Chrysanthemum morifolium as a traditional herb: A review of historical development, classification, phytochemistry, pharmacology and application

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

In recent years, Chinese herbal medicine has gained more and more recognition in disease prevention and control due to its low toxicity and comprehensive treatment. C. morifolium (Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.), as the medicine food homology plant with the bioactivity of anti-oxidation, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotection and cardiovascular protection, has important therapeutic effects and health benefits for colds, inflammation, cardiovascular diseases and various chronic diseases.

AIM OF THE STUDY

By reviewing the historical development, classification and distribution of germplasm resources, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and modern application of C. morifolium, the paper provides a reliable basis for the further research and application of chrysanthemum as therapeutic agents and functional additives.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The literature and information about C. morifolium published in the last ten years were collected from various platforms, including Google Scholar, PubMed, ScienceDirect, Web of Science and China Knowledge Network.

RESULTS

A comprehensive analysis confirmed that C. morifolium originated in China, and it went through the development process from food and tea to medicine for more than 3000 years. During this period, different cultivars emerged through several breeding techniques and were distributed throughout the world. Moreover, A variety of chemical components such as flavonoids, phenolic acids, volatile oils, and terpenes in chrysanthemum have been proven they possess various pharmacology of anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, and prevention of chronic diseases by regulating inflammatory cytokines, oxidative stress responses and signaling pathways, which are the essential conditions to play a role in TCM, nutraceuticals and diet.

CONCLUSION

This paper provides a comprehensive review of historical development, classification, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and modern application of C. morifolium. However, future studies should continue to focus on the bioactive compounds and the synergistic mechanism of the "multi-component, multi-target, and multi-pathway" of chrysanthemum, and it is necessary to develop more innovative products with therapeutic effects.

Simultaneously efficient dissolution and structural modification of chrysanthemum pectin: Targeting at proliferation of Bacteroides

Pectic polysaccharide is a bioactive ingredient in Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. 'Hangbaiju' (CMH), but the high proportion of HG domain limited its use as a prebiotic. In this study, hot water, cellulase-assisted, medium-temperature alkali, and deep eutectic solvent extraction strategies were firstly used to extract pectin from CMH (CMHP). CMHP obtained by cellulase-assisted extraction had high purity and strong ability to promote the proliferation of Bacteroides and mixed probiotics. However, 4 extraction strategies led to general high proportion of HG domain in CMHPs. To further enhance the dissolution and prebiotic potential of CMHP, pectinase was used alone and combined with cellulase. The key factor for the optimal extraction was enzymolysis by cellulase and pectinase in a mass ratio of 3:1 at 1 % (w/w) dosage. The optimal CMHP had high yield (15.15 %), high content of total sugar, and Bacteroides proliferative activity superior to inulin, which was probably due to the cooperation of complex enzyme on the destruction of cell wall and pectin structural modification for raised RG-I domain (80.30 %) with relatively high degree of branching and moderate HG domain. This study provided a green strategy for extraction of RG-I enriched prebiotic pectin from plants.

Influence of low-cost Thai leucoxene minerals on the growth, bioactive compounds, and antibacterial activities of Chrysanthemum indium L. cuttings in in vitro culture

The effects of low-cost Thai leucoxene mineral (LM) at different concentrations (10, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60 mg/L) on the growth and antibacterial properties of Chrysanthemum indium L. cuttings under in vitro were evaluated. The primary chemical composition of LM was approximately 86% titanium dioxide (TiO2), as determined by dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. The crystalline structure, shape, and size were investigated by X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy. LM at 40 and 50 mg/L significantly increased plant height, leaf number, node number, and fresh and dry weight. These growth-promoting properties were accompanied by improved chlorophyll and carotenoid contents and antioxidant enzyme activities and reduced malondialdehyde levels. Additionally, LM treatment at 40 and 50 mg/L had positive effects on antibacterial activity, as indicated by the lowest minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC) values. The high levels of phenolic compounds in the plants contributed to the MIC and MBC values. In conclusion, these findings provide evidence for the effectiveness of LM in enhancing the growth of Chrysanthemum plants in in vitro culture and improving their antibacterial abilities.

Nitrogen and spent coffee ground for enhancing nutritional, morphological, flowering and antioxidant properties of Chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum morfolium Ramat)

Chrysanthemum is one of the most attractive flowering plants widely grown commercially worldwide. Having a good source of organic fertilizers plays an important role in meeting the increasing demand for these plants, which requires high-quality flowers and a high survival time for the longest period. The effect of nitrogen (N) coupled with spent coffee ground (SCG) at various levels (0.0, 2.5, 5.0, 7.5, 10.0°% w/w) was evaluated on growth performance and chemical components of the Chrysanthemum over two years in a pot scale. Overall, total dry matter (TDM) was significantly enhanced with N+ by 125 and 97°% over N- in the first and second years, respectively. SCG also enhanced TDM up to the highest level of application in the range of 27-98°% and 18-81°% over SCG (0.0°%) in the same years, respectively. The interaction effect between N and SCG was perfect on TDM, flower number, and flower dry weight. Similarly, total antioxidant activities when N and SCG were coupled together gave respective increments ranging from 11.8 to 45.9 U/g DW and from 2.1 to 15.9 U/g DW compared to N alone (5.8 and 0.9 U/g DW) in both leaves and flowers, respectively. Extracts of plant treated with N and 10°% SCG exhibited a higher content of rosmarinic, caffeic, chlorogenic, vanillic acids, and rutin in the leaves. SCG as a natural organic source is easy to obtain and is a practical and cost-effective solution to plant nutrition, which can be valuable for ornamental plants, especially when combined with nitrogen.

Six sesquiterpenoids from the stems and leaves of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat and their anti-asthma activities

Six previously undescribed sesquiterpenoids, chrysanthterpenoids H-M (1-6), were isolated from the stem and leaves of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. Structure elucidation of isolated compounds was unambiguously determined based on extensive 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopic analyses. Furthermore, computational prediction of ECD was used to propose the absolute configurations of the compounds. All compounds were evaluated for their anti-asthma effects on RBL-2H3 cells in vitro. The results showed that Compounds 2 and 3 significantly inhibited the release of β-aminohexosidase and improved RBL-2H3 degranulation by chromogenic substrate and high-content imaging. These results suggest that Compounds 2 and 3 may exhibit anti-asthma activities.

Pullusurfactins A‒C, new biosurfactants produced by Aureobasidium pullulans A11231-1-58 from Chrysanthemum boreale Makino

Biosurfactants have found widespread use across multiple industrial fields, including medicine, food, cosmetics, detergents, pulp, and paper, as well as the degradation of oil and fat. The culture broth of Aureobasidium pullulans A11231-1-58 isolated from flowers of Chrysanthemum boreale Makino exhibited potent surfactant activity. Surfactant activity-guided fractionation led to the isolation of three new biosurfactants, pullusurfactins A‒C (1‒3). Their chemical structures were established through the use of spectroscopic techniques, predominantly 1D and 2D NMR, in conjunction with mass measurements. We evaluated the surface tension activities of isolated compounds. At 1.0 mg l-1, these compounds showed high degrees of surfactant activity (31.15 dyne/cm, 33.75 dyne/cm, and 33.83 dyne/cm, respectively).

Two new guaianolide-type sesquiterpenoids with NO inhibitory activity from Chrysanthemum indicum

Two new guaianolide-type sesquiterpenoids chrysanthemulides K and L (1 and 2), together with six known analogues (3-8), were isolated from an CH₂Cl₂ extract of the aerial parts of Chrysanthemum indicum. The structures of new compounds 1 and 2 were established by extensive spectroscopic analysis, including UV, IR, MS, NMR and computational electronic circular dichroism (ECD) methods. Inhibitory effects of all compounds on nitric oxide production were investigated in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW 264.7 cells. Results showed that compounds 1-8 displayed NO production inhibitory activity with IC50 values ranged from 3.5 to 34.3 µM.

Aromatase inhibitors isolated from a flowering tea, snow Chrysanthemum (the capitula of Coreopsis tinctoria Nutt.)

Methanol extract from the capitula of Coreopsis tinctoria Nutt. (Asteraceae), which is also known as a flowering tea or blooming tea "Snow Chrysanthemum," was found to inhibit the enzymatic activity of aromatase. A total of 24 known isolates (1-24) were identified from the extract, including three chalcones (1-3), an aurone (4), five flavanones (5-9), four flavanols (10-13), a flavonol (14), and two biflavanones (15, 16). Among them, okanin (1, Ki = 1.6 μM), (2S)-naringenin (5, 0.90 μM), isookanin (6, 0.81 μM), (2S)-7,3',5'-trihydroxyflavaone (7, 0.13 μM), and (2S)-5,7,3',5'-tetrahydroxyflavanone (8, 0.32 μM) exhibited relatively potent competitive inhibition. Specifically, the isolates 7 and 8, having a common 3',5'-resorcinol moiety at the B ring in their flavanone skeleton, exhibited potent inhibitory activities compared to those of a clinically applied aminoglutethimide (0.84 μM) and naturally occurring flavone, chrysin (0.23 μM), which is a common non-steroidal aromatase inhibitor. Importantly, the active flavonoid constituents (1 and 5-8) did not inhibit the activity of 5α-reductase enzyme, which normally reacts with the same substrate "testosterone," thus, these compounds were suggested to be specific to aromatase.

Discrimination of chrysanthemum varieties using lipidomics based on UHPLC-HR-AM/MS/MS

BACKGROUND

Chrysanthemum is one of the most important and popular ornamentals over the world. Chrysanthemum drink is a type of traditional healthy drink like Chinese tea. Owing to the differences in the chemical compositions, different chrysanthemum varieties have different medicinal effects on human health. Thus, the identification of different chrysanthemum varieties is very important and necessary. This study aims to distinguish seven chrysanthemum varieties that are widely used in China. First, total lipids were obtained from chrysanthemums. After that, lipid profiles were characterized using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography hyphenated with a Q Exactive™ high resolution-accurate-mass mass spectrometer.

RESULTS

A total of 163 lipid molecular species from 17 types of lipid classes in seven varieties of chrysanthemums were determined. Principal component analysis indicated that three lipid molecules, lysophosphatidylethanolamine(18:2) (LPE(18:2)), LPE(16:0), and phosphatidic acid(18:2/18:3) (variable importance in projection >3, P < 0.001), can be used as potential biomarkers to distinguish seven chrysanthemum varieties. Hierarchical cluster analysis showed that the lipid molecular profiles of 'Gongju' were most similar to 'Jinzijianju', followed by 'Huaibaiju', 'Boju', 'Hangbaiju', 'Chuju', and 'Fubaiju'.

CONCLUSION

This comprehensive analysis provided a new method to identify chrysanthemum varieties through the perspective of lipidomics combined with chemometrics. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Analysis of Chemical Constituents of Chrysanthemum morifolium Extract and Its Effect on Postprandial Lipid Metabolism in Healthy Adults

Chrysanthemum extract possesses antioxidant potential and carbohydrate and fat digestive enzyme inhibitory in vitro. However, no evidence supporting chrysanthemum in modulation of postprandial lipemia and antioxidant status in humans presently exists. This study was to analyze the composition of Imperial Chrysanthemum (IC) extract and determine the effect on changes in postprandial glycemic and lipemic response and antioxidant status in adults after consumption of a high-fat (HF) meal. UHPLC-MS method was used to analyze the components of two kinds of IC extracts (IC-P/IC-E) and in vitro antioxidant activities were evaluated using 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydraxyl (DPPH), 2,2-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid (ABTS) and Hydroxyl radical (HR) radical scavenging assays. Following a randomized design, 37 healthy adults (age, 25.2 ± 2.6 years, and BMI, 20.9 ± 1.5 kg/m2) were assigned to two groups that consumed the HF meal, or HF meal supplemented by IC extract. Blood samples were collected at fasting state and then at 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 6 and 8 h after the meal consumption. There were 12 compounds with relative content of more than 1% of the extracts, of which amino acid and derivatives, flavonoids, carboxylic acids and derivatives were the main components. Compared with IC-E, the contents of flavonoids in IC-P increased significantly (p < 0.05), and the cynaroside content exceeded 30%. In addition, IC-P showed strong free radical scavenging activity against DPPH, ABTS and HR radicals. Furthermore, according to repeated−measures ANOVA, significant differences were observed in the maximal changes for postprandial glucose, TG, T-AOC and MDA among the two groups. Postprandial glucose has significant difference between the two groups at 1 h after meal and the level in IC group was significantly lower than that in control group. No significant differences were observed in the incremental area under the curve (iAUC) among the two groups. IC significantly improved the serum antioxidant status, as characterized by increased postprandial serum T-AOC, SOD, GSH and decreased MDA. This finding suggests that IC can be used as a natural ingredient for reducing postprandial lipemia and improving the antioxidant status after consuming a HF meal.

Antioxidant properties of polyphenols from snow chrysanthemum (Coreopsis tinctoria) and the modulation on intestinal microflora in vitro

CONTEXT

Coreopsis tinctoria Nutt (Asteraceae), named snow chrysanthemum, is known to have a high level of polyphenols. However, the potential prebiotic effect on modulating intestinal microflora is still unclear.

OBJECTIVE

The chemical composition, antioxidant properties of snow chrysanthemum polyphenols (SCPs) and their effects on human intestinal microbiota were investigated.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

SCPs were extracted using ultrasonic-assisted extraction, and further determined using UPLC-QE Orbitrap/MS. Five assays were used to investigate the antioxidant activities of SCPs. Subsequently, the effects of SCPs on intestinal microbiota in vitro were determined by high throughput sequencing and bioinformatics analysis.

RESULTS

Marein, isookanin and cymaroside were the major phenolic compounds, which accounted for 42.17%, 19.53% and 12.25%, respectively. Marein exhibited higher scavenging capacities in DPPH (EC₅₀ = 8.84 µg/mL) and super anion radical assay (EC₅₀ = 282.1 µg/mL) compared to cymaroside and isookanin. The antioxidant capacity of cymaroside was weakest among the three phenolic compounds due to the highest EC₅₀ values, especially for superoxide anion radical assay, EC₅₀ > 800 µg/mL. The result of in vitro fermentation showed that the three phenolic compounds increased the relative abundances of Escherichia/Shigella, Enterococcus, Klebsiella, etc., and isookanin notably increased the relative abundance of Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

SCPs exhibited antioxidant properties and potential prebiotic effects on modulating the gut microbiota composition. The findings indicated that SCPs consumption could exert prebiotic activity that is beneficial for human health.

Rhamnosyltransferases involved in the biosynthesis of flavone rutinosides in Chrysanthemum species

Linarin (acacetin-7-O-rutinoside), isorhoifolin (apigenin-7-O-rutinoside), and diosmin (diosmetin-7-O-rutinoside) are chemically and structurally similar flavone rutinoside (FR) compounds found in Chrysanthemum L. (Anthemideae, Asteraceae) plants. However, their biosynthetic pathways remain largely unknown. In this study, we cloned and compared FRs and genes encoding rhamnosyltransferases (RhaTs) among eight accessions of Chrysanthemum polyploids. We also biochemically characterized RhaTs of Chrysanthemum plants and Citrus (Citrus sinensis and Citrus maxima). RhaTs from these two genera are substrate-promiscuous enzymes catalyzing the rhamnosylation of flavones, flavanones, and flavonols. Substrate specificity analysis revealed that Chrysanthemum 1,6RhaTs preferred flavone glucosides (e.g. acacetin-7-O-glucoside), whereas Cs1,6RhaT preferred flavanone glucosides. The nonsynonymous substitutions of RhaTs found in some cytotypes of diploids resulted in the loss of catalytic function. Phylogenetic analysis and specialized pathways responsible for the biosynthesis of major flavonoids in Chrysanthemum and Citrus revealed that rhamnosylation activity might share a common evolutionary origin. Overexpression of RhaT in hairy roots resulted in 13-, 2-, and 5-fold increases in linarin, isorhoifolin, and diosmin contents, respectively, indicating that RhaT is mainly involved in the biosynthesis of linarin. Our findings not only suggest that the substrate promiscuity of RhaTs contributes to the diversity of FRs in Chrysanthemum species but also shed light on the evolution of flavone and flavanone rutinosides in distant taxa.

Comparison of the Chemical Components, Efficacy and Mechanisms of Action of Chrysanthemum morifolium Flower and Its Wild Relative Chrysanthemum indicum Flower against Liver-Fire Hyperactivity Syndrome of Hypertension via Integrative Analyses

To clarify the differences in the clinical application scope of Chrysanthemum morifolium flower (CMF) and Chrysanthemum indicum flower (CIF), two herbs of similar origin, an integrated strategy of network pharmacology, molecular pharmacology, and metabolomics was employed, with a view to investigating the commonalities and dissimilarities in chemical components, efficacy and mechanisms of action. Initial HPLC-Q-TOF-MS analysis revealed that CMF and CIF had different flavonoid constituents. The biological processes underlying the therapeutic effects of CMF and CIF on liver-fire hyperactivity syndrome of hypertension (LFHSH) were predicted to be related to inflammatory response, fatty acid production, and other pathways based on network pharmacology analysis. ELISA, molecular docking, Western blot, and metabolomics techniques showed similar effects of CMF and CIF in lowering blood pressure, resistance to tissue, organ and functional damage, and dyslipidemia. However, distinct effects were found in the regulation of inflammatory response, PI3K-Akt and NF-κB signaling pathways, lipid anabolism, renin-angiotensin system, and metabolic abnormalities. The comparable efficacies of CMF and CIF, despite having distinct mechanisms of action, may be attributed to the integration and counteraction of their different regulating capabilities on the above anti-LFHSH mechanisms. This study offers a vital platform for assessment of differential and precise applications of herbs of close origin with similar but slightly different medicinal properties, and provides a research strategy for bridging Chinese medicine and modern precision medicine.

[Germplasm resource evaluation of Chrysanthemi Indici Flos based on color and chemical components]

This study explored the correlation between color and chemical components of Chrysanthemi Indici Flos(CIF), aiming at providing a reference for its procurement, evaluation, and breeding. Colorimeter and ultra-performance liquid chromatograph(UPLC) were used to determine the color(lightness-shade chromaticity value L~*, red-green chromaticity value a~*, yellow-blue chromati-city value b~*) and chemical components(cynaroside, linarin, luteolin, apigenin, and chlorogenic acid) of 84 CIF germplasms, respectively. Diversity analysis, correlation analysis, regression analysis, and cluster analysis were performed. The results showed that the color and chemical components of CIF were diversified. Chlorogenic acid was in significantly positive correlation with L~* and b~* and significantly negative correlation with a~*. Cynaroside and grey relational grade γ_i of chemical components were in significantly po-sitive correlation with b~* and L~*, respectively, whereas linarin, luteolin, and apigenin had no significant correlation with L~*, a~*, or b~*. The 84 CIF germplasms were clustered into 4 clades. In addition, germplasms in clade Ⅲ had higher γ_i and total color value(E~*_(ab)) than those in other clades, with the best quality and color, and a germplasm with the highest quality, bright yellow color, and highest content of linarin was screened out in this clade. Thus, CIF with bright yellow color had high content of cymaroside and chlorogenic acid and thereby high quality. In summary, the color can be used to quickly predict the quality of CIF. Our results provided data for the evaluation of CIF quality by color and a reference for its procurement and breeding.

Reduction of pesticide residues in Chrysanthemum morifolium by nonthermal plasma-activated water and impact on its quality

This study investigated the efficiency of plasma-activated water (PAW) on the reduction of pesticides, namely, metribuzin and metobromuron, and the effect of PAW treatment on the quality of fresh chrysanthemums. The reduction efficiencies reached 74.3% for metribuzin and 38.2% for metobromuron after 240 s of PAW treatment. Compared with reverse osmosis (RO) water, PAW achieved significantly higher pesticide reductions because of its higher acidity, enhanced oxidizing ability, and increased formation of reactive species. Moreover, when compared with metobromuron, metribuzin was reduced more efficiently irrespective of the RO water or PAW treatments because of its higher water solubility, lower log octanol-water partition coefficient, and more oxidizable chemical structure. Additionally, the PAW treatment did not cause adverse changes to the chrysanthemums' color, total flavonoid content, radical scavenging, or metal chelating activities, but it did cause a slight decrease in the chrysanthemums' aroma compounds and total reducing power. This study successfully demonstrated the effectiveness of PAW for reducing pesticides in herbal flowers like chrysanthemums and reveals PAW's promising potential to treat foods with non-smooth surfaces.

Comparative metabolomics analysis revealed biomarkers and distinct flavonoid biosynthesis regulation in Chrysanthemum mongolicum and C. rhombifolium

INTRODUCTION

Chrysanthemums are traditional flowers that originated in China and have high ornamental, economic and medicinal value. They are widely used as herbal remedies and consumed as food or beverages in folk medicine. However, little is known about their metabolic composition.

OBJECTIVES

The aims of this work were to determine the metabolic composition of and natural variation among different species of Chrysanthemum and to explore new potential resources for drug discovery and sustainable utilisation of wild Chrysanthemum.

METHODS

The metabolomes of Chrysanthemum mongolicum (Ling) Tzvel. and Chrysanthemum rhombifolium H. Ohashi & Yonek. were compared using a widely targeted metabolomics approach based on liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS).

RESULTS

In total, 477 metabolites were identified, of which 72 showed significant differences in expression between C. mongolicum and C. rhombifolium, mainly in flavonoids, organic acids and nucleotides. The flavone and flavonol biosynthesis pathway showed significant enrichment among the differentially expressed metabolites. The contents of genkwanin, trigonelline, diosmin, narcissoside, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid, linarin, N',N'-p-coumarin, C-hexosyl-tricetin O-pentoside, chrysoeriol, acacetin and kaempferol-3-O-gentiobioside were significantly different between the two species and represent potential biomarkers.

CONCLUSION

The types of flavonoid-related metabolites in the flavonoid biosynthesis pathway differed between C. mongolicum and C. rhombifolium. The mechanisms underlying the unique adaptations of these two species to their environments may involve variations in the composition and abundance of flavonoids, organic acids, and nucleotides. These methods are promising to identify functional compounds in Chrysanthemum species and can provide potential resources for drug discovery and the sustainable utilisation of Chrysanthemum plants.

Rapid characterisation of xanthine oxidase inhibitors from the flowers of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. Using metabolomics approach

INTRODUCTION

Hyperuricemia is the key risk factor for gout, in which the elevated uric acid is attributed to the oxidation of hypoxanthine and xanthine to uric acid by xanthine oxidase (XO). Adverse effects of the current treatments lead to an urgent need for safer and more effective alternative from natural resources.

OBJECTIVE

To compare the metabolite profile of Chrysanthemum morifolium flower fraction with that of its detannified fraction in relation to XO inhibitory activity using a rapid and effective metabolomics approach.

METHODS

Proton nuclear magnetic resonance (¹ H-NMR)-based metabolomics approach coupled with multivariate data analysis was utilised to characterise the XO inhibitors related to the antioxidant properties, total phenolic, and total flavonoid contents of the C. morifolium dried flowers.

RESULTS

The highest XO inhibitory activity, 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl hydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity, total phenolic and flavonoid content with strong positive correlation between them were observed in the ethyl acetate (EtOAc) fraction. Detannified EtOAc showed higher XO inhibitory activity than non-detannified EtOAc fraction. A total of 17 metabolites were tentatively identified, of which three namely kaempferol, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid and apigenin, could be suggested to be responsible for the strong XO inhibitory activity. Additive interaction between 4-hydroxybenzoic acid and apigenin (or kaempferol) in XO inhibition was demonstrated in the interaction assay conducted.

CONCLUSION

Chrysanthemum morifolium dried flower-part could be further explored as a natural XO inhibitor for its anti-hyperuricemic potential. Metabolomics approach served as an effective classification of plant metabolites responsible for XO inhibitory activity, and demonstrated that multiple active compounds can work additively in giving combined inhibitory effects.

Chrysanthemi Flos extract alleviated acetaminophen-induced rat liver injury via inhibiting oxidative stress and apoptosis based on network pharmacology analysis

CONTEXT

Acetaminophen (APAP) overdose is the leading cause of drug-induced liver injury. Bianliang ziyu, a variety of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. (Asteraceae), has potential hepatoprotective effect. However, the mechanism is not clear yet.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the hepatoprotective activity and mechanism of Bianliang ziyu flower ethanol extract (BZE) on APAP-induced rats based on network pharmacology.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Potential pathways of BZE were predicted by network pharmacology. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were pre-treated with BZE (110, 220 and 440 mg/kg, i.g.) for eight days, and then APAP (800 mg/kg, i.g.) was used to induce liver injury. After 24 h, serum and liver were collected for biochemical detection and western blot measurement.

RESULTS

Network pharmacology indicated that liver-protective effect of BZE was associated with its antioxidant and anti-apoptotic efficacy. APAP-induced liver pathological change was alleviated, and elevated serum AST and ALT were reduced by BZE (440 mg/kg) (from 66.45 to 22.64 U/L and from 59.59 to 17.49 U/L, respectively). BZE (440 mg/kg) reduced the ROS to 65.50%, and upregulated SOD and GSH by 212.92% and 175.38%, respectively. In addition, BZE (440 mg/kg) increased levels of p-AMPK, p-GSK3β, HO-1 and NQO1, ranging from 1.66- to 10.29-fold compared to APAP group, and promoted nuclear translocation of Nrf2. BZE also inhibited apoptosis induced by APAP through the PI3K-Akt pathway and restored the ability of mitochondrial biogenesis.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Our study demonstrated that BZE protected rats from APAP-induced liver injury through antioxidant and anti-apoptotic pathways, suggesting BZE could be further developed as a potential liver-protecting agent.

Chrysanthemum morifolium Flower Extract Ameliorates Obesity-Induced Inflammation and Increases the Muscle Mitochondria Content and AMPK/SIRT1 Activities in Obese Rats

Decreased energy expenditure and chronically positive energy balance contribute to the prevalence of obesity and associated metabolic dysfunctions, such as dyslipidemia, hepatic fat accumulation, inflammation, and muscle mitochondrial defects. We investigated the effects of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat flower extract (CE) on obesity-induced inflammation and muscle mitochondria changes. Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into four groups and fed either a normal diet, 45% high-fat diet (HF), HF containing 0.2% CE, or 0.4% CE for 13 weeks. CE alleviated HF-increased adipose tissue mass and size, dyslipidemia, hepatic fat deposition, and systematic inflammation, and increased energy expenditure. CE significantly decreased gene expression involved in adipogenesis, pro-inflammation, and the M1 macrophage phenotype, as well as glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPDH) and nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-kB) activities in epididymal adipose tissue. Moreover, CE supplementation improved hepatic fat accumulation and modulated gene expression related to fat synthesis and oxidation with an increase in adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activity in the liver. Furthermore, CE increased muscle mitochondrial size, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) content, and gene expression related to mitochondrial biogenesis and function, including sirtuin 1 (SIRT1), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α), and PGC-1α-target genes, along with AMPK-SIRT1 activities in the skeletal muscle. These results suggest that CE attenuates obesity-associated inflammation by modulating the muscle AMPK-SIRT1 pathway.

Comparative biotransformation of luteolin and apigenin from the flower extract and the stem-and-leaf extract of Dendranthema morifolium Ramat. Tzvel. in rats

BACKGROUND

The flower of Dendranthema morifolium Ramat Tzvel has been widely used as a nutritional health supplement worldwide. However, most of the studies have focused on the flower and the rest of the plant was neglected. Our hypothesis is that similar flavonoids may be present at different parts of D. morifolium, and the flavonoids may undergo a similar biotransformation pathway within the body. To investigate this hypothesis, an in vivo pharmacokinetic experimental model was developed to explore the comparative biotransformation of luteolin and apigenin after administration of D. morifolium extracts (10 g kg^-1 , p.o.) in freely moving rats. Because luteolin and apigenin mainly underwent phase II metabolism, the metabolic enzymes of β-glucuronidase/sulfatase or β-glucuronidase were used to hydrolyze the plasma sample, depending on the biotransformation pathway involved.

RESULTS

The results revealed that luteolin and apigenin mainly went through glucuronide and sulfate conjugations, respectively, in both the extract of flowers and the stem-and-leaf group. In addition, the area under the concentration curve (AUC_last ) of luteolin glucuronides and sulfates in the group administered the stem-and-leaf extract was approximately 4.6 times higher than that of the flower extract group. The dominant products of biotransformation for apigenin were sulfates.

CONCLUSION

These findings support our hypothesis that not only the flower parts of D. morifolium, but also the stem-and-leaf parts contain rich flavones, including glycosides and aglycone, and they undergo similar biotransformation pathways. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Concentration-dependent emission of floral scent terpenoids from diverse cultivars of Chrysanthemum morifolium and their wild relatives

Floral scent is an important trait that has a significant influence on the reproduction of many flowering plants and the market value of several ornamental crops. The family of Asteraceae is well known for its unique floral structure (capitulum) that consists of many florets. Although the constituents of either floral essential oils or emitted floral volatiles have been reported in many species of Asteraceae, little information is available on the mechanisms that determine floral volatile emission. In the present study, a total of 44 species/varieties of Chrysanthemum were analyzed to determine the relationship between the internal accumulation of floral terpenoids and their release as volatiles. By performing both headspace collection and organic extraction, it has been found that the emission rates of floral terpenoids are largely correlated to their internal concentrations. Particularly, the flowers of cultivated C. morifolium, when compared to their wild relatives, were found to exhibit lower emission rates that contain lowered concentrations of floral terpenoids. The differences were largely determined by six monoterpenes and five sesquiterpenes that were revealed by principal component analysis. Besides, the relationship between concentrations and emission rates of floral terpenoids as well as the sizes of capitulum was studied in detail. Separated into three different parts, disc florets were found to have a larger contribution to floral volatile emission than ray florets, whereas the phyllaries and receptacles are the main parts of volatiles accumulation. Finally, the potential biosynthetic pathway of the floral terpenoids produced in capitula of Chrysanthemum was proposed. In summary, our findings on the diversity and variations of floral terpenoids in Chrysanthemum reveal correlations between their production and emission. These findings can be useful to develop different plant breeding methods to create novel aromatic cultivars of Chrysanthemum.

Comparison of Chemical Constituents and Pharmacological Effects of Different Varieties of Chrysanthemum Flos in China

Chrysanthemum Flos is the prestigious traditional Chinese medicinal material and the popular health drink. This article comprehensively evaluated the chemical constituents, antioxidant activity, and hepatoprotective effects of 25 common chrysanthemum varieties in China. Firstly, we analyzed the chemical compositions of water extracts of chrysanthemum using UPLC/Q-TOF-MS, and identified 29 chemical components. The results displayed that chrysanthemum was rich in chemical constituents, but there were significant differences in the contents of four phenolic acids and five flavonoids among different varieties, and the coefficient of variation (CVs) ranged from 35.96 % to 114.62 %. Then, the antioxidant activities of different chrysanthemums were investigated, respectively via 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2'-azinobis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid) (ABTS), and Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) assays. The spectrum-effect relationships between nine main components and antioxidant activities were investigated to identify the antioxidant constitutes in chrysanthemums. Meanwhile, H₂ O₂ -induced hepatocyte injury testing showed wide variation in cultivar antioxidant capacity, with Tongchengju (TCJ) producing the best effect (90.32 %), followed by Chuju (CJ; 85.78 %). In addition, the hepatoprotective effects of 8 mainstream varieties were determined by the model of acute alcoholic liver injury. They protected liver from injury by affecting relevant liver function and antioxidant indexes. Huangshangongju (HSG) could decrease aspartate aminotransferase (AST) activity by 39.27 % in liver tissue; Hangju-Fubaiju (HJ-FBJ), Jinsihuangju (JSH), and Chuju (CJ) significantly decreased the malondialdehyde (MDA) content of liver tissue, which reduced by more than 40 %; Jinsihuangju (JSH) of used for tea could double the content of glutathione (GSH) and had the similar effect on superoxide dismutase (SOD) as the positive group, showing significant antioxidant capacity. Therefore, this study confirmed that chrysanthemums are potential resources as antioxidants, functional foods, and medicinal materials. Importantly, it may provide a scientific support for further development and utilization of chrysanthemum, and screen excellent varieties for different demands.

Structural characterization and evaluation the elicitors activity of polysaccharides from Chrysanthemum indicum

This research evaluates the elicitors activity and structure characterization of four Chrysanthemum indicum polysaccharides (CIPs) which were isolated from C. indicum, obtained CIP1, CIP2, CIP3, CIP4. Results demonstrated that there was a distinct difference in inducibility and CIP3 was significantly stronger than other CIPs through bioactivity-tests. Taking CIP3 with total carbohydrate content 91.93 % as a representative, its structure was elucidated as a relative molecular weight of 8. 741 × 10³ g/mol and mainly composed of xylose, galacturonic acid, galactose and glucuronic acid. Through GC, IR and NMR, CIP3 was determined to possess a backbone comprised of T-α-d-GalpA, 1,4-α-d-GlcpA, 1,2-α-d-Xylp, 1,3-α-l-Rhap, 1,2,4-α-l-Rhap and sidechains comprised of 1,3-β-d-Galp, 1,6-α-d-Galp, T-α-Glcp, 1,3-β-d-Glcp, 1,4-α-d-Glcp, 1,3,4-α-d-Manp, T-α-l-Fucp. Further results indicated that CIP3 with active sidechains could significantly increase the expression of defense genes in Atractylodes macrocephala Koidz (AM). It is believed that the sidechains of CIP3 were necessary to its elicitor activity via bioactivity tests.

The effect of microbial composition and proteomic on improvement of functional constipation by Chrysanthemum morifolium polysaccharide

In this paper, SD rat constipation model was established with loperamide hydrochloride to study the effect of Chrysanthemum morifolium polysaccharide on the improvement of functional constipation, and the mechanism of improving constipation was investigated with the proteomics and intestinal flora. The results showed that the HD group of C. morifolium polysaccharide could significantly increase the levels of water content of stool pellets, small intestine propulsion rate, gastrin (MTL), gastrin (GAS) and substance P (SP), decrease the level of growth inhibitor (SS) and improved gastrointestinal motility in rats. Gut microbial studies showed that C. morifolium polysaccharide could significantly increase species abundance and flora diversity and improve flora structure. The relative abundance of Lactobacillus and Romboutsia increased, while the relative abundance of Lachnospiraceae_NK4A136_group and Roseburia decreased compared with the MC group. Proteomics studies suggested that C. morifolium polysaccharides could reduce intestinal lesions, enhance intestinal homeostasis, increase amino acid uptake, promote intestinal motility and relieve constipation by regulating the expression of RAS, FABP1 and SLC1A5 proteins.

Effects of Totum-63 on glucose homeostasis and postprandial glycemia: a translational study

Global prevalence of type 2 diabetes (T2D) is rising and may affect 700 million people by 2045. Totum-63 is a polyphenol-rich natural composition developed to reduce the risk of T2D. We first investigated the effects of Totum-63 supplementation in high-fat diet (HFD)-fed mice for up to 16 wk and thereafter assessed its safety and efficacy (2.5 g or 5 g per day) in 14 overweight men [mean age 51.5 yr, body mass index (BMI) 27.6 kg·m^-2] for 4 wk. In HFD-fed mice, Totum-63 reduced body weight and fat mass gain, whereas lean mass was unchanged. Moreover, fecal energy excretion was higher in Totum-63-supplemented mice, suggesting a reduction of calorie absorption in the digestive tract. In the gut, metagenomic analyses of fecal microbiota revealed a partial restoration of HFD-induced microbial imbalance, as shown by principal coordinate analysis of microbiota composition. HFD-induced increase in HOMA-IR score was delayed in supplemented mice, and insulin response to an oral glucose tolerance test was significantly reduced, suggesting that Totum-63 may prevent HFD-related impairments in glucose homeostasis. Interestingly, these improvements could be linked to restored insulin signaling in subcutaneous adipose tissue and soleus muscle. In the liver, HFD-induced steatosis was reduced by 40% (as shown by triglyceride content). In the subsequent study in men, Totum-63 (5 g·day^-1) improved glucose and insulin responses to a high-carbohydrate breakfast test (84% kcal carbohydrates). It was well tolerated, with no clinically significant adverse events reported. Collectively, these data suggest that Totum-63 could improve glucose homeostasis in both HFD-fed mice and overweight individuals, presumably through a multitargeted action on different metabolic organs.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Totum-63 is a novel polyphenol-rich natural composition developed to reduce the risk of T2D. Totum-63 showed beneficial effects on glucose homeostasis in HFD-fed mice, presumably through a multitargeted action on different metabolic organs. Totum-63 was well tolerated in humans and improved postprandial glucose and insulin responses to a high-carbohydrate breakfast test.

Chemistry and Pharmacological Activity of Sesquiterpenoids from the Chrysanthemum Genus

Plants from the Chrysanthemum genus are rich sources of chemical diversity and, in recent years, have been the focus of research on natural products chemistry. Sesquiterpenoids are one of the major classes of chemical constituents reported from this genus. To date, more than 135 sesquiterpenoids have been isolated and identified from the whole genus. These include 26 germacrane-type, 26 eudesmane-type, 64 guaianolide-type, 4 bisabolane-type, and 15 other-type sesquiterpenoids. Pharmacological studies have proven the biological potential of sesquiterpenoids isolated from Chrysanthemum species, reporting anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antitumor, insecticidal, and antiviral activities for these interesting molecules. In this paper, we provide information on the chemistry and bioactivity of sesquiterpenoids obtained from the Chrysanthemum genus which could be used as the scientific basis for their future development and utilization.

Sesquiterpenoids from Chrysanthemum indicum with Inhibitory Effects on NO Production

Three new guaianolide lactones (1-3) and four new 9-oxonerolidol glucosides (5-8) together with 20 known compounds were isolated from the MeOH extract of the flowers of Chrysanthemum indicum. Their structures were elucidated based on the interpretation of NMR, HRESIMS, and electronic circular dichroism (ECD) data along with acid hydrolysis. Of the isolates, sesquiterpenoids 1-4 and 15 and flavones 17 and 18 exhibited inhibitory effects on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced nitric oxide production in RAW 264.7 cells with IC₅₀ values in the range 0.2-27.0 μM.

Structural elucidation of three novel oligosaccharides from Kunlun Chrysanthemum flower tea and their bioactivities

Coreopsis tinctoria is commonly called Kunlun Chrysanthemum and a plateau plant with tremendous commercial value in functional tea and medicinal applications. In folk medicine, Kunlun Chrysanthemum flower is often used as an adjunctive therapy for diabetes and Alzheimer's disease. To further explore the chemicals responsible for the health benefits of Kunlun Chrysanthemum flowers, three homogeneous oligosaccharides, CT70-1A, CT70-1B and CT70-2 were isolated, and their detailed structures were determined from chemical and spectral analyses. The three oligosaccharides were composed of glucose, mannose, galactose, and arabinose in different ratios. They showed dose-dependent α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibitory effects. In addition, they showed NO production inhibitory activities in BV2 cells, with IC₅₀ values of 0.23, 0.24 and 0.27 mM, respectively. Taken together, these results suggested that Kunlun Chrysanthemum oligosaccharides might ameliorate hyperglycemia and neuroinflammation, which could prevent the development of diseases such as type 2 diabetes and Alzheimer's disease. This study provides chemical and bioactive perspectives that support the consumption of Kunlun Chrysanthemum flower tea for health benefits.

Aqueous extract of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. inhibits RANKL-induced osteoclast differentiation by suppressing the c-fos/NFATc1 pathway

OBJECTIVE

The flower of chrysanthemum, used worldwide as a medicinal and edible product, has shown various bioactivities, such as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, anti-tumorigenic, and hepatoprotective activities, as well as cardiovascular protection. However, the effect of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. on the regulation of osteoclast differentiation has not yet been reported. In this study, we aimed to investigate the inhibitory effect of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. water extract (CME) on RANKL-induced osteoclast differentiation in mouse bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMMs).

STUDY DESIGN

Bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMMs) isolated from the C57BL/6 J mice. The viability of BMMs was detected with MTT assays. Inhibitory effects of CME on osteoclast differentiation and bone resorption was measured by TRAP staining and Pit assay. Osteoclast differentiation-associated gene expression were assessed by Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction. Intracellular signaling molecules was assessed by western blot.

RESULTS

CME significantly inhibited osteoclast differentiation in BMMs without cytotoxicity, besides inhibiting MAPK/c-fos and PLCγ2/CREB activation. The inhibitory effects of CME on differentiation-related signaling molecules resulted in significant repression of NFATc1 expression, which is a key transcription factor in osteoclast differentiation, fusion, and activation.

CONCLUSION

Our results confirmed the inhibition of RANKL-induced PLCγ2/CREB/c-fos/NFATc1 activation by CME during osteoclast differentiation. The findings collectively suggested CME as a traditional therapeutic agent for osteoporosis, RA, and periodontitis.

The flower head of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. (Juhua): A paradigm of flowers serving as Chinese dietary herbal medicine

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Dietary herbal medicines are widely used for the prevention and treatment of a variety of diseases due to their pharmacological activities in China. Juhua (the flower head of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat.), the most representative flower-derived one, which is mainly used for the treatment of respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, shows significant activities, such as antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer, and, neuroprotective, as well as effects on the cardiovascular system.

AIMS OF THIS REVIEW

This review aims to provide an overview of the crucial roles of flowers in Chinese dietary herbal medicine, and the pharmaceutical research progress of Juhua (the paradigm of dietary herbal medicine derived from the flower) including its applications in Traditional Chinese medicine and diet, cultivars, phytochemistry, quality control, pharmacology, and toxicity, along with chrysanthemum breeding and biotechnology.

METHOD

The information associated with Chinese dietary herbal medicine, flower-derived medicine, dietary flower, and pharmaceutical research of Juhua, was collected from government reports, classic books of Traditional Chinese medicine, the thesis of doctors of philosophy and maters, and database including Pubmed, Scifinder, Web of Science, Google Scholar, China National Knowledge Internet; and others.

RESULT

All flower-originated crude medicines recorded in Chinese pharmacopeia and their applications were summarized for the first time in this paper. The edible history and development of flowers in China, the theory of Chinese dietary herbal medicines, as well as flowers serving as dietary herbal medicines, were discussed. Moreover, applications in Traditional Chinese medicine and diet, cultivars, phytochemistry, quality control, pharmacology, and safety evaluation of Juhua, together with chrysanthemum breeding and biotechnology, were summarized in this paper.

CONCLUSION

The theory of dietary herbal medicines, which are an important part of the Traditional Chinese medicine system, has a history of thousands of years. Many herbal flowers, serving as dietary herbal medicines, contribute significantly to the prevention and treatment of a variety of diseases for Chinese people. To better benefit human health, more effective supervision practice for dietary herbal medicines is needed. Although various investigations on Juhua have been done, there is a lack of analytical methods for discrimination of cultivar flowers and identification of authenticity. Research on the major compounds with bioactivities, especially those related to its clinical application or healthcare function, as well as their possible mechanize, need be strengthened. More safety evaluation of Juhua should be carried out. The research limitations Juhua is facing exist in all dietary herbal medicine.

Constitutive and Inducible Resistance to Thrips Do Not Correlate With Differences in Trichome Density or Enzymatic-Related Defenses in Chrysanthemum

Western flower thrips (WFT), Frankliniella occidentalis, is a serious insect pest of Chrysanthemum [Chrysanthemum × morifolium Ramat. (Asteraceae)]. Here we have investigated whether genotypic variation in constitutive and inducible resistance to WFT correlates with phenotypic differences in leaf trichome density and the activity of the defense-related enzyme polyphenol oxidase (PPO) in chrysanthemum. Non-glandular and glandular leaf trichome densities significantly varied among ninety-five chrysanthemum cultivars. Additional analyses in a subset of these cultivars, differing in leaf trichome density, revealed significant variation in PPO activities and resistance to WFT as well. Constitutive levels of trichome densities and PPO activity, however, did not correlate with chrysanthemum resistance to WFT. Further tests showed that exogenous application of the phytohormone jasmonic acid (JA) increased non-glandular trichome densities, PPO activity and chrysanthemum resistance to WFT, and that these effects were cultivar dependent. In addition, no tradeoff between constitutive and inducible resistance to WFT was observed. JA-mediated induction of WFT resistance, however, did not correlate with changes in leaf trichome densities nor PPO activity levels. Taken together, our results suggest that chrysanthemum can display both high levels of constitutive and inducible resistance to WFT, and that leaf trichome density and PPO activity may not play a relevant role in chrysanthemum defenses against WFT.

A novel botanical formula improves eye fatigue and dry eye: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study

BACKGROUND

With the frequent use of video display units, eye fatigue is becoming more common globally. An alternative nutritional strategy is needed to prevent the aggravation of eye fatigue symptoms.

OBJECTIVES

The objective was to evaluate the protective effect of a novel botanical combination of lutein ester, zeaxanthin, and extracts of blackcurrant, chrysanthemum, and goji berry on adults with eye fatigue in a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial.

METHODS

We randomly allocated 360 participants into 4 groups to receive placebo and 3 doses of our formula (chewable tablets, containing 6 mg, 10 mg, or 14 mg of lutein) once daily for 90 d. Each participant had 3 visits at baseline (V1), 45 d (V2), and 90 d (V3) during the study.

RESULTS

Intervention with the formula improved individual scores of eye fatigue symptoms, including eye soreness, blurred vision, dry eye, foreign body sensation, and tearing. Compared with placebo, the formula at all 3 doses significantly decreased the total score of eye fatigue symptoms and increased the visuognosis persistence time at both V2 and V3. According to the Schirmer test, both 10-mg and 14-mg lutein formula groups had improved tear secretion at V3 compared with the placebo. The keratography results indicated that the first tear break-up time, average tear break-up time, and tear meniscus height were significantly increased after formula intervention. The formula at all 3 doses significantly increased the macular pigment optical density at V2 and V3 compared with the placebo, whereas optical coherence tomography showed no significant difference in retinal thickness and retinal volume across all groups at both visits.

CONCLUSIONS

Our botanical formula improves eye fatigue, dry eye, and macular function without changing the retinal structure, and thus it could serve as an effective nutritional strategy in improving eye fatigue without causing serious side effects.Clinical Trial Registry: chictr.org.cn (ChiCTR1800018987).

Diverse Terpenoids and Their Associated Antifungal Properties from Roots of Different Cultivars of Chrysanthemum Morifolium Ramat

Roots provide anchorage and enable the absorption of water and micronutrients from the soil for plants. Besides these essential functions, roots are increasingly being recognized as an important organ for the production of diverse secondary metabolites. The goal of this study was to investigate the chemical composition and function of terpenoid secondary metabolites in roots of different cultivars of the popular ornamental plant Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. Although C. morifolium is known for rich production of secondary metabolites in its flower heads and leaves, the diversity of secondary metabolites in roots remains poorly characterized. In this study, 12 cultivars of C. morifolium were selected for comparative analysis. From their roots, a total of 20 terpenoids were detected, including four monoterpenes, 15 sesquiterpenes, and one diterpene. The cultivar ‘She Yang Hong Xin Ju’ exhibited the highest concentration of total terpenoids at approximately 730 µg·g⁻¹ fresh weight. Most cultivars contained sesquiterpenes as the predominant terpenoids. Of them, (E)-β-farnesene was detected in all cultivars. Based on their terpenoid composition, the 12 cultivars were planed into four groups. To gain insights into the function of root secondary metabolites, we performed bioassays to assess their effects on growth of three species of pathogenic fungi: Fusarium oxysporum, Magnaporthe oryzae, and Verticillium dahliae. Significant variability in antifungal activity of the root extracts among different cultivars were observed. The cultivar ‘Xiao Huang Ju’ was the only cultivar that had significant inhibitory effects on all three species of fungi. Our study reveals the diversity of terpenoids in roots of C. morifolium and their function as a chemical defense against fungi.

Chrysanthemi Zawadskii var. Latilobum Attenuates Obesity-Induced Skeletal Muscle Atrophy via Regulation of PRMTs in Skeletal Muscle of Mice

As obesity promotes ectopic fat accumulation in skeletal muscle, resulting in impaired skeletal muscle and mitochondria function, it is associated with skeletal muscle loss and dysfunction. This study investigated whether Chrysanthemi zawadskii var. latilobum (CZH) protected mice against obesity-induced skeletal muscle atrophy and the underlying molecular mechanisms. High-fat diet (HFD)-induced obese mice were orally administered either distilled water, low-dose CZH (125 mg/kg), or high-dose CZH (250 mg/kg) for 8 w. CZH reduced obesity-induced increases in inflammatory cytokines levels and skeletal muscle atrophy, which is induced by expression of atrophic genes such as muscle RING-finger protein 1 and muscle atrophy F-box. CZH also improved muscle function according to treadmill running results and increased the muscle fiber size in skeletal muscle. Furthermore, CZH upregulated mRNA and protein levels of protein arginine methyltransferases (PRMT)1 and PRMT7, which subsequently attenuated mitochondrial dysfunction in the skeletal muscle of obese mice. We also observed that CZH significantly decreased PRMT6 mRNA and protein expression, which resulted in decreased muscle atrophy. These results suggest that CZH ameliorated obesity-induced skeletal muscle atrophy in mice via regulation of PRMTs in skeletal muscle.

Inhibitory Effects of Eriodictyol-7-O-β-d-glucuronide and 5,7-Dihydroxy-4-chromene Isolated from Chrysanthemum zawadskii var. latilobum in FcεRI-Mediated Human Basophilic KU812F Cell Activation

Chrysanthemum zawadskii var. latilobum (CZL) has been used in Eastern medicine for the treatment of various diseases, such as pneumonia, bronchitis, cough, the common cold, pharyngitis, bladder-related disorders, gastroenteric disorders, and hypertension. In the present study, we isolated two strong antiallergic compounds from CZL, namely, eriodictyol-7-O-β-d-glucuronide (EDG) and 5,7-dihydroxy-4-chromene (DC), and investigated their antiallergic effects in FcεRI-mediated human basophilic KU812F cells. EDG and DC downregulated the protein and messenger RNA (mRNA) expression of FcεRI on the cell surface. Moreover, Western blotting analysis showed that EDG and DC inhibited the expression of protein tyrosine kinases such as Syk and Lyn, and extracellular-regulated kinases (ERK) 1/2. These results suggested that EDG and DC, antiallergic constituents of CZL, are potential therapeutic candidates for protection against and for the treatment of allergic disorders.

Effects of combined administration of calcium, iron, zinc, chrysanthemum flavonoids, and DMSA on the treatment of lead intoxication in mice

The effect of combined administration of calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), chrysanthemum flavonoids, and meso-2,3-dimercaptosuccinic acid (DMSA) on the treatment of lead (Pb) intoxication in mice was studied. One hundred ninety female mice (SPF level, aged 18-22 days) were randomly divided into two groups as experimental animals. Mice in group I (10 mice) served as normal control animals, and were administered deionized water containing 12.5 μL/L acetate acid for 6 weeks, whereas mice in group II (180 mice) were exposed to 0.1% (wt/vol) of lead acetate in deionized water for 6 weeks and served as experimental animals. After 6 weeks of successful modeling, 180 mice from group II (lead-exposed) were divided into 18 groups of 10 mice each, 16 of which were treated by the combined administration of Ca, Fe, Zn, chrysanthemum flavonoids, and DMSA by L16 (215 ) orthogonal design. The remaining two groups were given treatment with low and high doses of DMSA, respectively. After three weeks of intervention (ig), the optimal treatment group was identified according to its blood lead level, as well as some antioxidant indices in the blood, liver, and hippocampus. The results indicated that the combined administration of Fe, Zn, chrysanthemum flavonoids, and DMSA with low dosage had the most significant effect on increasing the activities of blood delta-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase and superoxide dismutase (SOD), hepatic SOD and hippocampus nitric oxide synthase while decreasing the blood lead level, the content of hepatic malondialdehyde and hippocampus nitric oxide; this was considered the optimal treatment group. There was no difference in the level of blood hemoglobin between the optimal treatment group and the model control group (the first group of the orthogonal experiment). The activities of blood glutathione (GSH), hepatic GSH and glutathione peroxidase of the optimal treatment group were the same as other groups', and the recovery of the related indexes in the optimal effect group closely resembled the high dosage DMSA group. It can be concluded that the coadministration of Fe, Zn, and chrysanthemum flavonoids along with a low-dose DMSA effectively reduces Pb poisoning and lead-induced oxidative damage in lead-exposed mice; the result may provide a theoretical reference for the treatment of Pb poisoning.

Assessing transfer of pesticide residues from chrysanthemum flowers into tea solution and associated health risks

Chrysanthemum (Dendranthema grandiflora) flowers are consumed as a popular, traditional herbal tea worldwide. During tea infusion with hot water pesticide residues in chrysanthemum flowers can be transferred into tea solution, posing potential health risks to consumers. Using greenhouse chrysanthemum this study systematically investigated the transfer of metalaxyl-M, fludioxonil, cyantraniliprole, thiamethoxam, and clothianidin (a major metabolite of thiamethoxam) from dry chrysanthemum flowers to tea solution at a range of infusion repetitions, duration and water temperature. The tested pesticides were released into tea solution at varying degrees, and the maximum transfer percentage was 59.9%, 9.8%, 29.4%, 88.2% and 68.4% for metalaxyl-M, fludioxonil, cyantraniliprole, thiamethoxam, and clothianidin, respectively. The transfer of pesticides into tea solution generally increased with increasing pesticide water solubility, water temperature, infusion duration, and pesticide concentrations in dry chrysanthemum flowers, but decreased with increasing octanol-water partition coefficient and the number of infusion repetitions. Risk quotient for pesticide intake via consuming tea solution of chrysanthemum flowers (one and two times of recommended pesticide dosages) ranged from <0.00003 to 0.0924, indicating a low health risk. This study provides useful information for risk assessment of pesticide residues in greenhouse chrysanthemum flowers and may help establish realistic maximum residue limit of pesticides in chrysanthemum flowers and tea solution.

[Effects of planting density on yield and quality of Chrysanthemum morifolium]

In this paper, five field density treatments were set up in the field plot experiment, which were 2 500,3 000,5 000,6 660,8 000 plants/mu(1 mu≈667 m~2). The agronomic traits, economic traits, mineral element absorption and the content of effective components of Chrysanthemum morifolium under different densities were studied. The results showed that dense planting could significantly reduce the number of secondary branches of Ch. morifolium and the yield per plant, but significantly increase the population yield of Ch. morifolium. The yield of Ch. morifolium was the highest when the density was 8 000 plants/mu, but the effect of increasing yield would gradually decrease with the increase of planting density. With the increase of planting density, the N, P and Mg elements in flowers firstly increased and then decreased. The N element content in leaves increased gradually, which showed that increasing the planting density within a certain range could increase the absorption of N, P and Mg elements in flowers and leaves of Ch. morifolium. The contents of rutin, chlorogenic acid and 3,5-O-dicaffeoyl quinic acid in Ch. morifolium showed a trend of first increasing and then decreasing with the increase of planting density. When the planting density was 5 500,5 000,3 750 plants/mu, the content of chlorogenic acid, rutin and 3,5-O-dicaffeyl quinic acid had the maximum value. The content of luteolin in Ch. morifolium decreased gradually with the increase of planting density. When the planting density was 7 143 plants/mu, the content of luteolin was the minimum. Considering factors such as yield and active ingredient content, the cultivation density of 5 000 plants/mu(row spacing 40 cm×30 cm) can be selected for standard planting of Ch. morifolium.

Characterization of Composition and Antifungal Properties of Leaf Secondary Metabolites from Thirteen Cultivars of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat

Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat is an ornamental plant of worldwide cultivation. Like many other species in the family Asteraceae, C. morifolium is a rich producer of secondary metabolites. There are two objectives in this study: (I) to determine and compare the diversity of apolar secondary metabolites among different cultivars of C. morifolium and (II) to compare their properties as antifungal agents. To attain these objectives, we selected 13 cultivars of C. morifolium that are commonly used for making chrysanthemum tea as experimental materials. Leaves at the same developmental stage were collected from respective mature plants and subjected to organic extraction. The extracts were analyzed using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. A total of 37 apolar secondary metabolites including 26 terpenoids were detected from the 13 cultivars. These 13 cultivars can be largely divided into three chemotypes based on chemical principal components analysis. Next, the extracts from the 13 cultivars were examined in in vitro assays for their antifungal properties against three species of pathogenic fungi: Fusarium oxysporum, Magnaporthe oryzae, and Verticillium dahliae. Significant variability in antifungal activity of the leaf extracts among different cultivars was observed. The 13 cultivars can be divided into four groups based on their antifungal activities, which could be partly correlated to the contents of terpenoids. In short, this study reveals large variations in chemical composition, particularly of terpenoids, of leaf secondary metabolites among different cultivars of C. morifolium and their different abilities in functioning as antifungal agents.

Different colored Chrysanthemum × morifolium cultivars represent distinct plastid transformation and carotenoid deposit patterns

Carotenoids are the most important pigments determining the color of C. × morifolium; however, it is still unknown whether the changes of plastid ultrastructure affect carotenoids accumulation. In this study, we compared the change of carotenoid composition, content, and the plastid ultrastructures in the different developmental stages of capitulum among fourteen C. × morifolium cultivars from seven color groups. We found that the carotenoids and plastids detected at the early stage of capitulum development were similar in all cultivars, including violaxanthin, lutein, and β-carotene, which were present in proplastids and immature chloroplasts. Immature chloroplasts were degraded completely, forming loosely broken plastids during the development of the capitulum in white and pink cultivars. Meanwhile, a number of lipid vesicles appeared at proplastids, which resulted in only trace amounts of carotenoid accumulation in these cultivars. For yellow, orange, red, and brown cultivars, a great number of chromoplasts were found, which contained diverse ultrastructures, such as plastoglobules, tubules, and lipid droplets; these chromoplasts were derived from proplastids or chloroplasts. Compared with the early stage of capitulum development, these cultivars accumulated large amounts of carotenoids, primarily including lutein, lutein derivatives, and their isomers. In green cultivars, proplastids and immature chloroplasts were completely transformed into mature chloroplasts. These chloroplasts mainly contained violaxanthin, lutein, β-carotene, and two new components, (9Z)-lutein and (9'Z)-lutein, compared with carotenoid components presented in proplastids and immature chloroplasts. This research will be helpful for understanding the mechanisms of carotenoid metabolism of C. × morifolium. Furthermore, we found that two different chromoplast transformation patterns could be present in the same tissue cell, which contributed to the research on plastid differentiation and development in higher plants.

Comparative transcriptomics and weighted gene co-expression correlation network analysis (WGCNA) reveal potential regulation mechanism of carotenoid accumulation in Chrysanthemum × morifolium

The variation of flower color of chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum×morifolium) is extremely rich, and carotenoids, which are mainly stored in the plastid, are important pigments that determine the color of chrysanthemum. However, the genetic regulation of the carotenoid metabolism pathway in this species still remains unclear. In this study, a pink chrysanthemum cultivar, 'Jianliuxiang Pink', and its three bud sport mutants (including white, yellow and red color mutants, 'Jianliuxiang White', 'Jianliuxiang Yellow' and 'Jianliuxiang Red', respectively) were used as experimental materials to analyze the dynamic changes of carotenoid components and plastid ultrastructure at different developmental stages of ray florets. We found that the carotenoid components and plastid ultrastructure of the four color cultivars in the early developmental stage of the chrysanthemum capitulum (S1) were almost identical, and the carotenoids mainly included violaxanthin, lutein and β-carotene, which exist in proplastids and immature chloroplasts. With the development of capitulum, the chloroplasts in 'Jianliuxiang White' and 'Jianliuxiang Pink' were degraded, and the protoplasts did not transform but rather formed vesicles that accumulated trace amounts of carotenoids. The proplastids and chloroplasts in 'Jianliuxiang Yellow' and 'Jianliuxiang Red' were all transformed into chromoplasts and consist of lutein as well as lutein's isomer and derivatives. Using comparative transcriptomics combined with gene expression analysis, we found that CmPg-1, CmPAP10, and CmPAP13, which were involved in chromoplast transformation, CmLCYE, which was involved in carotenoid biosynthesis, and CmCCD4a-2, which was involved in carotenoid degradation, were differentially expressed between four cultivars, and these key genes therefore should affect the accumulation of carotenoids in chrysanthemum. In addition, six transcription factors, CmMYB305, CmMYB29, CmRAD3, CmbZIP61, CmAGL24, CmNAC1, were screened using weighted gene co-expression correlation network analysis (WGCNA) combined with correlative analysis to determine whether they play an important role in carotenoid accumulation by regulating structural genes related to the carotenoid metabolism pathway and plastid development. This study analyzed dynamic changes of carotenoid components and plastid ultrastructure of the four bud mutation cultivars of chrysanthemum and identified structural genes and transcription factors that may be involved in carotenoid accumulation. The above results laid a solid foundation for further analysis of the regulatory mechanism of the carotenoid biosynthesis pathway in chrysanthemum.

Effect of chrysanthemum extract on myocardial fibrosis in rats with renovascular hypertension

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the inhibitory effect of chrysanthemum extract on myocardial fibrosis in rats with renovascular hypertension, and explore the possible mechanism underlying this effect.

METHODS

Sixty Wistar rats were randomly divided into six groups: sham operation, model, positive control, and low-, medium-, and high-dose Huai chrysanthemum extract groups (ten rats per group). With the exception of the sham operation group, a renal hypertensive model was established in rats using the ""two-kidney, one clip"" method. After 6 weeks, low-, medium-, and high-dose groups were intragastrically administered chrysanthemum extract at 1, 2, or 4 g/kg, respectively, once daily for 4 weeks. The positive control group was administered Kato Pury at 50 mg/kg once daily for 4 weeks, while sham operation and model groups received an equal volume of distilled water once daily for 4 weeks. Blood pressure changes were examined before modeling, 6 weeks after modeling, and after 4 weeks of treatment administration. Ventricular remodeling indexes were measured by high frequency echocardiography after 4 weeks of treatment administration. Pathological changes were observed by hematoxylin and eosin, and Masson's trichrome staining methods. Collagen typeⅠ (Col Ⅰ) and type Ⅲ (Col Ⅲ) expression were examined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1), sma mad 3 (Smad3), Smad7, Ras homolog gene family, member A (RhoA), and Rho-associated protein kinase 1 (ROCK1) protein expression were detected by Western blot.

RESULTS

Compared with the model group, chrysanthemum-administered groups and the positive control group showed significant improvement of arterial blood pressure, echocardiography indicators, and degree of myocardial fibrosis (P < 0.05). In addition, these groups exhibited decreased expression of Col Ⅰ, Col Ⅲ, RhoA, ROCK1, TGF-β1, and Smad3, and increased Smad7 expression. Such improvements were most obvious in the high-dose chrysanthemum extract group (P < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Chrysanthemum extract could effectively reduce myocardial fibrosis in rats with renovascular hypertension by a mechanism that potentially involves inhibition of RhoA/ROCK1 and TGF-β1/Smad signaling pathways.

Chrysanthemum Leaf Ethanol Extract Prevents Obesity and Metabolic Disease in Diet-Induced Obese Mice via Lipid Mobilization in White Adipose Tissue

This study aimed to elucidate the molecular mechanism of Chrysanthemum morifolium Ramat. against obesity and diabetes, by comparing the transcriptional changes in epididymal white adipose tissue (eWAT) with those of the bioactive compound in C. morifolium, luteolin (LU). Male C57BL/6J mice were fed a normal diet, high-fat diet (HFD), and HFD supplemented with 1.5% w/w chrysanthemum leaf ethanol extract (CLE) for 16 weeks. Supplementation with CLE and LU significantly decreased the body weight gain and eWAT weight by stimulating mRNA expressions for thermogenesis and energy expenditure in eWAT via lipid mobilization, which may be linked to the attenuation of dyslipidemia. Furthermore, CLE and LU increased uncoupling protein-1 protein expression in brown adipose tissue, leading to energy expenditure. Of note, CLE and LU supplements enhanced the balance between lipid storage and mobilization in white adipose tissue (WAT), in turn, inhibiting adipocyte inflammation and lipotoxicity of peripheral tissues. Moreover, CLE and LU attenuated hepatic steatosis by suppressing hepatic lipogenesis, thereby ameliorating insulin resistance and dyslipidemia. Our data suggest that CLE helps inhibit obesity and its comorbidities via the complex interplay between liver and WAT in diet-induced obese mice.

An integration of UPLC-DAD/ESI-Q-TOF MS, GC-MS, and PCA analysis for quality evaluation and identification of cultivars of Chrysanthemi Flos (Juhua)

BACKGROUND

Chrysanthemi Flos (CF), as a popular traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), has five main cultivars in China, namely "Chuju", "Boju", "Gongju", "Huaiju" and "Hangju". Due to their habitats and processing methods, great quality variations occur yet no systematical study has ever been carried out to evaluate such variations.

PURPOSE

In this study, we aim to establish a new approach that can serve both as a quality control method and as an identification method for cultivars of CF.

METHOD

The components in CF samples were identified by a combination of UPLC-ESI-Q-TOF/MS and GC/MS. Furthermore, a multimodal quantitative method was established by UPLC-UV coupled with principal component analysis (PCA) and the similarity evaluation system (SES), which was used to control and identify four cultivars of CF.

RESULTS

18 compounds of flavonoids and caffeoylquinic acids were identified and ten of them were quantified using UPLC-ESI-Q-TOF/MS. Different cultivars of CF could be clearly distinguished with the fingerprints evaluation and principal component analysis (PCA). A total of 74 volatile compounds were detected by GC/MS. The distinctness of volatile components was observed. By the combination of UPLC-ESI-Q-TOF/MS and GC/MS, an identification and quality control method for CF was successfully established.

CONCLUSION

The combination of UPLC-ESI-Q-TOF/MS and GC/MS could act as a comprehensive multimodal method for both identification and quality control of herbal medicines. This study provided new insights into the overall evaluation method for herbal medicines possessing different cultivars.

Significant role of supercritical fluid chromatography - mass spectrometry in improving the matrix effect and analytical efficiency during multi-pesticides residue analysis of complex chrysanthemum samples

As an important "food and drug dual-use" product, chrysanthemums are widely used in both botanical medicine and food applications. However, the misuse of pesticides during chrysanthemum cultivation makes pesticide residue monitoring crucial. The aim of the present work was to address this practical demand for the simultaneous determination of multiple pesticide residues in various species of chrysanthemums. Both the sample pre-treatment and instrumental methods were systematically investigated. Seven chrysanthemum samples were extracted using acetonitrile and purified by dispersive solid-phase extraction with amino-modified multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs-NH₂) and C18 as the cleanup co-adsorbents. After optimizing the amounts of MWCNTs-NH₂ and C18, matrix effects could not be avoided during LC-MS/MS analysis of 112 pesticides, although satisfactory recoveries were obtained. The use of SFC-MS/MS was evaluated, which demonstrated the significant positive role of SFC-MS/MS in reducing the matrix effects during pesticide residue analysis. In addition, the use of SFC-MS/MS permitted a shorter run time and afforded greater analytical efficiency. Method validation was further performed to evaluate the linearity, sensitivity, recovery, and precision of the developed method. Good linearity was observed for 92% of the analytes in the concentration range of 2-250 μg L^-1 for all seven of the chrysanthemum samples. The LODs of the 112 pesticides ranged from 0.01 to 31.41 μg L^-1, depending on the sample, while the mean recoveries of all of the spiked pesticides ranged from 81.8% to 102% for concentrations of 20, 50, and 200 μg kg^-1. These results clearly demonstrate the applicability of the developed method for the simultaneous determination of multi-pesticides in various chrysanthemum samples.

Rapid Determination of Chlorogenic Acid, Luteoloside and 3,5-O-dicaffeoylquinic Acid in Chrysanthemum Using Near-Infrared Spectroscopy

The feasibility of near-infrared spectroscopy (NIR) to detect chlorogenic acid, luteoloside and 3,5-O-dicaffeoylquinic acid in Chrysanthemum was investigated. An NIR spectroradiometer was applied for data acquisition. The reference values of chlorogenic acid, luteoloside, and 3,5-O-dicaffeoylquinic acid of the samples were determined by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and were used for model calibration. The results of six preprocessing methods were compared. To reduce input variables and collinearity problems, three methods for variable selection were compared, including successive projections algorithm (SPA), genetic algorithm-partial least squares regression (GA-PLS), and competitive adaptive reweighted sampling (CARS). The selected variables were employed as the inputs of partial least square (PLS), back propagation-artificial neural networks (BP-ANN), and extreme learning machine (ELM) models. The best performance was achieved by BP-ANN models based on variables selected by CARS for all three chemical constituents. The values of r_p² (correlation coefficient of prediction) were 0.924, 0.927, 0.933, the values of RMSEP were 0.033, 0.018, 0.064 and the values of RPD were 3.667, 3.667, 2.891 for chlorogenic acid, luteoloside, and 3,5-O-dicaffeoylquinic acid, respectively. The results indicated that NIR spectroscopy combined with variables selection and multivariate calibration methods could be considered as a useful tool for rapid determination of chlorogenic acid, luteoloside, and 3,5-O-dicaffeoylquinic acid in Chrysanthemum.

Theaflavin-Enriched Fraction Stimulates Adipogenesis in Human Subcutaneous Fat Cells

Skin provides the first defense line against the environment while preserving physiological homeostasis. Subcutaneous tissues including fat depots that are important for maintaining skin structure and alleviating senescence are altered during aging. This study investigated whether theaflavin (TF) in green tea (GT) has skin rejuvenation effects. Specifically, we examined whether high ratio of TF contents can induce the subcutaneous adipogenesis supporting skin structure by modulating lipid metabolism. The co-fermented GT (CoF-GT) fraction containing a high level of TF was obtained by co-fermentation with garland chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum coronarium) and the conventionally fermented GT (F-GT) fraction was also obtained. The effects of the CoF- or F-GT fractions on adipogenesis were assessed using primary human subcutaneous fat cells (hSCF). Adipogenesis was evaluated based on lipid droplet (LD) formation, as visualized by Oil Red O staining; by analyzing of adipogenesis-related factors by real-time quantitative polyperase chain reaction (RT-qPCR); and by measuring the concentration of adiponectin released into the culture medium by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. TF-enriched CoF-GT fraction did not adversely affect hSCF cell viability but induced their adipogenic differentiation, as evidenced by LD formation, upregulation of adipogenesis-related genes, and adiponectin secretion. TF and TF-enriched CoF-GT fraction promoted differentiation of hSCFs and can therefore be used as an ingredient in rejuvenating agents.

Ameliorative effect of supercritical fluid extract of Chrysanthemum indicum Linnén against D-galactose induced brain and liver injury in senescent mice via suppression of oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptosis

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Chrysanthemum indicum Linne (C. indicum), a healthy food and folk medicine in China for thousands of years, has been reported to exert heat-clearing and detoxifying effects and extensively applied to treat various symptoms such as inflammation diseases, hepatitis and headache.

AIM OF THIS STUDY

The purpose of the present study was to investigate the protective effect of the supercritical carbon dioxide fluid extract from flowers and buds of C. indicum (CI_SCFE) on D-galactose-induced brain and liver damage during aging process and to illuminate the underlying mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Mice were orally administrated with CI_SCFE (100, 150 and 300 mg/kg) after injection with D-galactose. 24 h after the last administration, the blood samples, whole brain and liver tissues were collected for biochemical analysis, histological examination and western blot analysis. The body weight, spleen and thymus indexes, alanine transaminase (ALT), aspartate transaminase (AST), total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px), malondialdehyde (MDA) in brain and liver, interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) were detected. Besides, the expressions of Bax, Bcl-2 and cleaved caspase-3 were determined by western blot assay.

RESULTS

The results indicated that CI_SCFE effectively increased the suppressed body weight, attenuated the decline of thymus and spleen indexes, and reduced the elevated levels of ALT and AST induced by D-gal. Furthermore, CI_SCFE might notably alleviate D-gal-induced abnormal alterations in structure and function of brain and liver dose-dependently via renewing normal antioxidant enzymes activities (SOD, CAT, GSH-Px), reducing MDA accumulation, decreasing inflammatory cytokines productions (IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α), as well as attenuating the increase of Bax/Bcl-2 ratio and cleaved caspase-3 activation in the liver and brain.

CONCLUSIONS

Taken together, our present results suggested that CI_SCFE treatment could effectively mitigate the D-gal-induced hepatic and cerebral injury, and the underlying mechanism might be tightly related to the decreased oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptosis, indicating CI_SCFE might be an alternative and promising agent for the treatment of aging and age-associated brain and liver diseases.

Monomeric and Dimeric Cytotoxic Guaianolide-Type Sesquiterpenoids from the Aerial Parts of Chrysanthemum indicum

Twelve new guaianolide-type sesquiterpenoids (1-12) and five known guaianolide derivatives (13-17) were isolated from an aqueous ethanol extract of the aerial parts of Chrysanthemum indicum. Their structures were determined through spectroscopic data analysis. The absolute configurations of the new compounds were assigned by X-ray crystallography and electronic circular dichroism. Compound 5 shows multiple cytotoxic activities against four human naso-pharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) cell lines (CNE1, CNE2, SUNE-1, and HONE-1) and one human intestinal epithelial cell line (HT-29) with IC₅₀ values of 4.6, 6.0, 3.5, 4.3, and 9.6 μM, respectively. Compound 16 exhibits weak cytotoxicity against four NPC cell lines, CNE1 (IC₅₀ = 7.3 μM), CNE2 (IC₅₀ = 7.4 μM), HONE-1 (IC₅₀ = 7.6 μM), and SUNE-1 (IC₅₀ = 5.6 μM), but no cytotoxicity against HT-29 (IC₅₀ > 10 μM).