV-2 microglia.

CONCLUSION

Our research into anti-inflammatory and protective effects of MF has shown that it is a promising candidate for further in vitro and in vivo investigations of MF interventions with respect to acute and chronic inflammation, including potentially beneficial effects on the inflammatory component of brain diseases such as stroke and Alzheimer's disease.

Ent-clerodane and ent-trachylobane diterpenoids from Croton dictyophlebodes

The stem bark and root bark extracts of Croton dictyophlebodes (Euphorbiaceae) yielded seven undescribed ent-clerodanes: 15,16-epoxy-17,12(S)-olide-ent-cleroda-1,3,13(16),14-tetraen-18-oic acid methyl ester (crotodictyo A), 3β,4β:15,16-diepoxy-ent-cleroda-13(16),14-dien-20-al (crotodictyo B), 3β,4β:15,16-diepoxy-ent-cleroda-13(16),14-dien-19,20-dioic acid (crotodictyo C), 3β,4β:15,16-diepoxy-ent-cleroda-13(16),14-dien-20,19-olide (crotodictyo D), 3β,4β:15,16-diepoxy-20,12(R)-olide ent-cleroda-13(16),14-dien-19-oic acid methyl ester (crotodictyo E), 15,16-epoxy-ent-cleroda-3,13(16),14-trien-12-oxo-18-oic acid (crotodictyo F) and 15,16-epoxy-ent-cleroda-1,3,13(16),14-tetraen-12-oxo-18-oic acid (crotodictyo G), in addition to 15,16-epoxy- ent-cleroda-3,13(16),14-trien-12-oxo-18-oic acid methyl ester (crotodictyo H), reported previously as a synthetic derivative, and acetyl aleuritolic acid. The root extract yielded two ent-trachylobanes, ent-trachylobane-18,19-diol, the undescribed ent-trachylobane-2α,19-diol, along with ent-kaur-16-en-19-oic acid and 2-methoxybenzyl benzoate. Compounds were evaluated against the NCI 60 panel of human tumour cell lines at a single dose of 10^-5 M, but showed no significant activity.

Chemical responses of an invasive plant to herbivory and abiotic environments reveal a novel invasion mechanism

Invasive plant environments differ along latitudes and between native and introduced ranges. In response to herbivory and abiotic stresses that vary with latitudes and between ranges, invasive plants may shift their secondary chemicals to facilitate invasion success. However, it remains unclear whether and how invasive plant chemical responses to herbivory and chemical responses to abiotic environments are associated. We conducted large scale field surveys of herbivory on the invasive tallow tree (Triadica sebifera) along latitudes in both its native (China) and introduced ranges (United States) and collected leaf samples for analyses of tannins and flavonoids. We used data on climate and solar radiation to examine these chemical responses to abiotic environments and their variations along these latitudes and between ranges. We also re-analyzed previously published data from multiple common garden experiments on tallow tree to investigate genetic divergence of secondary chemical concentrations between introduced and native populations. We found foliar tannins and herbivory (chewing, sucking) were higher in the native range compared to the invasive range. Allocation to tannins versus flavonoids decreased with latitude in the native range but did not vary in the invasive range. Analyses of previously published common garden experimental data indicated genetic divergence contributes to chemical concentration differences between ranges. Our field data further indicated that the latitudinal patterns were primarily phenotypic responses to herbivory in China while in US they were primarily phenotypic responses to abiotic environments. The variation of tannins may be linked to flavonoids, given tannins and flavonoids share a biosynthesis pathway. Together, our results suggest that invasive plants adjust their secondary metabolism to decrease chemicals that primarily defend against herbivory and increase those that help them to respond to their abiotic environment. These findings deepen our understanding of how invasive plants adapt to biogeographically heterogeneous environments through trade-offs between secondary chemical responses.

Cytotoxic diterpenoids from the leaves and stem bark of Croton haumanianus (Euphorbiaceae)

The leaf extract of Croton haumanianus J. Léonard (Euphorbiaceae) yielded twenty-six compounds, including eight previously reported ent-kauranes and an ent-labdane and eight undescribed ent-kauranes, ent-16R-kauran-17-al, ent-3β-hydroxy-16R-kauran-17-al, ent-16S,17-epoxykauran-19-ol, ent-16S,17-epoxykauran-3β-ol, ent-17-palmityloxykaurane-3β,16β-diol, ent-17-palmityloxykauran-16β-ol, ent-3α,18-cyclokaurane-16β,17-diol and 19-nor-16α,17-dihydroxy-ent-kaur-4(18)-ene and three undescribed ent-clerodanes, dimethyl ent-15,16-epoxy-6β-hydroxy-1,3,13(16),14-clerodatetraen-20,12S-olide-18,19-dioate (saniolide A), dimethyl ent-15,16-epoxy-6β-hydroxy-1,3,13(16),14-clerodatetraen-20,12R-olide-18,19-dioate (12-epi-saniolide A), methyl ent-15,16-epoxy-1,3,13(16),14-clerodatetraen-18,6R:20,12S-diolide-19-oate (saniolide B). The stem bark extract yielded the ent-clerodane crotocorylifuran, and five undescribed ent-isopimaranes, ent-isopimara-8(14),15-dien-18-al, ent-18-hydroxyisopimara-8(14),15-dien-7-one, ent-isopimara-7,15-dien-18-oic acid, ent-isopimara-7,15-dien-18-ol and ent-isopimara-8,15-dien-7-oxo-18-oic acid. Three compounds, ent-kaurane-3β,16β,17-triol, ent-17-palmityloxykaurane-3β,16β-diol and ent-17-palmityloxykauran-16β-ol, showed selective activity against three of the NCI 60 cancer cell lines, the colon (HCT-116), the melanoma (M14) and the renal (786-0) cancer cell lines at a concentration of 10^-5 M.

[Study progress on chemical constituents and biological activities of Trigonostemon genus]

The plants of the Trigonostemon sp. genus(Euphorbiaceae family) comprising about 50 species worldwide are mainly distributed in tropical and subtropical Asia, 10 species of which can be found in southern of China. Phytochemical studies on the plants in the genus have demonstrated a large amount of terpenoids and alkaloids. Modern pharmacological studies have demonstrated cytotoxicity, antivirus, antibacterial, anti-inflammation and other pharmacological activities. In this paper, chemical compositions and biological activities of Trigonostemon genus at home and abroad over the past decade were summarized, in order to provide scientific basis for the further development and utilization of Trigonostemon plants.

Efficient direct shoot organogenesis and genetic stability in micropropagated sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.)

OBJECTIVE

It is necessary to improve biotech platforms based on in vitro cell tissue culture to support sacha inchi (Plukenetia volubilis L.) research programs and draw on the nutritional value of the high polyunsaturated fatty acid content of its oilseed. Here, we developed a rapid and efficient method for induction and direct in vitro shoot development for this species.

RESULTS

Shoots were generated from hypocotyl explants. The highest organogenic response was obtained in woody plant medium supplemented with 1 mg/L thidiazuron and 0.5 mg/L zeatin supplemented with L-glutamine, adenine hemisulfate, and L-arginine. Shoots obtained using this medium were transferred and subcultivated with different concentrations of indole-3-butyric acid and 1-naphthylacetic acid for rooting. For the first time, a histological analysis was performed supporting direct organogenic development in this species. The plantlets obtained were transferred ex vitro with a survival percentage of 80%. The genetic stability of the plants recovered was confirmed by randomly amplified polymorphic DNA analysis. All results indicate that it would be possible to stimulate direct shoot formation from hypocotyls to support the sustainable use of this species.

Two new ent-atisane diterpenes from Sapium sebiferum

Two new ent-atisane diterpenes, sebiferumnins K and L (1 and 2), were isolated from the branches of Sapium sebiferum, together with four known compounds, ent-3-oxoatis-16α, 17-acetonide (3), ent-l6α, 17-dihydroxyatisan-3-one (4), ent-atisane-3β, 16α, 17-triol (5), ent-3α-hydroxyatis-16α,17-acetonide (6). The structures of these two ent-atisane diterpenes were elucidated by extensive analyses of the spectroscopic data. [Formula: see text].

Stories told by plants on graveyards in Northern Angola

Background

Worldwide, different traditions of symbolic statements in graveyards can be found. However, studies on sub-Saharan Africa are rare. For BaKongo cemeteries, it is only known that they traditionally do not exhibit plants for decoration purposes. Our study wanted to inspect the influence of Portuguese culture due to the long shared colonial past.

Methods

During 2015 and 2019, plant use in 87 graveyards in 13 municipalities of the province Uíge was documented. Five expert interviews with the village eldest in five municipalities completed the data collection.

Results

While 24% of the graveyards didn´t have any planting, 27 plant species were found in the remaining ones, including a high percentage of alien species (59%), mainly from the Americas. The most abundant plant species are Euphorbia tirucalli (23%) and Agave sisalana (22%). With increasing distance from the city Uíge (especially towards the Democratic Republic of the Congo), the utilization of living plants in cemeteries is decreasing except along the road. In most of the cases, just one plant species per gravesite was found.

Conclusions

This unexpected high number of plants might be interpreted as a strong evidence of outside influence. Cultural symbols of the BaKongo cosmology and Christianism appear to coexist or coalesce. Furthermore, plants are used as a marker for graveyards. Modern influences like the use of concrete in proximity to urban areas indicate a certain wealth.

Anti-HIV tigliane diterpenoids from Reutealis trisperma

Bioassay-guided fractionation of the n-butanol extract from the branches and leaves of Reutealis trisperma resulted in the isolation of six undescribed (crotignoids L ~ Q) together with two known (12-deoxyphorbol-13-hexadecanoate and 12-deoxyphorbol-13-myristate) tigliane diterpenoids. Their structures, especially the absolute configurations, were determined from extensive spectroscopic studies, including 2D NMR spectra, CD data analysis and electronic circular dichroism (ECD) calculations. All isolates were tested for anti-HIV activity against HL4-3 virus in MT4 cells. Except for crotignoid Q, the remaining seven tigliane diterpenoids exhibited potent anti-HIV activity with IC₅₀ values ranging from 0.0023 to 4.03 μM.

Protective effect of Cnidoscolus aconitifolius leaves against diclofenac-induced gastric mucosal damage

Cnidoscolus aconitifolius is one of the plants used in folk medicine for the treatment of peptic ulcer. However, the present study was designed to validate the gastro-protective effect of Cnidoscolus aconitifolius leaves using diclofenac-induced ulcer model. The gastro-protective effect of Cnidoscolus aconitifolius leaves was evaluated by employing diclofenac-induced gastric ulcer in rats. Gastric mucosal lesions were induced by oral administration of diclofenac in rats. The pH of gastric juice from pylorus-ligated rats was measured. Histological examinations of the gastric tissues were also carried out. The present findings showed that Cnidoscolus aconitifolius leaf methanol extract exerted gastro-protective activity, as demonstrated by its consistent significant and dose dependent increase in mean ulcer index (MUI) inhibition against gastric mucosa damage induced by diclofenac treatment. Histological investigation of the gastric lesions showed that the plant stimulates the scarring cicatrizing process and thereby maintaining the architecture of the mucosal surfaces. The gastro-protective effect observed could be related to the therapeutic properties of the phytoconstituents of Cnidoscolus aconitifolius extract. Cnidoscolus aconitifolius leaves possess gastro-protective property in a dose dependent manner.

Evaluation of Macaranga tanarius as a biomass feedstock for fermentable sugars production

Macaranga tanarius is a fast-growing tree species that could be potentially utilized as a biomass feedstock for biorefinery. The average productivity of M. tanarius biomass was estimated to be ~19.2 ton/ha if the above-ground biomass is harvested bi-annually. Different pretreatment approaches were investigated to increase the enzymatic digestibility of foliage and woody biomass. The results indicated that no pretreatment was required for the foliage biomass while sequential acid/alkali pretreatment was necessary for the woody biomass before enzymatic hydrolysis. For the woody biomass, the delignification was 34.5% after sequential dilute acid/alkali pretreatment. The reducing sugar yields from enzymatic hydrolysis of foliage and pretreated woody biomass were 0.31 and 0.42 g/g dry biomass, respectively. The results also showed that both hydrolysates were fermentable by lactic acid bacteria. Overall, the results suggested that M. tanarius could be a potential feedstock for biorefinery based on the findings and processes derived from this study.

Sexual dimorphism and rapid turnover in gene expression in pre-reproductive seedlings of a dioecious herb

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Sexual dimorphism in morphology, physiology or life history traits is common in dioecious plants at reproductive maturity, but it is typically inconspicuous or absent in juveniles. Although plants of different sexes probably begin to diverge in gene expression both before their reproduction commences and before dimorphism becomes readily apparent, to our knowledge transcriptome-wide differential gene expression has yet to be demonstrated for any angiosperm species.

METHODS

The present study documents differences in gene expression in both above- and below-ground tissues of early pre-reproductive individuals of the wind-pollinated dioecious annual herb, Mercurialis annua, which otherwise shows clear sexual dimorphism only at the adult stage.

KEY RESULTS

Whereas males and females differed in their gene expression at the first leaf stage, sex-biased gene expression peaked just prior to, and after, flowering, as might be expected if sexual dimorphism is partly a response to differential costs of reproduction. Sex-biased genes were over-represented among putative sex-linked genes in M. annua but showed no evidence for more rapid evolution than unbiased genes.

CONCLUSIONS

Sex-biased gene expression in M. annua occurs as early as the first whorl of leaves is produced, is highly dynamic during plant development and varies substantially between vegetative tissues.

Anti-inflammatory action of an alkaloid, fraction and extract from Alchornea glandulosa in mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Alchornea glandulosa (Euphorbiaceae) has traditionally been used in medicine for treating immune-mediated inflammatory diseases.

AIM OF STUDY

This work aimed to evaluate the anti-inflammatory effects of a methanolic extract of leaves from A. glandulosa (MEAG), as well as the ethyl acetate fraction (EAFAG) and isolated compound guanidine alkaloid N-1, N-2, N-3-triisopentenylguanidine (AG-1), in experimental in vivo models of inflammation in mice. We also investigated this extract's phenols, flavonoids and flavonol compounds.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

MEAG (extracted by maceration with methanol), EAFAG (fraction resulting from the partition of the methanolic extract with ethyl acetate) and AG-1 (alkaloid isolated by chromatographic methods) were analysed. MEAG and EAFAG were analysed by HPLC/DAD. The effects of MEAG (30, 100 and 300 mg/kg), EAFAG (30, 100 and 300 mg/kg) and AG-1 (5 and 30 mg/kg) were studied in the following experimental mouse models: paw oedema and myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity, croton-oil-induced ear oedema, leukocyte migration in a pleurisy model induced by carrageenan and zymosan induction of joint inflammation.

RESULTS

MEAG and EAFAG were analysed by LC/DAD, and phenolic acids (gallic acid and caffeic acid) and flavonoids (myricetin-3-O-α-rhamnopyranoside and quercetin) were detected. MEAG, EAFAG and AG-1 were used in the carrageenan-induced paw oedema model and showed maximum inhibitions of 60.10% (MEAG, 2 h, 300 mg/kg) and 66.21% (EAFAG, 2 h, 300 mg/kg). AG-1 at 5 mg/kg showed significant inhibition, ranging from 60.92% to 63.13%, at all evaluated times, and the 30 mg/kg dose showed inhibition of 42.12% (1 h) and 40.36% (2 h). MEAG (37%, 46.1% and 68.11%) and EAFAG (31%, 42.21% and 48.93%), at doses of 30, 100 and 300 mg/kg, respectively, significantly reduced the increase in MPO activity, and AG-1 (5 and 30 mg/kg) showed inhibition of 64.62% and 65.12%, respectively. In the pleurisy model, MEAG (300 mg/kg), EAFAG (300 mg/kg) and AG-1 (30 mg/kg) significantly reduced the migration of total leukocytes with maximal inhibition of 80.90%, 83.17% and 89.39%, respectively. In the croton oil model, pretreatment with MEAG (0.1, 0.3 and 1 mg/ear) increased the diameter of the right ear (30.32%, 48.87% and 53.09%, respectively). Finally, MEAG (100 and 300 mg/kg; 33.11% and 56.03%) and EAFAG (100 and 300 mg/kg; 36.89% and 50.53%) reduced zymosan-induced oedema formation.

CONCLUSIONS

To the best of our knowledge, these results are the first to demonstrate that A. glandulosa exhibits oral and topical anti-inflammatory activity. This study detected alkaloid and phenol/polyphenolic compounds in A. glandulosa, which may help to explain the ethnobotanical use of this plant in traditional medicine in Brazil to treat immune-mediated inflammatory diseases.

Protective effects of methanol extract of Plukenetia conophora seeds and 4H-Pyran-4-One 2,3-Dihydro-3,5-Dihydroxy-6-Methyl on the reproductive function of male Wistar rats treated with cadmium chloride

OBJECTIVES

Male infertility caused by exposure to heavy metals is a current global issue. Exposure to cadmium chloride (CdCl2) negatively affects the male reproductive system. Many infertile people, especially in developing countries, resort to folkloric treatment. Plukenetia conophora is used in Nigerian folk medicine to promote fertility. This study investigated the effects of Plukenetia conophora (PC) and 4H-Pyran-4-One 2,3-Dihydro-3,5-Dihydroxy-6-Methyl (DDMP) on Wistar rats with cadmium chloride-induced testicular damage.

METHODS

Forty-two male Wistar rats (150-190g) were divided into seven groups (n=6) and treated daily for 54 days as follows: Controls (normal saline); CdCl2 (2mg/kg single IP dose); CdCl2 + 200 mg/kg vitamin E; CdCl2 + 100 or 200 mg/kg PC; and CdCl2 + 25 or 50 mg/kg DDMP. The rats were sacrificed 55 days after the start of the study; Samples were collected for analysis. Biochemical parameters malondialdehyde, nitric oxide, antioxidant enzymes, and proton pumps were measured by spectrophotometry. Reproductive hormones were measured using ELISA. Data were analysed using ANOVA and differences in mean values were considered significant at p<0.05.

RESULTS

Significant increases in sperm count, motility, and viability were observed in the groups given CdCl2+Vitamin E, CdCl2+PC or CdCl2+DDMP as compared with the CdCl2 group. Malondialdehyde and nitric oxide levels in the groups treated with CdCl2+PC or CdCl2+DDMP decreased significantly when compared with the group given CdCl2. Significant increases were observed in antioxidant enzymes, proton pump, and testosterone in the groups treated with CdCl2+PC or CdCl2+DDMP, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Plukenetia conophora alleviated male reproductive toxicity induced by cadmium chloride in Wistar rats. 4H-Pyran-4-One 2,3-Dihydro-3,5-Dihydroxy-6-Methyl present in Plukenetia conophora may be responsible for the ameliorative effects.

Comparative study of aeropollen and pollinosis cases

Research linking pollen grains in the air with allergy cases (pollinosis) is still incipient in Africa. To close this gap, aerosamplers were placed in Gbagada, Lagos State and harvested monthly from January 2013 to December 2014. Data obtained was correlated with allergy cases (wheezing cough, rhinitis, and allergic conjunctivitis) from Gbagada General Hospital Lagos. Dominant pollen grains recovered were those of Alchornea cordifolia, Amaranthaceae, Casuarina equisetifolia, Cyperaceae, and Poaceae. Pollinosis data revealed that wheezing cough had the highest records in 2013 (1153) and 2014 (1409) while individuals of the age group 15-49 years had the highest number of pollinosis cases for both years. Peak pollen season in 2013 was from October-December; similarly, October, November, and December recorded the highest incidence of wheezing cough (225), rhinitis (21), and allergic conjunctivitis (56) respectively. In 2014, peak pollen season was from October-March while October recorded the highest number of cases of allergic conjunctivitis and rhinitis (81 and 32 respectively) and wheezing cough cases were highest in November (299). Total pollen count had positive significant correlation (p ≤ 0.05) with wheezing cough cases for both years. Individually, each dominant pollen had positive significant correlation (p ≤ 0.05) with wheezing cough cases in 2013 while only Cyperaceae and Poaceae pollen had positive significant correlation (p ≤ 0.05) with wheezing cough in 2014. Continuous collection of aeropollen and pollinosis data from more locations within Nigeria is recommended to provide an appropriate epidemiology of pollinosis cases in the country and ascertain possible responsible pollen grains.

Antimicrobial and Antiproliferative Activity of Bauhinia forficata Link and Cnidoscolus quercifolius Extracts commonly Used in Folk Medicine

BACKGROUND

Bauhinia forficata and Cnidoscolus quercifolius plants are commonly used in folk medicine. However, few studies have investigated their therapeutic potential.

AIM

Herein, we evaluated the antimicrobial activity of B. forficata and C. quercifolius extracts against microorganisms of clinical relevance and their antiproliferative potential against tumor cells.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The following tests were performed: Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC)/minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC), inhibition of biofilm adhesion, and effects on cell morphology. Antiproliferative tests were carried out with human keratinocytes and six tumor lines.

RESULTS

Bauhinia forficata showed antimicrobial activity only against C. albicans with MIC of 15.62 ug/mL and MFC higher than 2000 ug/mL. It also inhibited biofilm adhesion and caused alterations in cell morphology. Cnidoscolus quercifolius showed no significant activity (MIC > 2.0 mg/mL) against the strains. Bauhinia forficata and C. quercifolius extracts showed cytostatic activity against the tumor cells.

CONCLUSION

Bauhinia forficata has promising anti-Cand/da activity and should be further investigated for its therapeutic potential.

CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

The use of medicinal plants in the treatment of infectious processes has an important function nowadays, due to the limitations of the use of synthetic antibiotics available, related specifically to the microbial resistance emergence.

[Effect of Sacha Inchi oil (Plukenetiavolubilis L.) on 1,2-dimethylhydrazine-induced colon carcinogenesis in Holtzman rats]

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the preventive effect of Sacha Inchi oil (SIO) on 1,2-dimethylhydrazine (DMH)-induced colon carcinogenesis (CC) in Holtzman rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Experimental study with 28 Holtzman male albino rats randomly distributed into 4 groups: a positive control group exposed to DMH (C1), a negative control group exposed to SIO at 150 uL/kg/day (C2), and two experimental groups exposed to DMH with SIO at 150 uL/kg/day (E1) and SIO at 300 uL/kg/day (E2). The DMH was applied for 8 weeks and the total induction time was 22 weeks. Pathological examination was performed by identifying cancerous tumor lesions in the guts. The preventive effect was evaluated based on proportions of lack of lesion in the groups exposed to DMH.

RESULTS

Cancerous tumor lesions were identified in: two specimens of group C1, one specimen of group E1 and two specimens of group E2. No intestinal lesions were identified in group C2. The proportions of lack of lesion were: in group C1 of 75%, in group E1 of 87.5% and group E2 of 75%. No significant differences were found (p>0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

It was not found a significant protective effect of SIO on DMH-induced CC in Holtzman rats, compared to control group.

Plant genotypes affect aboveground and belowground herbivore interactions by changing chemical defense

Spatially separated aboveground (AG) and belowground (BG) herbivores are closely linked through shared host plants, and both patterns of AG-BG interactions and plant responses may vary among plant genotypes. We subjected invasive (USA) and native (China) genotypes of tallow tree (Triadica sebifera) to herbivory by the AG specialist leaf-rolling weevil Heterapoderopsis bicallosicollis and/or the root-feeding larvae of flea beetle Bikasha collaris. We measured leaf damage and leaves rolled by weevils, quantified beetle survival, and analyzed flavonoid and tannin concentrations in leaves and roots. AG and BG herbivores formed negative feedbacks on both native and invasive genotypes. Leaf damage by weevils and the number of beetle larvae emerging as adults were higher on invasive genotypes. Beetles reduced weevil damage and weevils reduced beetle larval emergence more strongly for invasive genotypes. Invasive genotypes had lower leaf and root tannins than native genotypes. BG beetles decreased leaf tannins of native genotypes but increased root tannins of invasive genotypes. AG herbivory increased root flavonoids of invasive genotypes while BG herbivory decreased leaf flavonoids. Invasive genotypes had lower AG and BG herbivore resistance, and negative AG-BG herbivore feedbacks were much stronger for invasive genotypes. Lower tannin concentrations explained overall better AG and BG herbivore performances on invasive genotypes. However, changes in tannins and flavonoids affected AG and BG herbivores differently. These results suggest that divergent selection on chemical production in invasive plants may be critical in regulating herbivore performances and novel AG and BG herbivore communities in new environments.

Stinging plants: as future bio-weapon

In the present opinion paper, we have been introducing for the first time the stinging plants and/or their biological toxins as novel bio-threat agents that may be used for the development of bio-weapons for self-defence purpose. The selected studied stinging plants are having dual role as nutraceutical and ethno-pharmacological uses apart from their less explored stinging property. However, future detailed work is required for identification and characterization of the precise stinging chemical components that will be used for the formulation of novel bio-warfare agents for self-defence purpose.

White (Euphorbiaceae): biogeographic patterns and implications for species domestication and plantation establishment

BACKGROUND

Fontainea picrosperma, a subcanopy tree endemic to the rainforests of northeastern Australia, is of medicinal significance following the discovery of the novel anti-cancer natural product, EBC-46. Laboratory synthesis of EBC-46 is unlikely to be commercially feasible and consequently production of the molecule is via isolation from F. picrosperma grown in plantations. Successful domestication and plantation production requires an intimate knowledge of a taxon's life-history attributes and genetic architecture, not only to ensure the maximum capture of genetic diversity from wild source populations, but also to minimise the risk of a detrimental loss in genetic diversity via founder effects during subsequent breeding programs designed to enhance commercially significant agronomic traits.

RESULTS

Here we report the use of eleven microsatellite loci (PIC = 0.429; P ID  = 1.72 × 10(-6)) to investigate the partitioning of genetic diversity within and among seven natural populations of F. picrosperma. Genetic variation among individuals and within populations was found to be relatively low (A = 2.831; H E  = 0.407), although there was marked differentiation among populations (PhiPT = 0.248). Bayesian, UPGMA and principal coordinates analyses detected three main genotypic clusters (K = 3), which were present at all seven populations. Despite low levels of historical gene flow (N m  = 1.382), inbreeding was negligible (F = -0.003); presumably due to the taxon's dioecious breeding system.

CONCLUSION

The data suggests that F. picrosperma was previously more continuously distributed, but that rainforest contraction and expansion in response to glacial-interglacial cycles, together with significant anthropogenic effects have resulted in significant fragmentation. This research provides important tools to support plantation establishment, selection and genetic improvement of this medicinally significant Australian rainforest species.

(Euphorbiaceae)

BACKGROUND

Ethnopharmacological practitioners in Nigeria have used aqueous and ethanol extracts of Bridelia micrantha leaves to manage conditions associated with inflammation, and these include diabetes, chest pain, edema, arthritis and joint pains. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of methanol leaf extract of B. micrantha on chronic inflammation and oxidative stress which accompany diabetic conditions, in streptozotocin-induced diabetic Albino Wistar rats.

METHODS

The dried leaves were extracted by percolation in 80% methanol:water for 72 h after which the mixture was filtered using Whatman No. 1 (11 μm) filter papers. Acute toxicity studies were done using Wistar rats and given orally up to a dose of 2,000 mg/kg. The animals were monitored for 48 h. The experimental design involved five (5) groups of six (6) albino Wistar diabetic rats each. Groups A, B and C rats received 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg B. micrantha respectively while groups D (negative control) and E (positive control) rats received 10 mL/kg normal saline and 200 mg/kg acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) respectively by gastric gavage for 7 days. Two sterilized cotton pellets (10 mg each) were implanted subcutaneously into both sides of the dorsal area of each diabetic rat in all the groups. Post cotton pellet implantation, rats in three groups (A, B and C) were treated with 100, 200 and 400 mg/kg B. micrantha extract, while those in two groups (D and E) were treated with acetyl salicylic acid (ASA 200 mg/kg) and normal saline (10 mL/kg) respectively by gastric gavage for 7 days. Serum obtained from the animals on Day 8 of the cotton pellet test were used for malondialdehyde (MDA), catalase, superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione (GSH) assays.

RESULTS

The administration of the leaf extract up to a dose of 2,000 mg/kg to rats produced absolutely no death or observable signs of toxicity in 48 h. The cotton pellet granuloma weights in 200 mg/kg (44.88±1.2 mg), 400 mg/kg (42.10±1.2 mg) B. micrantha extract treated groups and ASA at 200 mg/kg (43.25±1.8 mg) were significantly lower compared to weight of granuloma (85.50±3.2 mg) obtained in the group treated with normal saline. Serum malondialdehyde (MDA) level in the 200 mg/kg (3.32±0.72 nmol/mL) and 400 mg/kg (1.88±1.27 nmol/mL) B. micrantha extract treated groups were significantly (p<0.05) lower compared to MDA level (6.88±0.79 nmol/mL) in the serum of normal saline treated group. Treatment of diabetic rats with the B. micrantha extract also caused significant (p<0.05) elevation in serum catalase, SOD and GSH levels.

CONCLUSIONS

The study showed that B. micrantha methanol leaf extract significantly inhibited some chronic inflammation and oxidative stress parameters in diabetes mellitus.

Samvisterin, a new natural antiplasmodial betulin derivative from Uapaca paludosa (Euphorbiaceae)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Uapaca paludosa is used in African traditional medicine for the treatment of malaria.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A bioguided fractionation of U. paludosa trunk bark extracts was performed on the basis of their antiplasmodial activity against Plasmodium falciparum.

RESULTS

A new natural betulin derivative named samvisterin (2) was isolated. In addition, 12 already known compounds were isolated from U. paludosa and tested against P. falciparum: squalene (1); lupeol (3), betulonic acid methyl ester (4), β-sitosterol (5), stigmasterol (6), betulin (7), betulinic acid (8), pentadecanoic acid (9), palmitic acid (10), margaric acid (11), stearic acid (12), methyl palmitate (13). With the exception of betulinic acid, all were isolated for the first time from U. paludosa. Their chemical structures were established on the basis of spectroscopic analysis. The antiplasmodial activity of compounds 1-8 was confirmed on the chloroquine-resistant strain of P. falciparum, FcM29-Cameroon, with IC50 values ranging from 0.7μg/ml (for 1) to 30μg/mL (for 3). The cytotoxicity of the fractions and isolated compounds was also determined on KB and Vero cell lines in order to determine the cytotoxicity/activity ratio of each one.

CONCLUSIONS

The results obtained with samvisterin (2) show that this new compound is the most promising of the series, with a weak cytotoxicity leading to the best selectivity index values.

Ritual tooth modification among the Baka pygmies in Cameroon

INTRODUCTION

Ritual tooth mutilation is a relatively understudied human body mutilatory practices. The purpose of the study was to examine the effects of ritual tooth modification, teeth cleaning measures and herbal medications for their oral health problems among the Baka pygmies in Cameroon.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This cross-sectional study was conducted between January and March, 2012 using semi-structured questionnaire as the tool of data collection. Intra-oral examinations were carried out to determine the dental hard tissue loss using Smith and Knight Tooth Wear Index (TWI).

RESULTS

Fifty-six pygmies with ritual tooth modification made of 34 males (60.7%) and 22 females (39.3%) with a mean age of 31 years were interviewed and had oral health examination. The reported age at which the tooth modification was done was between 10 and 15 years with mean age as 12 ± 1.66 years. More than half (58.9%) of the participants reported the tooth filing as painful and nearly two-thirds (64.3%) of the participants reported having persistent pain afterwards. The upper right central and lateral incisors were the most commonly modified teeth. A total of 42.9%, 12.5% and 7.1% of the participants had Smith and Knight TWI scores of 2, 3 and 4 respectively. All the participants reported cleaning their teeth at least once-daily with about two-thirds (66.1%) of them doing so with chewing stick. The majority (67.9%) of the participants reported cleaning their teeth for cosmetic reasons [to remove dirt' (60.7%) and 'to remove stains' (7.1%)]. The oral health problems among the participants in form of tooth sensitivity, toothache and dental abscess were treated with plant-based traditional medicines from Irvingia gabonensis, Ricinodendron heudoletti, Pterocarpus soyauxii, Alchornea cordifolia and Piptadeniastrum africanum.

CONCLUSION

Ritual tooth modification is a painful mutilatory practice which is culturally significant for the Baka pygmies without health benefit. There is need for intervention to stop this harmful traditional practices among the pygmies. Further studies is recommended to elucidate the medicinal and pharmaceutical benefits of plants used for tooth sensitivity and other oral health problems by the pygmies.