alpha-Linolenic acid supplementation and conversion to n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in humans

Effects of maternal protein restriction during pregnancy and lactation on milk composition and offspring development

Before weaning, breast milk is the physiological form of neonatal nutrition, providing pups with all nutrient requirements. Maternal low-protein diet (LPD) during pregnancy and lactation induces adverse changes in key maternal organs, which have negative effects on pup development. We studied the effects of maternal LPD on liver weight, mammary gland (MG) cell differentiation, milk composition and production and pup development throughout lactation. We fed rats with control (C) or LPD (R) during pregnancy and lactation. At 7 d early, 14 d mid and 21 d late lactation stages, maternal biochemical parameters, body, liver and MG weights were analysed. MG cell differentiation was analysed by haematoxylin and eosin staining; milk nutrient composition and production were studied; pup body, liver and brain weights, hippocampal arachidonic acid (AA) and DHA were quantified. Results showed lower body and liver weights, minor MG cell differentiation and lower serum insulin and TAG in R compared with C. R milk contained less protein and higher AA at early and mid stages compared with C. R pup milk and fat intake were lower at all stages. R protein intake at early and mid stages and DHA intake at mid and late stages were lower compared with C. In R pups, lower body, liver and brain weights were associated with decreased hippocampal AA and DHA. We conclude that maternal LPD impairs liver and MG function and induces significant changes in maternal milk composition, pup milk intake and organ development.

Fatty Acid Profile and Cardiometabolic Markers in Relation with Diet Type and Omega-3 Supplementation in Spanish Vegetarians

Plant-based diets are becoming increasingly popular, and scientific information concerning the nutritional status in this population is needed. This study determined the fatty acid profile of Spanish lacto-ovo vegetarians (LO-vegetarians) and vegans. Participants were 104 healthy adults, LO-vegetarians (n = 49) and vegans (n = 55). Lifestyle habits and consumption of food and omega-3 supplements were estimated by questionnaires. BMI, blood pressure, and abdominal and body fat were determined. Serum was collected to analyze fatty acids, glucose, lipids, homocysteine, insulin, and leptin. Volunteers were classified according to serum omega-6 to omega-3 (n-6/n-3) ratio into three groups: n-6/n-3 < 10, n-6/n-3 ≥ 10 to 20, and n-6/n-3 > 20. Results showed low cardiovascular risk and high insulin sensitivity with negligible differences between diet types. Linoleic acid (C18:2n-6) was the major serum fatty acid, followed by oleic (C18:1n-9) and palmitic (C16:0) acids. In contrast, serum eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, C20:5n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, C22:6n-3) were (median, interquartile range) 0.27, 0.18% and 1.59, and 0.93%, respectively. Users of n-3 supplements (<10% of total vegetarians) had significantly higher EPA than non-users, while frequent consumption of flax-seeds was associated with increased α-linolenic acid (C18:3n-3). However, neither n-3 supplementation nor food consumption affected DHA levels in this vegetarian population.

Influence of Fish Oil-Derived n-3 Fatty Acid Supplementation on Changes in Body Composition and Muscle Strength During Short-Term Weight Loss in Resistance-Trained Men

Background: A detrimental consequence of diet-induced weight loss, common in athletes who participate in weight cutting sports, is muscle loss. Dietary omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3PUFA) exhibit a protective effect on the loss of muscle tissue during catabolic situations such as injury-simulated leg immobilization. This study aimed to investigate the influence of dietary n-3PUFA supplementation on changes in body composition and muscle strength following short-term diet-induced weight loss in resistance-trained men. Methods: Twenty resistance-trained young (23 ± 1 years) men were randomly assigned to a fish oil group that supplemented their diet with 4 g n-3PUFA, 18 g carbohydrate, and 5 g protein (FO) or placebo group containing an equivalent carbohydrate and protein content (CON) over a 6 week period. During weeks 1-3, participants continued their habitual diet. During week 4, participants received all food items to control energy balance and a macronutrient composition of 50% carbohydrate, 35% fat, and 15% protein. During weeks 5 and 6, participants were fed an energy-restricted diet equivalent to 60% habitual energy intake. Body composition and strength were measured during weeks 1, 4, and 6. Results: The decline in total body mass (FO = -3.0 ± 0.3 kg, CON = -2.6 ± 0.3 kg), fat free mass (FO = -1.4 ± 0.3 kg, CON = -1.2 ± 0.3 kg) and fat mass (FO = -1.4 ± 0.2 kg, CON = -1.3 ± 0.3 kg) following energy restriction was similar between groups (all p > 0.05; d: 0.16-0.39). Non-dominant leg extension 1 RM increased (6.1 ± 3.4%) following energy restriction in FO (p < 0.05, d = 0.29), with no changes observed in CON (p > 0.05, d = 0.05). Dominant leg extension 1 RM tended to increase following energy restriction in FO (p = 0.09, d = 0.29), with no changes in CON (p > 0.05, d = 0.06). Changes in leg press 1 RM, maximum voluntary contraction and muscular endurance following energy restriction were similar between groups (p > 0.05, d = 0.05). Conclusion: Any possible improvements in muscle strength during short-term weight loss with n-3PUFA supplementation are not related to the modulation of FFM in resistance-trained men.

Validation of a Dietary Questionnaire to Screen Omega-3 Fatty Acids Levels in Healthy Adults

To facilitate a clinical observational study to identify healthy volunteers with low (defined as ≤4%) and high (defined as ≥5.5%) omega-3 indices, a dietary questionnaire to rapidly assess habitual dietary intake of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) was developed. This study aimed to determine the validity of this newly developed dietary questionnaire. One hundred and eight volunteers were included and were assessed for habitual dietary intake of EPA and DHA using the questionnaire. The United States Department of Agriculture food products database and nutrition fact label was referenced for calculation. Blood samples were collected for the analysis of fatty acids in whole blood specimens and to derive omega-3 indices. A linear correlation was observed between reported dietary consumption of EPA, DHA, EPA+DHA and the whole blood levels of EPA, DHA, and the omega-3 indices (r = 0.67, 0.62, 0.67, respectively, p < 0.001 for all). The findings also suggested that the questionnaire was substantially better at identifying volunteers with high omega-3 indices (sensitivity 89%, specificity 84%, and agreement 86%) compared to volunteers with low omega-3 indices (sensitivity 100%, specificity 66%, and agreement 42%). In conclusion, this newly developed questionnaire is an efficient tool for the assessment of omega-3 indices in study populations and is particularly effective in identifying individuals with high omega-3 indices.

The role of n-3 PUFA-derived fatty acid derivatives and their oxygenated metabolites in the modulation of inflammation

Notwithstanding the ongoing debate on their full potential in health and disease, there is general consensus that n-3 PUFAs play important physiological roles. Increasing dietary n-3 PUFA intake results in increased DHA and EPA content in cell membranes as well as an increase in n-3 derived oxylipin and -endocannabinoid concentrations, like fatty acid amides and glycerol-esters. These shifts are believed to (partly) explain the pharmacological and anti-inflammatory effects of n-3 PUFAs. Recent studies discovered that n-3 PUFA-derived endocannabinoids can be further metabolized by the oxidative enzymes CYP-450, LOX and COX, similar to the n-6 derived endocannabinoids. Interestingly, these oxidized n-3 PUFA derived endocannabinoids of eicosapentaenoyl ethanolamide (EPEA) and docosahexaenoyl ethanolamide (DHEA) have higher anti-inflammatory and anti-proliferative potential than their precursors. In this review, an overview of recently discovered n-3 PUFA derived endocannabinoids and their metabolites is provided. In addition, the use of chemical probes will be presented as a promising technique to study the n-3 PUFA and n-3 PUFA metabolism within the field of lipid biochemistry.

The investigation of fatty acid composition of breast milk and its relationship with dietary fatty acid intake in 5 regions of China

To investigate the relationship between dietary fatty acid (FA) intake and the lactate FA levels in Chinese women.A total of 2007 samples from 5 regions of China were collected, including 431 in Shandong, 402 in Changchun, 419 in Chongqing, 398 in Guangzhou, and 357 women in Hohhot. All participants were mothers of healthy full-term newborns, collecting the foremilk from day 1 to day 7 and the mature breast milk on day 42 after delivery. The FA composition of the breast milk was analyzed by high resolution capillary gas chromatography.The total FA content of mature breast milk in Shandong was the highest (34.95 g/L), and that was the lowest in Guangzhou (29.72 g/L). The saturated FA content of breast milk was increased from 1 to 7 days after delivery and decreased in mature breast milk. The saturated FA content of breast milk in Hohhot was the highest (37.43%), but that was the lowest in Changchun (32.80%). Maternal dietary FA composition was positively correlated with saturated FAs (SFA), polyunsaturated FAs (PUFA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) (P < .001), and negatively with monounsaturated FAs (MUFA) (P > .05) in breast milk.The FA content of breast milk is different in different regions of China, which was affected by maternal dietary FA composition. Lactating women in China should consume more foods rich in polyunsaturated FAs to ensure the growth of infant.

An integrative investigation on the efficacy of Plantaginis semen based on UPLC-QTOF-MS metabolomics approach in hyperlipidemic mice

Plantaginis semen, the dried mature seed of Plantago asiatica L. or Plantago deprdssa Willd., has a prominent effect on the treatment of obesity, type 2 diabetes and lipid disorders, however, its clinical application is limited due to inadequate in-depth mechanism exploration and incomplete discussion of action targets of its in vivo. Therefore, an untargeted metabolomics approach was firstly applied to study the serum metabolic differences in mice. Metabolomics analysis was performed using ultra performance liquid chromatography quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF-MS) together with multivariate statistical data analysis. The results showed that Plantaginis semen can mainly improve blood lipids, some degree in blood glucose and insulin levels in high-fat mice, in addition, the phenotype of liver and fat stained sections demonstrated remarkable results. A total of 22 metabolites involved in arachidonic acid, glycerophospholipid, glycosphingolipid, linoleate, Omega-3 fatty acid, phosphatidylinositol phosphate and tyrosine metabolisms were identified. In further, it was found that the possible mechanisms of Plantaginis semen on hyperlipidemic mice lied in the biosynthesis of thyroxine, biological effects of enzymes of phospholipase A2 activity, glucosylceramide synthase and inositol essential enzyme 1α, genes expressions of fatty acid metabolism and inflammation. Serum metabolomics revealed that Plantaginis semen could cure the organism disease via regulating multiple metabolic pathways which will be helpful for understanding the mechanism of this herb and providing references for better applications of it in clinic, even researches on other TCMs.

The influence of an anti-inflammatory diet on gingivitis. A randomized controlled trial

AIM

Aim of this study was to investigate the influence of an anti-inflammatory diet on different parameters in patients with gingivitis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Thirty patients were randomly allocated to an experimental and a control group stratified by their plaque values. The experimental group had to change to a diet low in processed carbohydrates and animal proteins, and rich in omega-3 fatty acids, vitamin C, vitamin D, antioxidants, plant nitrates and fibres for 4 weeks. The control group did not change their diet. Both groups suspended interdental cleaning. Periodontal parameters were assessed by a blinded dentist. Serological and subgingival plaque samples were taken at baseline and end.

RESULTS

While there were no differences regarding the plaque values, the experimental group showed a significant reduction in gingival bleeding (GI Baseline: 1.04 ± 0.21, GI End: 0.61 ± 0.29, p < 0.05), a significant increase in Vitamin D values and a significant weight loss. There were no inter-group differences regarding the inflammatory serological parameters, the serological omega fatty acids, nor the subgingival microbiome composition.

CONCLUSION

The evaluated diet could significantly reduce gingivitis in a clinically relevant range, while serological inflammatory parameters and the subgingival microbiome seem to be unaffected in this study duration. (German Clinical Trials Register; DRKS00009888).

Neither n-3 Long-Chain PUFA Supplementation of Mothers through Lactation nor of Offspring in a Complementary Food Affects Child Overall or Social-Emotional Development: A 2 × 2 Factorial Randomized Controlled Trial in Rural Ethiopia

BACKGROUND

The n-3 (ω-3) long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (LC-PUFA) docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is essential for optimal brain development. There is a lack of evidence on the effect of postnatal n-3 LC-PUFA supplementation on child development in low-income countries.

OBJECTIVE

We evaluated the efficacy of fish-oil supplementation through lactation or complementary food supplementation on the development of children aged 6-24 mo in rural Ethiopia.

METHODS

We conducted a double-blind randomized controlled trial of n-3 LC-PUFA supplementation for 12 mo using fish-oil capsules [maternal intervention: 215 mg DHA + 285 mg eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA)] or a fish-oil-enriched complementary food supplement (child intervention: 169 mg DHA + 331 mg EPA). In total, 360 pairs of mothers and infants aged 6-12 mo were randomly assigned to 4 arms: maternal intervention and child control, child intervention and maternal control, maternal and child intervention, and maternal and child control. Primary outcomes were overall developmental performance with the use of a culturally adapted Denver II test that assesses personal-social, language, fine-motor, and gross-motor domains and social-emotional developmental performance using the Ages and Stages Questionnaire: Social Emotional at baseline and at 6 and 12 mo. We used mixed-effects models to estimate intervention effects on developmental performance over time (intervention × time interaction).

RESULTS

The evolution in overall and social-emotional developmental performance over time did not differ across study arms (intervention × time: F = 1.09, P = 0.35, and F = 0.61, P = 0.61, respectively). Effects did not change after adjustment for child age, birth order, and nutritional status; maternal age and education; wealth; family size; and breastfeeding frequency. Children's developmental performance significantly decreased during study follow-up (β: -0.03 SDs/mo; 95% CI: -0.04, -0.01 SD/mo; P < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

n-3 LC-PUFA supplementation does not affect overall or social-emotional development of children aged 6-24 mo in a low-income setting. Follow-up of the cohort is recommended to determine whether there are long-term effects of the intervention. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT01817634.

Dietary arachidonate in milk replacer triggers dual benefits of PGE2 signaling in LPS-challenged piglet alveolar macrophages

Background

Respiratory infections challenge the swine industry, despite common medicinal practices. The dual signaling nature of PGE₂ (supporting both inflammation and resolution) makes it a potent regulator of immune cell function. Therefore, the use of dietary long chain n-6 PUFA to enhance PGE₂ effects merits investigation.

Methods

Day-old pigs (n = 60) were allotted to one of three dietary groups for 21 d (n = 20/diet), and received either a control diet (CON, arachidonate = 0.5% of total fatty acids), an arachidonate (ARA)-enriched diet (LC n-6, ARA = 2.2%), or an eicosapentaenoic (EPA)-enriched diet (LC n-3, EPA = 3.0%). Alveolar macrophages and lung parenchymal tissue were collected for fatty acid analysis. Isolated alveolar macrophages were stimulated with LPS in situ for 24 h, and mRNA was isolated to assess markers associated with inflammation and eicosanoid production. Culture media were collected to assess PGE₂ secretion. Oxidative burst in macrophages was measured by: 1) oxygen consumption and extracellular acidification (via Seahorse), 2) cytoplasmic oxidation and 3) nitric oxide production following 4, 18, and 24 h of LPS stimulation.

Results

Concentration of ARA (% of fatty acids, w/w) in macrophages from pigs fed LC n-6 was 86% higher than CON and 18% lower in pigs fed LC n-3 (P < 0.01). Following LPS stimulation, abundance of COX-2 and TNF-α mRNA (P <  0.0001), and PGE₂ secretion (P < 0. 01) were higher in LC n-6 PAM vs. CON. However, ALOX5 abundance was 1.6-fold lower than CON. Macrophages from CON and LC n-6 groups were 4-fold higher in ALOX12/15 abundance (P < 0.0001) compared to LC n-3. Oxygen consumption and extracellular acidification rates increased over 4 h following LPS stimulation (P < 0.05) regardless of treatment. Similarly, increases in cytoplasmic oxidation (P < 0.001) and nitric oxide production (P <  0.002) were observed after 18 h of LPS stimulation but were unaffected by diet.

Conclusions

We infer that enriching diets with arachidonic acid may be an effective means to enhance a stronger innate immunologic response to respiratory challenges in neonatal pigs. However, further work is needed to examine long-term safety, clinical efficacy and economic viability.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s40104-019-0321-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Omega-3 Fatty Acid and Cardiovascular Outcomes: Insights From Recent Clinical Trials

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Omega-3 fatty acids (ω-3 FA) are among the most well-recognized health supplements but their cardiovascular benefits have long been controversial owing to inconsistent results from previous cardiovascular outcomes trials (CVOT). In this article, we provide a short review of existing literature followed by recent randomized clinical trial data, with a discussion of the potential clinical implications of these new findings.

RECENT FINDINGS

Data from the randomized, controlled trial REDUCE-IT, when viewed within the context of other recently published trials ASCEND and VITAL, add to a growing body of evidence on the use of ω-3 FA therapies in the treatment of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD). Given the different formulations, dosages, and patient populations studied, CVOTs of ω-3 FA have provided valuable insight into the use of these agents in cardioprotection. Current data suggest that higher dosages of pure eicosapentaenoic acid ω-3 FA formulations provide additional benefit in reduction of ASCVD events.

Omega-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Deficiency and Progressive Neuropathology in Psychiatric Disorders: A Review of Translational Evidence and Candidate Mechanisms

Meta-analytic evidence indicates that mood and psychotic disorders are associated with both omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (omega-3 PUFA) deficits and progressive regional gray and white matter pathology. Although the association between omega-3 PUFA insufficiency and progressive neuropathological processes remains speculative, evidence from translational research suggests that omega-3 PUFA insufficiency may represent a plausible and modifiable risk factor not only for enduring neurodevelopmental abnormalities in brain structure and function, but also for increased vulnerability to neurodegenerative processes. Recent evidence from human neuroimaging studies suggests that lower omega-3 PUFA intake/status is associated with accelerated gray matter atrophy in healthy middle-aged and elderly adults, particularly in brain regions consistently implicated in mood and psychotic disorders, including the amygdala, anterior cingulate, hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, and temporal cortex. Human neuroimaging evidence also suggests that both low omega-3 PUFA intake/status and psychiatric disorders are associated with reductions in white matter microstructural integrity and increased rates of white matter hyperintensities. Preliminary evidence suggests that increasing omega-3 PUFA status is protective against gray matter atrophy and deficits in white matter microstructural integrity in patients with mood and psychotic disorders. Plausible mechanisms mediating this relationship include elevated pro-inflammatory signaling, increased synaptic regression, and reductions in cerebral perfusion. Together these associations encourage additional neuroimaging research to directly investigate whether increasing omega-3 PUFA status can mitigate neuropathological processes in patients with, or at high risk for, psychiatric disorders.

Very low inadequate dietary intakes of essential n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in pregnant and lactating French women: The INCA2 survey

BACKGROUND

The French National survey INCA2 pointed out that the majority of the French population (children, adolescents, adults and elderly) ingest low quantities of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) in the form of both precursor (alpha-linolenic acid, ALA) and long-chain (mainly docosahexaenoic acid, DHA). However, we don't know whether such inadequate n-3 PUFA consumption is also found again in pregnant and lactating women.

METHODS

Dietary lipid and PUFA intakes were determined from 28 pregnant and 21 lactating French women by using the most recent set of national robust data on food (National Survey INCA2 performed in 2006 and 2007), and compared with that of 742 women of childbearing age.

RESULTS

Main results showed that mean daily intakes of n-3 PUFA were very low in this French woman population because no pregnant and lactating women met recommended dietary intakes (RDIs). Moreover, some of them ingested quantities 4 times (ALA) to 10 times (DHA) lower than RDIs. Very similar dietary intakes were observed in women of childbearing age.

CONCLUSION

French pregnant and lactating women did not change their dietary habits to favor ALA and n-3 long-chain PUFA consumption via rich-ALA vegetable oils and fish and oily fish consumption, and have low n-3 PUFA dietary consumption typical of French women of childbearing age. Such PUFA intakes could have adverse impact on long-chain n-3 PUFA incorporation in brain membranes of fetus and infants, but also on cognitive and visual development of infants during the first years of life.

n-3 Polyunsaturated fatty acids for the management of alcoholic liver disease: A critical review

Excess alcohol exposure leads to alcoholic liver disease (ALD), a predominant cause of liver-related morbidity and mortality worldwide. In the past decade, increasing attention has been paid to understand the association between n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFAs) and ALD. In this review, we summarize the metabolism of n-3 PUFAs, animal model of ALD, and the findings from recent studies determining the role of n-3 PUFAs in ALD as a possible treatment. The animal models of acute ethanol exposure, chronic ethanol exposure and chronic-plus-single binge ethanol feeding have been widely used to explore the impact of n-3 PUFAs. Although the results of studies regarding the role of n-3 PUFAs in ALD have been inconsistent or controversial, increasing evidence has demonstrated that n-3 PUFAs may be useful in alleviating alcoholic steatosis and alcohol-induced liver injury through multiple mechanisms, including decreased de novo lipogenesis and lipid mobilization from adipose tissue, enhanced mitochondrial fatty acid β-oxidation, reduced hepatic inflammation and oxidative stress, and promoted intestinal homeostasis, positively suggesting that n-3 PUFAs might be promising for the management of ALD. The oxidation of n-3 PUFAs ex vivo in an experimental diet was rarely considered in most n-3 PUFA-related studies, likely contributing to the inconsistent results. Thus, the role of n-3 PUFAs in ALD deserves greater research efforts and remains to be evaluated in randomized, placebo-controlled clinic trial. ABBREVIATION AA arachidonic acid ACC acetyl-CoA carboxylase ACLY ATP-citrate lyase ACO acyl-CoA oxidase ALA α-linolenic acid ALD alcoholic liver disease ALP alkaline phosphatase ALT alanine aminotransferase AMPK AMP-activated protein kinase AST aspartate aminotransferase ATGL adipose triglyceride lipase cAMP cyclic adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate COX cyclooxygenases CPT1 carnitine palmitoyltransferase 1 CYP2E1 cytochrome P450 2E1 DGAT2 diacylglycerol acyltransferase 2 DGLA dihomo-γ-linolenic acid DHA docosahexaenoic acid DPA docosapentaenoic acid DTA docosatetraenoic acid EPA eicosapentaenoic acid ER endoplasmic reticulum ETA eicosatetraenoic acid FAS fatty acid synthase FATPs fatty acid transporter proteins GLA,γ linolenic acid GPR120 G protein-coupled receptor 120 GSH glutathione; H&E haematoxylin-eosin; HO-1 heme oxygenase-1; HSL hormone-sensitive lipase; IL-6 interleukin-6 iNOS nitric oxide synthase LA linoleic acid LBP lipopolysaccharide binding protein LOX lipoxygenases LXR liver X receptor LXREs LXR response elements MCP-1 monocyte chemotactic protein-1 MTP microsomal triglyceride transfer protein MUFA monounsaturated fatty acids MyD88 myeloid differentiation factor 88 n-3 PUFAs omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid NAFLD nonalcoholic fatty liver disease NASH nonalcoholic steatohepatitis NF-κB transcription factor nuclear factor κB PDE3B phosphodiesterase 3B PPAR peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor ROS reactive oxygen species RXR retinoid X receptor SCD-1 stearyl CoA desaturase-1 SDA stearidonic acid SFA saturated fatty acids SIRT1 sirtuin 1 SOD superoxide dismutase SREBP sterol regulatory element-binding protein TB total bilirubin TC total cholesterol TG triacylglycerol TLR4 Toll-like receptor-4 TNF-α tumor necrosis factor-α VLDLR very low-density lipoprotein receptor WT wild type; ZO-1 zonula occludens-1.

Continuous Gradient Temperature Raman Spectroscopy of Fish Oils Provides Detailed Vibrational Analysis and Rapid, Nondestructive Graphical Product Authentication

Background: Gradient temperature Raman spectroscopy (GTRS) applies the continuous temperature gradients utilized in differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) to Raman spectroscopy, providing a new means for rapid high throughput material identification and quality control. Methods: Using 20 Mb three-dimensional data arrays with 0.2 °C increments and first/second derivatives allows complete assignment of solid, liquid and transition state vibrational modes. The entire set or any subset of the any of the contour plots, first derivatives or second derivatives can be utilized to create a graphical standard to quickly authenticate a given source. In addition, a temperature range can be specified that maximizes information content. Results: We compared GTRS and DSC data for five commercial fish oils that are excellent sources of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6n-3) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; 20:5n-3). Each product has a unique, distinctive response to the thermal gradient, which graphically and spectroscopically differentiates them. We also present detailed Raman data and full vibrational mode assignments for EPA and DHA. Conclusion: Complex lipids with a variety of fatty acids and isomers have three dimensional structures based mainly on how structurally similar sites pack. Any localized non-uniformity in packing results in discrete “fingerprint” molecular sites due to increased elasticity and decreased torsion.

Determinants of Plasma Docosahexaenoic Acid Levels and Their Relationship to Neurological and Cognitive Functions in PKU Patients: A Double Blind Randomized Supplementation Study

Children with phenylketonuria (PKU) follow a protein restricted diet with negligible amounts of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Low DHA intakes might explain subtle neurological deficits in PKU. We studied whether a DHA supply modified plasma DHA and neurological and intellectual functioning in PKU. In a double-blind multicentric trial, 109 PKU patients were randomized to DHA doses from 0 to 7 mg/kg&day for six months. Before and after supplementation, we determined plasma fatty acid concentrations, latencies of visually evoked potentials, fine and gross motor behavior, and IQ. Fatty acid desaturase genotypes were also determined. DHA supplementation increased plasma glycerophospholipid DHA proportional to dose by 0.4% DHA per 1 mg intake/kg bodyweight. Functional outcomes were not associated with DHA status before and after intervention and remained unchanged by supplementation. Genotypes were associated with plasma arachidonic acid levels and, if considered together with the levels of the precursor alpha-linolenic acid, also with DHA. Functional outcomes and supplementation effects were not significantly associated with genotype. DHA intakes up to 7 mg/kg did not improve neurological functions in PKU children. Nervous tissues may be less prone to low DHA levels after infancy, or higher doses might be required to impact neurological functions. In situations of minimal dietary DHA, endogenous synthesis of DHA from alpha-linolenic acid could relevantly contribute to DHA status.

Dietary pattern regulates fatty acid desaturase 1 gene expression in Indian pregnant women to spare overall long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids levels

The aim of this study was to determine if the dietary pattern of pregnant women has any compensatory effect on the fatty acid desaturase (FADS) gene expression, thus enhancing the conversion of precursors to long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) to spare the overall LCPUFA levels. The dietary intake of plant-based precursor polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) influences circulating levels of LCPUFA. We hypothesized that low LCPUFA diets during pregnancy would compensate by higher expression of FADS genes to enhance the conversion of precursors to LCPUFA to spare the overall LCPUFA levels. Seventy-five pregnant women were enrolled during the last trimester of pregnancy based on the eligibility and exclusion criteria. Maternal LCPUFA in plasma, expression of FADS1 and FADS2 genes, FADS2 Indel genotype status and neonate birth weight were studied.In the vegetarian group (n = 25), plasma α-linolenic acid (ALA) but not linoleic acid (LA) was significantly lower (p < 0.05) than the non-vegetarian group (n = 50). No significant differences were found for arachidonic acid (AA) or docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels. FADS1 expression was significantly higher in the vegetarian group compared to the non-vegetarian group. There was no significant difference in the birth weight of the neonates between two groups. No significant correlation was observed between FADS2 Indel genotype and birth weight. Our small sample size study demonstrated an increase FADS1expression during pregnancy in vegetarian pregnant women that may have contributed to the maintenance of AA, eicosapentaenoic acid and DHA levels thereby ensuring that the overall LCPUFA levels of the neonate is not compromised.

Low-linoleic acid diet and oestrogen enhance the conversion of α-linolenic acid into DHA through modification of conversion enzymes and transcription factors

Conversion of α-linolenic acid (ALA) into the longer chain n-3 PUFA has been suggested to be affected by the dietary intake of linoleic acid (LA), but the mechanism is not well known. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of a low-LA diet with and without oestrogen on the fatty acid conversion enzymes and transcription factors. Rats were fed a modified American Institute of Nutrition-93G diet with 0% n-3 PUFA or ALA, containing low or high amounts of LA for 12 weeks. At 8 weeks, the rats were injected with maize oil with or without 17β-oestradiol-3-benzoate (E) at constant intervals for the remaining 3 weeks. Both the low-LA diet and E significantly increased the hepatic expressions of PPAR-α, fatty acid desaturase (FADS) 2, elongase of very long chain fatty acids 2 (ELOVL2) and ELOVL5 but decreased sterol regulatory element binding protein 1. The low-LA diet, but not E, increased the hepatic expression of FADS1, and E increased the hepatic expression of oestrogen receptor-α and β. The low-LA diet and E had synergic effects on serum and liver levels of DHA and on the hepatic expression of PPAR-α. In conclusion, the low-LA diet and oestrogen increased the conversion of ALA into DHA by upregulating the elongases and desaturases of fatty acids through regulating the expression of transcription factors. The low-LA diet and E had a synergic effect on serum and liver levels of DHA through increasing the expression of PPAR-α.

Diet and Lifestyle Before and During Pregnancy - Practical Recommendations of the Germany-wide Healthy Start - Young Family Network

Diet and exercise before and during pregnancy affect the course of the pregnancy, the child's development and the short- and long-term health of mother and child. The Healthy Start - Young Family Network has updated the recommendations on nutrition in pregnancy that first appeared in 2012 and supplemented them with recommendations on a preconception lifestyle. The recommendations address body weight before conception, weight gain in pregnancy, energy and nutritional requirements and diet (including a vegetarian/vegan diet), the supplements folic acid/folate, iodine, iron and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), protection against food-borne illnesses, physical activity before and during pregnancy, alcohol, smoking, caffeinated drinks, oral and dental hygiene and the use of medicinal products. Preparation for breast-feeding is recommended already during pregnancy. Vaccination recommendations for women planning a pregnancy are also included. These practical recommendations of the Germany-wide Healthy Start - Young Family Network are intended to assist all professional groups that counsel women and couples wishing to have children and during pregnancy with uniform, scientifically-based and practical information.

Protection Before Impact: the Potential Neuroprotective Role of Nutritional Supplementation in Sports-Related Head Trauma

Even in the presence of underreporting, sports-related concussions/mild traumatic brain injuries (mTBI) are on the rise. In the absence of proper diagnosis, an athlete may return to play prior to full recovery, increasing the risk of second-impact syndrome or protracted symptoms. Recent evidence has demonstrated that sub-concussive impacts, those sustained routinely in practice and competition, result in a quantifiable pathophysiological response and the accumulation of both concussive and sub-concussive impacts sustained over a lifetime of sports participation may lead to long-term neurological impairments and an increased risk of developing neurodegenerative diseases. The pathophysiological, neurometabolic, and neurochemical cascade that initiates subsequent to the injury is complex and involves multiple mechanisms. While pharmaceutical treatments may target one mechanism, specific nutrients and nutraceuticals have been discovered to impact several pathways, presenting a broader approach. Several studies have demonstrated the neuroprotective effect of nutritional supplementation in the treatment of mTBI. However, given that many concussions go unreported and sub-concussive impacts result in a pathophysiological response that, too, may contribute to long-term brain health, protection prior to impact is warranted. This review discusses the current literature regarding the role of nutritional supplements that, when provided before mTBI and traumatic brain injury, may provide neurological protection.

The association of fatty acid desaturase gene polymorphisms on long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid composition in Indonesian infants

Background

Adequate availability of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs) is important for human health from pregnancy to adulthood. Previous studies on fatty acid desaturase (FADS) gene single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) have been performed predominantly in Western populations and showed that FADS SNPs had a marked impact on LC-PUFA composition in blood and tissues.

Objectives

We aimed to investigate the influence of fetal FADS genotypes on LC-PUFA composition in umbilical artery plasma lipids in Indonesian infants.

Design

We performed a cross-sectional study to assess for these associations.

Results

A total of 12 cord plasma n-6 (ω-6) and n-3 (ω-3) fatty acids were analyzed for associations with 18 FADS gene cluster SNPs from 390 women with single parturition from the Indonesian Prospective Study of Atopic Dermatitis in Infants (ISADI). Fetal FADS genotypes influenced cord plasma LC-PUFA composition, but, in contrast to previous studies from Western populations, the quantitatively predominant SNPs were associated with lower LC-PUFA content.

Conclusion

To our knowledge, this study was the first in South East Asia on FADS genotypes and arterial cord blood fatty acids to show an association between fetal LC-PUFA composition and fetal FADS SNPs. The FADS genotype distribution differs markedly between different geographical populations. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02401178.

Total replacement of corn silage with sorghum silage improves milk fatty acid profile and antioxidant capacity of Holstein dairy cows

Total mixed rations containing corn silage (CS) or forage sorghum silage (SS) were fed to mid-lactation Holstein cows to determine the effects on feed intake, lactation performance, milk composition and fatty acid profile, nutrient digestibility, blood metabolites, rumen microbial N synthesis, and antioxidant status. The experiment was designed as a 2-period change-over (two 28-d periods) trial with 2 diets including CS diet or SS diet and 12 cows. Total replacement of CS with SS had no significant influence on dry matter intake. Substituting CS with SS had no effect on milk production, feed efficiency, and milk concentrations of fat, protein, lactose, and solids-not-fat, whereas yields of milk fat, protein, and lactose were greater for cows fed the CS diet. Blood parameters including glucose, albumin, cholesterol, triglyceride, total protein, urea N, and fatty acids were not affected by the dietary treatments. Apparent digestibility coefficients of dry matter, organic matter, crude protein, ether extract, neutral detergent fiber, and acid detergent fiber were not significantly influenced by the diets. Replacing CS with SS had no effect on total saturated fatty acids and total monounsaturated fatty acids, whereas total polyunsaturated fatty acid percentage was greater with the SS diet. Proportions of C20:0, C18:3n-3, and C18:3n-6 were affected by feeding SS. Cows fed CS had a greater amount of urinary purine derivatives. Feeding SS had a positive effect on total antioxidant capacity of blood and milk. In conclusion, SS can be fed to lactating Holstein cows as a total replacement for CS without undesirable effects on animal performance, but with positive effects on antioxidant capacity and polyunsaturated fatty acids of milk. This forage can be an excellent choice for dairy farms in areas where cultivation of corn is difficult due to water shortage.

Comparative effects of dietary n-3 docosapentaenoic acid (DPA), DHA and EPA on plasma lipid parameters, oxidative status and fatty acid tissue composition

The specific and shared physiologic and metabolic effects of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and even more of n-3 docosapentaenoic acid (DPA) are poorly known. We investigated the physiological effects and the overall fatty acid tissue composition of a nutritional supplementation of DPA compared both to EPA and DHA in healthy adult rats. Rats (n=32) were fed with semisynthetic diets supplemented or not with 1% of total lipids as EPA, DPA or DHA in ethyl esters form from weaning for 6 weeks. Fatty acid tissue composition was determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, and blood assays were performed. The DPA supplementation was the only one that led to a decrease in plasma triglycerides, total cholesterol, non-high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol, cholesterol esters and total cholesterol/HDL-cholesterol ratio compared to the nonsupplemented control group. The three supplemented groups had increased plasma total antioxidant status and superoxide dismutase activity. In all supplemented groups, the n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid level increased in all studied tissues (liver, heart, lung, spleen, kidney, red blood cells, splenocytes, peripheral mononucleated cells) except in the brain. We showed that the DPA supplementation affected the overall fatty acid composition and increased DPA, EPA and DHA tissue contents in a similar way than with EPA. However, liver and heart DHA contents increased in DPA-fed rats at the same levels than in DHA-fed rats. Moreover, a large part of DPA seemed to be retroconverted into EPA in the liver (38.5%) and in the kidney (68.6%). In addition, the digestibility of DPA was lower than that of DHA and EPA.

Impact of n-3 Docosapentaenoic Acid Supplementation on Fatty Acid Composition in Rat Differs Depending upon Tissues and Is Influenced by the Presence of Dairy Lipids in the Diet

The n-3 docosapentaenoic acid (n-3 DPA) could be a novel source of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) with beneficial physiological effects. Following the supplementation of 0.5% purified n-3 DPA for 3 weeks from weaning, the n-3 DPA content increased in one-half of the 18 studied tissues (from +50% to +110%, p < 0.05) and mostly affected the spleen, lung, heart, liver, and bone marrow. The n-3 DPA was slightly converted into DHA (+20% in affected tissues, p < 0.05) and mostly retroconverted into EPA (35-46% of n-3 DPA intake in liver and kidney) showing an increased content of these LCPUFA in specific tissues. The partial incorporation of dairy lipids in the diet for 6 weeks increased overall n-3 PUFA status and brain DHA status. Furthermore, the n-3 DPA supplementation and dairy lipids had an additive effect on the increase of n-3 PUFA tissue contents. Moreover, n-3 DPA supplementation decreased plasma cholesterol.

Dietary Unsaturated Fatty Acids Modulate Maternal Dyslipidemia-Induced DNA Methylation and Histone Acetylation in Placenta and Fetal Liver in Rats

The present study assessed the role of dietary unsaturated fatty acids in maternal dyslipidemia-induced DNA methylation and histone acetylation in placenta and fetal liver and accumulation of lipids in the fetal liver. Weanling female Wistar rats were fed control and experimental diets for 2 months, mated, and continued on their diets during pregnancy. At gestation days of 18-20, rats were euthanized to isolate placenta and fetal liver. DNA methylation, DNA methyl transferase-1 (DNMT1) activity, acetylation of histones (H2A and H2B), and histone acyl transferase (HAT) activity were evaluated in placenta and fetal liver. Fetal liver lipid accumulation and activation of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α (PPAR-α) were assessed. Maternal dyslipidemia caused significant epigenetic changes in placenta and fetal liver. In the placenta, (1) global DNA methylation increased by 37% and DNMT1 activity by 86%, (2) acetylated H2A and H2B levels decreased by 46% and 24% respectively, and (3) HAT activity decreased by 39%. In fetal liver, (1) global DNA methylation increased by 52% and DNMT1 activity by 78%, (2) acetylated H2A and H2B levels decreased by 28% and 26% respectively, and (3) HAT activity decreased by 37%. Maternal dyslipidemia caused a 4.75-fold increase in fetal liver triacylglycerol accumulation with a 78% decrease in DNA-binding ability of PPAR-α. Incorporation of dietary unsaturated fatty acids in the maternal high-fat diet significantly (p < 0.05) modulated dyslipidemia-induced effects in placenta and fetal liver. Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5n-3) + docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3) exhibited a profound effect followed by alpha-linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3n-3) than linoleic acid (LNA, 18:2n-6) in modulating the epigenetic parameters in placenta and fetal liver.

Role of polyunsaturated fatty acids in human brain structure and function across the lifespan: An update on neuroimaging findings

There is a substantial body of evidence from animal studies implicating polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in neuroinflammatory, neurotrophic, and neuroprotective processes in brain. However, direct evidence for a role of PUFA in human brain structure and function has been lacking. Over the last decade there has been a notable increase in neuroimaging studies that have investigated the impact of PUFA intake and/or blood levels (i.e., biostatus) on brain structure, function, and pathology in human subjects. The majority of these studies specifically evaluated associations between omega-3 PUFA intake and/or biostatus and neuroimaging outcomes using a variety of experimental designs and imaging techniques. This review provides an updated overview of these studies in an effort to identify patterns to guide and inform future research. While the weight of evidence provides general support for a beneficial effect of a habitual diet consisting of higher omega-3 PUFA intake on cortical structure and function in healthy human subjects, additional research is needed to replicate and extend these findings as well as identify response mediators and clarify mechanistic pathways. Controlled intervention trials are also needed to determine whether increasing n-3 PUFA biostatus can prevent or attenuate neuropathological brain changes observed in patients with or at risk for psychiatric disorders and dementia.

The Impact of Maternal Diet during Pregnancy and Lactation on the Fatty Acid Composition of Erythrocytes and Breast Milk of Chilean Women

Maternal diet during pregnancy is relevant for fatty acid supply during fetal life and lactation. Arachidonic (AA) and docosahexaenoic (DHA) acids are also relevant for the normal growth and development of brain and visual system. AA and DHA provided by the mother to the fetus and infant are directly associated with maternal dietary intake and body stores. Our aim was to evaluate the impact of maternal diet, specially referring to the quality of fatty acid intake, in a sample of Chilean women during last stage of pregnancy and across the lactation period. Fifty healthy pregnant women (age range 20–33 years) were studied from the 6th month of pregnancy and followed until 6th month of lactation period. Diet characteristics were evaluated through food frequency questionnaires. Fatty acids composition of erythrocyte phospholipids and breast milk samples was assessed by gas-liquid chromatography. Overall, women had high saturated fatty acids intake with sufficient intake of mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Diet was high in n-6 PUFA and low in n-3 PUFA (mainly DHA), with imbalanced n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio. Erythrocytes and breast milk DHA concentration was significantly reduced during lactation compared to pregnancy, a pattern not observed for AA. We concluded that is necessary to increase the intake of n-3 PUFA during pregnancy and lactation by improving the quality of consumed foods with particular emphasis on its DHA content.

The Role of n-3 Long Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Cardiovascular Disease Prevention, and Interactions with Statins

Decreases in global cardiovascular disease (CVD) mortality and morbidity in recent decades can be partly attributed to cholesterol reduction through statin use. n-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids are recommended by some authorities for primary and secondary CVD prevention, and for triglyceride reduction. The residual risk of CVD that remains after statin therapy may potentially be reduced by n-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. However, the effects of concomitant use of statins and n-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids are not well understood. Pleiotropic effects of statins and n-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids overlap. For example, cytochrome P450 enzymes that metabolize statins may affect n-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid metabolism and vice versa. Clinical and mechanistic study results show both synergistic and antagonistic effects of statins and n-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids when used in combination.

Incorporation of Dairy Lipids in the Diet Increased Long-Chain Omega-3 Fatty Acids Status in Post-weaning Rats

In human nutrition, optimized the status of n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) and especially docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) during growth appears to be one of the most important goal. We investigated the potential impact of a partial incorporation of dairy lipids (DL) in the diet to increase the n-3 LCPUFA content in tissues, compared to a mixture of vegetable oils. Rats were fed with vegetable oil diet or DL diet, supplemented or not supplemented with DHA, from weaning for 6 weeks. All diets provided the same quantity of 2.3% of total fatty acids of precursor α-linolenic acid. LCPUFA levels in brain, retina, liver, heart, red blood cells and epididymal adipose tissue, Δ-6 desaturase activity and mRNA expression in liver, and plasma cholesterol were measured. Rats fed a DL diet increased their DHA content in brain and retina compared with rats fed a vegetable oil diet and reached the same level than rats directly supplemented with DHA. The status of n-3 docosapentaenoic acid increased with DL diet in heart, red blood cells and liver. The n-3 docosapentaenoic acid specifically discriminated DL diets in the heart. DL diet increased α-linolenic acid content in liver and epididymal adipose tissue, provided specific fatty acids as short- and medium-chain fatty acids and myristic acid, and increased plasma cholesterol. We hypothesized that dairy lipids may increase the n-3 LCPUFA enrichment in tissues by preserving precursor α-linolenic acid from β-mitochondrial oxidation, associated with the presence of short- and medium-chain fatty acids in DL diets. In conclusion, a partial incorporation of dairy lipids in the diet with an adequate α-linolenic acid content improved the n-3 LCPUFA status, especially DHA in brain and retina.

Quantitation of Human Whole-Body Synthesis-Secretion Rates of Docosahexaenoic Acid and Eicosapentaenoate Acid from Circulating Unesterified α-Linolenic Acid at Steady State

The rate at which dietary α-linolenic acid (ALA) is desaturated and elongated to its longer-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) in humans is not agreed upon. In this study, we applied a methodology developed using rodents to investigate the whole-body, presumably hepatic, synthesis-secretion rates of esterified n-3 PUFA from circulating unesterified ALA in 2 healthy overweight women after 10 weeks of low-linoleate diet exposure. During continuous iv infusion of d5-ALA, 17 arterial blood samples were collected from each subject at -10, 0, 10, 20, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120, 150, 180, and 210 min, and at 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8 h after beginning infusion. Plasma esterified d5-n-3 PUFA concentrations were plotted against the infusion time and fit to a sigmoidal curve using nonlinear regression. These curves were used to estimate kinetic parameters using a kinetic analysis developed using rodents. Calculated synthesis-secretion rates of esterified eicosapentaenoate, n-3 docosapentaenoate, docosahexaenoic acid, tetracosapentaenate, and tetracosahexaenoate from circulating unesterified ALA were 2.1 and 2.7; 1.7 and 5.3; 0.47 and 0.27; 0.30 and 0.30; and 0.32 and 0.27 mg/day for subjects S01 and S02, respectively. This study provides new estimates of whole-body synthesis-secretion rates of esterified longer-chain n-3 PUFA from circulating unesterified ALA in human subjects. This method now can be extended to study factors that regulate human whole-body PUFA synthesis-secretion in health and disease.

Omega-3 and omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids: Dietary sources, metabolism, and significance - A review

Linoleic acid (LA) (n-6) and α-linolenic acid (ALA) (n-3) are essential fatty acids (EFAs) as they cannot be synthesized by humans or other higher animals. In the human body, these fatty acids (FAs) give rise to arachidonic acid (ARA, n-6), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, n-3), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, n-3) that play key roles in regulating body homeostasis. Locally acting bioactive signaling lipids called eicosanoids derived from these FAs also regulate diverse homeostatic processes. In general, ARA gives rise to pro-inflammatory eicosanoids whereas EPA and DHA give rise to anti-inflammatory eicosanoids. Thus, a proportionally higher consumption of n-3 PUFAs can protect us against inflammatory diseases, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, and other chronic diseases. The present review summarizes major sources, intake, and global consumption of n-3 and n-6 PUFAs. Their metabolism to biosynthesize long-chain PUFAs and eicosanoids and their roles in brain metabolism, cardiovascular disease, obesity, cancer, and bone health are also discussed.

Reprint of: Marine OMEGA-3 fatty acids in the prevention of cardiovascular disease

Omega-6 (ω6) and omega-3 (ω3) fatty acids are two classes of dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids derived from linoleic acid (18:2ω6) and α-linolenic acid (18:3ω3), respectively. Enzymatic metabolism of linoleic and α-linolenic acids generates arachidonic acid (20:4ω6) and eicosapentaenoic acid (20:5ω3; EPA), respectively, both of which are substrates for enzymes that yield eicosanoids with multiple and varying physiological functions. Further elongation and desaturation of EPA yields the 22-carbon fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid (22:6ω3; DHA). The main dietary source of EPA and DHA for human consumption is fish, especially oily fish. There is considerable evidence that EPA and DHA are protective against cardiovascular disease (heart disease and stroke), particularly in individuals with pre-existing disease. ω3 Fatty acids benefit multiple risk factors including blood pressure, blood vessel function, heart function and blood lipids, and they have antithrombotic, anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidative actions. ω3 Fatty acids do not adversely interact with medications. Supplementation with ω3 fatty acids is recommended in individuals with elevated blood triglyceride levels and patients with coronary heart disease. A practical recommendation for the general population is to increase ω3 fatty acid intake by incorporating fish as part of a healthy diet that includes increased fruits and vegetables, and moderation of salt intake. Health authorities recommend the general population should consume at least two oily fish meals per week.

n-3 PUFA and obesity: from peripheral tissues to the central nervous system

The current paradigms of prevention and treatment are unable to curb obesity rates, which indicates the need to explore alternative therapeutic approaches. Obesity leads to several damages to the body and is an important risk factor for a number of other chronic diseases. Furthermore, despite the first alterations in obesity being observed and reported in peripheral tissues, studies indicate that obesity can also cause brain damage. Obesity leads to a chronic low-grade inflammatory state, and the therapeutic manipulation of inflammation can be explored. In this context, the use of n-3 PUFA (especially in the form of fish oil, rich in EPA and DHA) may be an interesting strategy, as this substance is known by its anti-inflammatory effect and numerous benefits to the body, such as reduction of TAG, cardiac arrhythmias, blood pressure and platelet aggregation, and has shown potential to help treat obesity. Thereby, the aim of this narrative review was to summarise the literature related to n-3 PUFA use in obesity treatment. First, the review provides a brief description of the obesity pathophysiology, including alterations that occur in peripheral tissues and at the central nervous system. In the sequence, we describe what are n-3 PUFA, their sources and their general effects. Finally, we explore the main topic linking obesity and n-3 PUFA. Animal and human studies were included and alterations on the whole organism were described (peripheral tissues and brain).

Effects of Chinese Dietary Pattern of Fat Content, n-6/n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Ratio, and Cholesterol Content on Lipid Profile in Rats

This study aims to investigate the effect of Chinese diet pattern of fat content (30% or 36.06%), n-6/n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) ratio (5 : 1 or 9 : 1), and cholesterol content (0.04 or 0.057 g/kg total diet) on lipid profile using a rat model. Results showed that rats' body weights (BWs) were controlled by the simultaneous intakes of cholesterol level of 0.04 g/kg total diet and n-6/n-3 ratio of 5 : 1. In addition, under high-fat diet, increased cholesterol feeding led to increased total cholesterol (TC) and low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) levels and decreased triacylglycerols (TG) in rats' plasma. However, high density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) level and the ratios of HDL-C/LDL-C and HDL-C/TC in rats' plasma increased in response to simultaneous intakes of low n-6/n-3 ratio (5 : 1) and cholesterol (0.04 g/kg total diet) even under high-fat diet. Moreover, as the n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio in the diet decreased, the proportion of n-3 PUFAs increased in plasma, liver, and muscle and resulted in the decrease of n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio.

Dietary Docosahexaenoic Acid and Arachidonic Acid in Early Life: What Is the Best Evidence for Policymakers?

BACKGROUND

A wealth of information on the functional roles of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (ARA) from cellular, animal, and human studies is available. Yet, there remains a lack of cohesion in policymaking for recommended dietary intakes of DHA and ARA in early life. This is predominantly driven by inconsistent findings from a relatively small number of randomised clinical trials (RCTs), which vary in design, methodology, and outcome measures, all of which were conducted in high-income countries. It is proposed that this selective evidence base may not fully represent the biological importance of DHA and ARA during early and later life and the aim of this paper is to consider a more inclusive and pragmatic approach to evidence assessment of DHA and ARA requirements in infants and young children, which will allow policymaking to reflect the marked diversity of need worldwide.

SUMMARY

Data from clinical RCTs is considered in the context of the extensive evidence from experimental, animal and human observational studies. Although the RCT data shows evidence of beneficial effects on visual function and in specific cognitive domains, early methodological approaches do not reflect current thinking and this undermines the strength of evidence. An outline of a framework for an inclusive and pragmatic approach to policy development on dietary DHA and ARA in early life is described.

CONCLUSION

High-quality RCTs that will determine long-term health outcomes in appropriate real-world settings need to be undertaken. In the meantime, a collective pragmatic approach to evidence assessment, may allow public health policymakers to make comprehensive reasoned judgements on the merits, costs, and expediency of dietary DHA and ARA interventions.

Estrogen Interactions With Lipid Rafts Related to Neuroprotection. Impact of Brain Ageing and Menopause

Estrogens (E2) exert a plethora of neuroprotective actions against aged-associated brain diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD). Part of these actions takes place through binding to estrogen receptors (ER) embedded in signalosomes, where numerous signaling proteins are clustered. Signalosomes are preferentially located in lipid rafts which are dynamic membrane microstructures characterized by a peculiar lipid composition enriched in gangliosides, saturated fatty acids, cholesterol, and sphingolipids. Rapid E2 interactions with ER-related signalosomes appear to trigger intracellular signaling ultimately leading to the activation of molecular mechanisms against AD. We have previously observed that the reduction of E2 blood levels occurring during menopause induced disruption of ER-signalosomes at frontal cortical brain areas. These molecular changes may reduce neuronal protection activities, as similar ER signalosome derangements were observed in AD brains. The molecular impairments may be associated with changes in the lipid composition of lipid rafts observed in neurons during menopause and AD. These evidences indicate that the changes in lipid raft structure during aging may be at the basis of alterations in the activity of ER and other neuroprotective proteins integrated in these membrane microstructures. Moreover, E2 is a homeostatic modulator of lipid rafts. Recent work has pointed to this relevant aspect of E2 activity to preserve brain integrity, through mechanisms affecting lipid uptake and local biosynthesis in the brain. Some evidences have demonstrated that estrogens and the docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) exert synergistic effects to stabilize brain lipid matrix. DHA is essential to enhance molecular fluidity at the plasma membrane, promoting functional macromolecular interactions in signaling platforms. In support of this, DHA detriment in neuronal lipid rafts has been associated with the most common age-associated neuropathologies, namely AD and Parkinson disease. Altogether, these findings indicate that E2 may participate in brain preservation through a dual membrane-related mechanism. On the one hand, E2 interacting with ER related signalosomes may protect against neurotoxic insults. On the other hand, E2 may exert lipostatic actions to preserve lipid balance in neuronal membrane microdomains. The different aspects of the emerging multifunctional role of estrogens in membrane-related signalosomes will be discussed in this review.

Differential Long-Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Status and Placental Transport in Adolescent Pregnancies

Adolescent pregnancy increases risk of adverse perinatal outcomes. Placental delivery of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA) is essential for fetal growth and development. In this pilot study, we aimed to assess maternal and fetal status of fatty acids (FA) measured at birth and the expression of key genes involved in FA uptake, transport and metabolism in the placenta of fifteen adolescents and fifteen adults. FA were quantified by gas-liquid chromatography. Placental expression of FA transporters was assessed by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) was quantified by Western Blot. Adolescents had lower docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6 n-3) and total n-3 FA levels in maternal erythrocytes and placenta, but these were not different in fetal erythrocytes. Arachidonic acid (AA, 20:4 n-6) concentration was increased in placenta but lower in fetal circulation. Plasma membrane fatty acid binding protein (FABPpm) and fatty acid transport protein (FATP) 4 mRNA expressions were not different, however FATP1, fatty acid translocase (FAT/CD36) and fatty acid binding protein 3 (FABP3) mRNA and PPARγ protein levels were decreased in placenta of adolescents. Despite significant downregulation of FATP1, CD36 and FABP3, there was only a modest decrease in LCPUFA (10%) and AA (12%) and no difference in DHA content in cord blood, suggesting that FA transfer to the fetus was partially protected by other factors in adolescents from this cohort.

Conversion efficiency of α-linolenic acid to omega-3 highly unsaturated fatty acids in aerial insectivore chicks

Food availability and quality are both critical for growing young animals. In nature, swallows (Tachycineta bicolor) and other aerial insectivores feed on both aquatic insects, which are rich in omega-3 highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFAs), and terrestrial insects, which contain considerably lower amounts of omega-3 HUFAs. Carnivorous mammals and fishes must obtain omega-3 HUFAs from their diet, as they have lost the capacity to convert the precursor omega-3 α-linolenic acid (ALA) into omega-3 HUFAs. Thus, the relative value of aquatic versus terrestrial insects depends not only on the fatty acid composition of the prey but also on the capacity of consumers to convert ALA into omega-3 HUFAs. We used a combination of stable-isotope-labeled fatty acid tracers to ask whether, and how efficiently, tree swallows can deposit newly synthesized omega-3 HUFAs into tissue. Our data show for the first time that tree swallows can convert ALA into omega-3 HUFAs deposited in liver and skeletal muscle. However, high tree swallow demand for omega-3 HUFAs combined with low ALA availability in natural terrestrial foods may strain their modest conversion ability. This suggests that while tree swallows can synthesize omega-3 HUFAs de novo, omega-3 HUFAs are ecologically essential nutrients in natural systems. Our findings thus provide mechanistic support for our previous findings and the importance of omega-3 HUFA-rich aquatic insects for tree swallows and most likely other aerial insectivores with similar niches.

Fatty acid profile, oxidative stability and sensory quality of breast meat from turkeys fed diets with graded levels of flaxseed oil for different periods of time

The effect of partial or complete substitution (2.5% and 5%, respectively) of flaxseed oil for soybean oil on the fatty acid profile, oxidative stability and sensory quality of turkey breast meat was studied. Turkeys were fed experimental diets for 3, 4, 5 or 6 weeks before being slaughtered at 16 weeks of age. The percentages of α-linolenic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid in the total fatty acid pool of meat were determined by dietary intake and feeding duration. Even a prolonged dietary treatment with 5% flaxseed oil did not significantly increase the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances content of the turkey meat and did not have a detrimental effect on the sensory properties. The recommended n-6 : n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ratio (<4 : 1) in turkey meat can be easily achieved by feeding turkeys a diet containing 2.5% flaxseed oil for 3 weeks. To maintain the above ratio and increase eicosapentaenoic acid concentrations in the meat, the diet should contain 5% flaxseed oil.

DHA and ARA addition to infant formula: Current status and future research directions

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (ARA) are present in breast milk and play important roles in early infant development. A supply of these fatty acids in infant formula (typically following breast milk as a model with ARA > DHA) is thought to be important since endogenous synthesis is insufficient to maintain tissue levels equivalent to breast-fed infants. Intervention studies assessing the impact of DHA- and ARA-supplemented formulas have resulted in numerous positive developmental outcomes (closer to breast-fed infants) including measures of specific cognition functions, visual acuity, and immune responses. A critical analysis of outcome assessment tools reveals the essentiality of selecting appropriate, focused techniques in order to provide accurate evaluation of DHA- and ARA-supplemented formulas. Future research directions should encompass in-depth assessment of specific cognitive outcomes, immune function, and disease incidence, as well as sources of experimental variability such as the status of fatty acid desaturase polymorphisms.